' mensional Space «< the time coordinate is left unaffected A pe to anther. In reativsti icchanics Hinineh the en oe pends o the tne and the space coordinates of another inertial frame 27 fin! I nsformation equation (19.22d)]. Therefore, in relativity, the time t the en zyh2 are treated together in what is known as a space-time geometry ee ira space: It is convenient to transform the dimension of the time coordinate o ee coordinate. This is accomplished by multiplying the time t by the universal joe the speed of light in free space, and recognise the variable w = ct as the fourth ein place of t- The kinematics state of a particle can be expressed by a four-vector {opie I Fnts are (2, 2,10). The quantity 2x?+-y?-+ 22—w? is invariant under the Lorentz tio as shown below. Putting y = (1 — u?/c2)-(/2), we obtain - 2 (2 — gl? 2 2 pay eet = ae ty 22 et? = Pe ul? +? +22 — et suler)? HP w ea? ty +22 + (vey aa ty? +2? 7, ig for Y and noting that w = ct. situti 4 fourvector is defined to be any ordered set of four real numbers (ay, a, aa, 6) which under _larentz transformation leaves the quantity a3+a3+-a3—b? invariant, i.e., ap +af+ap—" = +03 - 0. The norm of the four-vector (a1, 49, a3, ) is the scalar b? — (af + a +43). A four-vector momentum is one whose components are pz,Py,P: and E/c. The fourth apne is actually the relativistic energy E divided by ¢ to make its dimensions the same ht of the momentum. From Eqs.(19.59), (19.76) and (19.58) we have in the $-frame _ __ Movs _ __Movy _ Movs P= ae =e’ =e 2 end: : B= ee (19.78) Sie The invariance of p2 + p} + P2 - E22 (19.77) which yields p? — B/c? = —mjc? Putting Ve = pz/mo, Vy = Py/™o, and Vz ‘att the components V;, Vy, Vs, and B/moc. p? — E?/e can be at once recognized from invariant. = p./mo, we obtain a four-vector velocity 19.13 Minkowski Diagram "The intérdependence of space and time, as predicted by Lorentz transformation in the ‘ial relativity theory nd ite geometric representation are offered by the Minkowski diac ‘int the coordinates of an event are events can therfore be located on @| World line of a a is (Le, the xan ial particle 2 space-time diagram where the space axis (ie, the axis) { et horizontal, par ‘time axis is vertical. ‘The dimensions of the coordinates are made identical by ‘multiplying the time thy c, the velocity of light in free space, ‘Thus, along the eee ee wa = ef, The Lorents transformation equations Eqs. (19.228) end (19 224)] are rewritten as World line of a light wave . )_ wn Bey a (19.79) oO ——?>s where 8 = w/e: i ; Fig-19.7. World lines on the zw plane 7 In the S-frame, the motion of a particle can be studied by drawing the x and w axes ‘yevnal (perpeisticular) to each other (Fig-19.7). Space-time was called “the world” by Prods 4 Scanned with CamScanneraa re 0 sly 448 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Minkowski. Any event occurring at 2 at time ¢ is represented on the zu pla having coordinates (z,). Such a point is called a world point or a space-time yit® PY a pj of the world points corresponding to the motion of a particle is given by a earroi: Theft a world line, on the z-w plane. » Teferreg ve Let @ be the angle made by the tangent at any point on the Then world line with the where u(= dr/dt) isthe velocity of the particle. For a material particle» < eso thy or, @ < 45°. For a light wave, v = c. Hence the world line ofa light wave ie cata Taight, inclined at an angle of 45° to the w-axis (Fig.19.7), iin | The S’-frame moves with respect to the S-frame with a-unifori i : common 2-2’ axis. The w-axis corresponds to z = 0 and gives the time weet lone the Similarly, the line 2’ = 0 is the time axis u’ in the S’-frame, Putting 2/ —o in Ee Same obtain (1979), we x=0 t= fw Sa ut, 4 ‘Thus the line z = Bu in the 1 the time axis in the Stieane (Beye is the angle made by this line with tne 1 we have tana=8<1.Thusa cage | Again, the x-axis in the Sf sponds to's = 0. Similarly, the aces the S'frame corresponds tow! = 0. Bae! tion (19.79) shows thet, if w’ = 0, ve fan w = 6x. Thus the ’-axis is Tepresented by the line w = Bx in the z-w plane (Fig.19.8). The angle between the space axes is equal to that between the time axes. Fig.19.8 is the Minkowski diagram which shows that the Lorentz transformation ofspace- time involves transforming an orthogonal sys tem to a nonorthogonal system. Consider zero time (w’ = 0) and unit length (i.e., 2’ = 1) in the S’-frame. Then Eq(1918) gives t—fu=Vi-# and w= fe. Solving these two equations, we have Fig.19.8. Minkowski diagram and r= (1980) B 1 vi-B vi-F ego! Since 6 <1, z>1. This implies that the unit length interval along 2” is a greatet line than the unit length interval along z. gi-frames Similarly, considering zero length (z’ = 0) and unit time (i.e., w" = 1) in the obtain from Eq.