Carrier Transport Phenomena

In this section we consider two basic transport mechanisms in a semiconductor

crystal: drift-the movement of charge due to electric fields, and diffusion-the flow of
charge due to density gradients. The carrier transport phenomena are the foundation
for finally determining the current–voltage characteristics of semiconductor devices.

CARRIER DRIFT
An electric field applied to a semiconductor will produce a force on electrons and
holes so that they will experience a net acceleration and net movement, provided there
are available energy states in the conduction and valence bands. This net movement of
charge due to an electric field is called drift. The net drift of charge gives rise to a drift
current.

Drift Current Density

If we have a positive volume charge density Q moving at an average drift velocity vd,
the drift current density is given by

Jdrf = Q νd …………….. (1)

𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟

Jdrf = ( )∗( )=( )=
𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑐𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2
𝐼
J = ………………. (2)
𝐴

If the volume charge density is due to positively charged holes, then

Jd|drf = (ep) νdp ……………… (3)
Jd|drf : is the drift current density due to holes and νdp is the average drift velocity of
the holes.
The equation of motion of a positively charged hole in the presence of an electric
field is
∗
F = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 a = e E …………. (4)
Where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge, a is the acceleration, E is the
∗
electric field, and 𝑚𝑐𝑝 is the conductivity effective mass of the holes.
The particle will gain an average drift velocity which, for low electric fields, is
directly proportional to the electric field.

νdp = µp E ………….. (5)

Where µp is the proportionality factor and is called the hole mobility. The mobility is
an important parameter of the semiconductor since it describes how well a particle
will move due to an electric field the unit of mobility is (cm2/V.s)

Table 5.1 | Typical mobility values at T = 300 K and low doping concentrations

By combining Equations (3) and (5), we may write the drift current density due to
holes as
Jp|drf = (ep) νdp = eµp pE ………………. (6)
The drift current due to holes is in the same direction as the applied electric field. The
same discussion of drift applies to electrons. We may write
Jn|drf = Q νdp = (-en) νdp ………………. (7)
The net motion of the electron is opposite to the electric field direction. We can then
write
νdn = -µn E ………………. (8)

Where µn is the electron mobility and is a positive quantity. Equation (7) may now be
written as

Jn|drf = (-en) νdn = (-en) (-µnE) ………………. (9)

Jn|drf = eµn nE

Since both electrons and holes contribute to the drift current, the total drift current
density is the sum of the individual electron and hole drift current densities, so we
may write

Jdrf = e(µn n + µp p)E ………………. (10)

Conductivity
The drift current density, given by Equation (10), may be written as

Jdrf = e(µn n + µp p)E = 𝜎E ………………. (11)

1 1
𝜌= = ………………. (12)
𝜎 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝)

𝜎 = 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 𝑝) ………………. (13)

Diffusion Current
The diffusion of electrons from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration produces a flux of electrons flowing in the negative x direction as shown
in figure (1).
𝒅𝒏 ∆𝐧
Jnx|dif = eDn = eDn ………………. (14)
𝒅𝒙 ∆𝒙
Where Dn is called the electron diffusion coefficient, has units of cm2/s, and is a positive
quantity

Figure .1 | (a) Diffusion of electrons due to a density gradient. (b) Diffusion of holes due to a density gradient.

The hole diffusion current density is proportional to the hole density gradient and to
the electronic charge, so we may write

𝑑𝑝
Jpx|dif = -eDp ………………. (15)
𝑑𝑥

Total Current Density

These components are electron drift and diffusion currents and hole drift and diffusion
currents. The total current density is the sum of these four components, or, for the one-
dimensional case.

𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
J = eµn nEx + eµp pEx + eDn - -eDp ………………. (16)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

This equation may be generalized to three dimensions as

J = eµn nE + eµp pE + eDn ∇𝑛 - eDp ∇𝑝 ………………. (17)
CHARGE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Current is the rate at which charge flows. In a semiconductor, two types of charge
carrier, the electron and the hole, can contribute to a current. Since the current in a
semiconductor is determined largely by the number of electrons in the conduction band
and the number of holes in the valence band, an important characteristic of the
semiconductor is the density of these charge carriers. The density of electrons and holes
is related to the density of states function and the Fermi distribution function, both of
which we have considered.
The electronic density of states is a measure of the energy levels available to a carrier.
It is defined as the number of states per unit volume per unit energy or more simply,
the concentration of states per unit energy. Therefore, the following quantity gives the
concentration of states in a differential energy segment from (E) to (E + dE).