(19.79) (195!) 1 B ss and r= \ Vi-# Vi-# ine sen \, Since # <1, > 1. That is, the unit time interval along w is a late? fg pu ‘unit time interval along w. The calibration of the axes in S- and S'-f % \¢ of f is depicted in Fig.19.8.haptor 19: SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 449 s of a point (say, Q) in the S-and S' etime py drawing lines pe ; Q) in the S-and $'-frames can be obtained from 1 Q (Fig.19.8)- Thus, rdinates x = OA, e, and the coordinates Bin the S’-frame. 4 . ' 004 of simultaneity can be sa ye Minkowski diagram. en i gous in the Same same time coordinate w. On the events are simultaneous shave the, same time coordinate vents Py and Ps which lie ine parallel to the x-axis are sin (Fig-19.9)- Clearly, they + simultaneous in S’, occurring at dif- ad in that frame. ‘Sim- Sede events Q1 and Qz lying on 8 line pe go the x-axis occur simultaneously 7, but they are not simultaneous in a) pe coordinates in that frame being #1 F300 tin fray ae of simultaneity Lorentz contraction can also be demonstrated in the Minkowski diagram. Consider daflength 1 metre at rest in the $'-frame, its ends lying at 2! = 2 ea a! = 3, 9ay 910). As time elapses, the world line of each end point is a straight line parallel to y-axis. The length of the rod is the difference between the space ‘coordinates of its ends ‘gasured simultaneous! measured length of the rod in ly. In the S-frame, the rod moves. The isthe distance between i Jd lines with the a-axis or any ae parallel to the z-axis since intersecting points represent ‘simultaneous events in the Sune, The calibration of the axes shows that the length J of the moving rod is less than 1 inthe S-frame. dilation Fig.19-11. Iustration of ne Fig.19.10. nh 10. Illustration of Lorentz contraction a je exhibited in Fig.19-11- 0x exhibited in Fig ye a1 go the w’-axis Scanned with CamScanner Neiy Chapter 19: SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY ace-time coordinates of a point (g, i “ | est oeaty aeouenes mat ‘ay, Q) in the S-and S'-frames can be obtained from io the axes from Q (Fig.19.8). Thus, eat @ has the coordinates ¢ = OA, 0B in the S-frame, and the coordinates 4! and w! = OB" in the S'-frame, pe relativity of simultaneity can be i ff shown using the Minkowski diagram, Foevents are simultaneous in the S-frame ‘wy have the same time coordinate w. On ther hand, the events are simultaneous ;s'if they have the same time coordinate (7° thus, the events P, and P. which lie | jastraight line parallel to the x-axis are |galtencous in $ (Fig.19.9). Clearly, they yenot simultaneous in S’, occurring at dif- went times wi and w% in that frame. Sim- | jwly, the events Q, and Qz lying on a line lel to the a-axis occur simultaneously ja’, but they are not simultaneous in S, tletime coordinates in that frame being w1 und w.. | ; Lorentz contraction can also be demonstrated in the Minkowski diagram. Consider | | | Fig.19.9. Hlustration of relativity of simultaneity trod of length 1 metre at rest in the S’-frame, its ends lying at 2’ = 2 and 2’ = 3, say (fig.19.10). “As time elapses, the world line of each end point is a straight line parallel to theu/-axis. The length of the rod is the difference between the space coordinates of its ends nessured simultaneously. In the S-frame, the rod moves. The measured length of the rod in Sis the distance between the points of intersection. of the world lines with the z-axis or any ine parallel to the z-axis since these intersecting points represent simultaneous events in the Sframe. The calibration of the axes shows that the length | of the moving rod is less than 1 |Rin the S-frame. ion of Fig-19.11. Illustration of time dilation Fig-19.10. Hlustrati Scanned with CamScanner450 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 7 " be the events of tic ie ¢ for this single clock. Let th and t b ; ie i woe lina S-frame, the clock moves so that in that frame it 1g, The time interval between the events ¢4 and location of the event ¢, and another el w! = 3, respectively. Places at te moments of ticking, in the S-frame by using a clock at tI ! al of the event ¢4. The difference of the readings of these clocks i Ute aga interval. Fig.19.11 shows that the time interval in the S-frame is greater than unity, Thug tt the moving clock appears to have slowed down. 19.14 Spacelike and Timelike Intervals We have seen that the quantity 7? = ¢? — 4y(2? + y? + 2?) is invariant under transformation, Consider an event occurring at the origin (¢ = 0 = x = y = 2) ang ,Ctete event appearing at any other value of (2, ,2)- ‘The space-time interval between the tye is given by events Let us ignore y and z. Hence, r? = t? -— 27/c?, or, a where w = ct. The invariance of c?7? implies that w? — 2, ie.,w > 2, then Hq.(19.82) shows that cr? > 0, or, 7 is a real quantity, Bug z> ct, i.e. z > w, then cr? < 0, or, 74s imaginary. When T is real, the space-time inter, between the event at the origin and that élsewhere in space-time is said to be timelike. 7 is imaginary, the interval is spacelike. As 7 is invariant, the nature of the space-time interval is independent of the inertial frame. In general, a four-vector having components (21,42, 3,5) is said to be timelike i its nom & — (af +a} + a3) is positive. The four-vector is spacelike if b? — (a} + a3 +a3) is negative If the two events are simultaneous in a frame S', then w’ = 0, So, c?r? = u?—g2= w!? — x! = —z", That is, the interval between the events in S’ is spacelike. If the events tate place at the same place in S’, then 2! = 0 and c?7? = w”, or, r =t'. Therefore, the interval between the events is timelike. We can refer to the Minkowski diagram (Fig. 19.12) for the geometric representation of timelike and spacelike intervals. Through any point A in ‘Region 1° bounded by the world lines of light waves, a w'-axes can be drawn'from the origin O. Thus there is inertial frame 5” in, which the events 0 and A appear at the same place (2’ = 0). How ever, O and A are separated in time in S' the event A comes at a later time than the et O, since A is in the positive side of the > axis. So, the events in ‘Region 1’ on Fel 0 ate absolutely in future with Te a and this region is termed Absolute Fa ‘het Puture Light Cone, If A is in ‘Region the event A occurs earlier than the in S$’. So, the events in ‘Region reso lutely in the past relative to O- therefore, termed Absolute Past me. Fig-19.12, Space-time intervals ‘on Minkowski diagram Scanned with CamScanner~ Chapter 19 : SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 451 point B in ‘Region 3’ an z'-axis can be drawn from O. In this S' frame, so through @ i tu , simultaneous (w’ = ct’ =0), and ‘ “0 and B are simi e 3 ), and are separated ; epee B arte region is spacelike, On the contrary, parsed in ror late ee "tied prese™ so re timelike. Clearly, the world interval OA is timelike whereas the world is like. cor points om the 45° i fe Fonding to the Ui ae lightlike. othe spacelike region, c’7? is negative or, T is imaginary, implying a velocity greater than ,$uh 00 physical signals can travel with a speed exceeding the speed of light. So, the events od B cannot interact physically and hence they are not related causally and the time order material. In the timelike region, the events like A and O jnteract physically because here is real and the signal velocity is less than c. For events O and A, relativity fixes a time : Thus relativity is co! nsistent with the causality principle. lines, = Ws so that T= 0. Such lines give the world lines of light miting velocity of relativity (u =). Events and intervals on the {6 The Twin Paradox famous so-called paradox of two persons, SaY, Aand are twins, born at the same time. Suppose that A flies away in a space ship at & speed able to the speed of light, leaving B stationary on the ground. B sees A moving fast, it A's clock appears to gO slower from B’s point of view. If A comes ack, he will find brother B older than himself. The paradox arises from the contention that all motion ive; so either twin could consider the other to be moving. Thus each should find the jounger, which is a logical contradiction. ‘This contention presupposes that the twins’ ns are symmetrical and interchangeable. But this is not true. For the twins to meet und to come 5 take the compari: parison, A has to turn aro! ne a “the acceleration, while B feels nothing. Thus the situation 1s not es tr has felt the ace between the twins in the absolute sense. 9% a may te it i 0 ation would be the paradox is resolver ” i younger, and ee i semonstrated- Just as ‘esons live longer 7 he is travelling The relativistic effects give rise to & \Siot relativity whieh has been ¢l ‘ 'Yy are moving, so will A live longe! r when m i . . | and pemmations of Electric and Magnetic Fields io Invariance of Maxwell’s Equations hia Meta Sree ert 5 ed to move with a velocity ie ler two inertial frames S and S’- acca i to res sed re mr i = ver ra Hower observ", Thus, whether mi a. an the inert Le to Saf frame ra along the common = OF 7 ane ~observer sees only an electric well. . . w aloetric field aD e of observation. 1d as jal fram " vin masmetic fields Scanned with CamScanner