Thermal-Equilibrium Hole Concentration

The effective density of states function in the valence band (Nν) is

∗
2𝜋𝑚𝑃 𝐾𝑇 3⁄
Nν = 2( 2
) 2 ……….. (1)
ℎ

The parameter 𝑚𝑃∗ is the density of states effective mass of the hole. The thermal
equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band may now be written as
−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝜈 )
Po = Nν exp[ ] ……. (2)
𝐾𝑇

The magnitude of Nν is also on the order of 1019 cm-3 at T= 300 K for most
semiconductors.
Example: Calculate the thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T= 400
K. Assume that the Fermi energy is 0.27 eV above the valence-band energy. The
value of Nv for silicon at T= 300 K is Nv = 1.04×1019 cm-3.
Solution:
The parameter values at T= 400 K are found as:
400 3⁄
Nv = (1.04×1919) (300) 2 = 1.60×1019 cm-3

and
400
kT = (0.0259) (300) = 0.03453 eV

The hole concentration is then

(−(E F − Ev) −0.27
P° = Nv exp[ ] = (1.60×1019) exp (0.03453)
KT

P° = 6.43×1015 cm-3

Thermal-Equilibrium Electron Concentration

The effective density of states function in the conductive band (Nν) is

∗ 𝐾𝑇 3
2𝜋𝑚𝑛
Nc = 2( 2
) ⁄2 ………. (3)
ℎ

The parameter 𝑚𝑛∗ is the density of states effective mass of the electron. The thermal
equilibrium concentration of electrons in the conductive band may now be written as
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
no = Nc exp[ ] ………...(4)
𝐾𝑇

The magnitude of Nc is also on the order of 2.5×1019 cm-3 at T= 300 K for most
semiconductors.
Example: Calculate the thermal-equilibrium electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K. Where
the (EC - EF) is 0.25 eV. The value of Nc for silicon at T = 300 K is Nc = 2.8×1019 cm-3
Solution:
𝑛° = Nc exp[-(Ec - EF)/kT]
−0.25
𝑛° (2.8×1019) exp[0.0259]

𝑛° = 1.80×1015 cm-3
 Note: From Newton‫׳‬s law of motion
F=m* a
Where the acceleration (a) is now directly related to the external force. The parameter m*,
called the effective mass, takes into account the particle mass and also takes into account
the effect of the internal forces. To use an analogy for the effective mass concept, consider
the difference in motion between a glass marble in a container filled with water and in a
container filled with oil. In general, the marble will drop through the water at a faster rate
than through the oil. Because of the difference in motion of the marble in these two cases,
the mass of the marble would appear to be different in water than in oil.

The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band
is equal to the concentration of holes in the valence band. We may denote n i and pi as
the electron and hole concentrations, respectively, in the intrinsic semiconductor.
These parameters are usually referred to as the intrinsic electron concentration and
intrinsic hole concentration. However, ni = pi, so normally we simply use the parameter
ni as the intrinsic carrier concentration, which refers to either the intrinsic electron or
hole concentration.

Table 4.1 | Effective density of states function and density of states effective mass values

The Fermi energy level for the intrinsic semiconductor is called the intrinsic Fermi
energy, or EF=EFi. If we apply Equations below to the intrinsic semiconductor, then
we can write

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
no= ni = Nc exp[ ] …………. (5)
𝐾𝑇

And
 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝜈 )
po = pi = ni = Nν exp[ ] …………..(6)
𝐾𝑇

If we take the product of Equations (5) and (6), we obtain

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 ) −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝜈 )

𝑛𝑖2 = Nc Nν exp[ ]∗ exp[ ]
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇

−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝜈 ) −𝐸𝑔

𝑛𝑖2 = Nc Nν exp[ ] = Nc Nν exp[ ] …….… (7)
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇

Where Eg is the bandgap energy. For a given semiconductor material at a constant

temperature, the value of ni is a constant, and independent of the Fermi energy. The
intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon at T = 300 K may be calculated by using the
effective density of states function values from Table 4.1.
The value of ni calculated from Equation (7) for Eg = 1.12 eV is ni = 6.95 × 109 cm-3.
The commonly accepted value of ni for silicon at T= 300 K is approximately 1.5
×1010 cm-3.

Table 4.2 | commonly accepted values of ni at T = 300 K

Example: Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at T = 250 K and at T

= 400 K. The values of Nc and Nv for silicon at T = 300 K are 2.8×1019 cm-3 and
3⁄
1.04×1019 cm-3, respectively. Both Nc and Nv vary as(𝑇) 2. Assume the bandgap
energy of silicon is 1.12 eV and does not vary over this temperature range.
Solution:
We find, at T = 250 K
250 3 −1.12
𝑛𝑖2 = (2.8×1019) (1.04×1019) ( ) exp[ 250 ]
300 (0.0259)( )
300

= 4.90×1015
or
ni = 7.0×107 cm-3
At T = 400 K, we find

400 3 −1.12
𝑛𝑖2 = (2.8×1019) (1.04×1019) ( ) exp[ 400 ]
300 (0.0259)( )
300

= 5.67×1024
or
𝑛𝑖 = 2.38×1012 cm-3

BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE P-N JUNCTION:

Figure 2.a schematically shows the p-n junction. It is important to realize that the entire
semiconductor is a single-crystal material in which one region is doped with acceptor
impurity atoms to form the p region and the adjacent region is doped with donor atoms
to form the n region. The interface separating the n and p regions is referred to as the
metallurgical junction. The impurity doping concentrations in the p and n regions are
shown in Figure 2.b.
Figure 2. (a) Simplified geometry of a p-n junction; (b) doping profile of an ideal uniformly doped
p-n junction.

For simplicity, we will consider a step junction in which the doping concentration is
uniform in each region and there is an abrupt change in doping at the junction.
Initially, at the metallurgical junction, there is a very large density gradient in both
electron and hole concentrations. Majority carrier electrons in the n-region will begin
diffusing into the p-region, and majority carrier holes in the p-region will begin
diffusing into the n region. If we assume there are no external connections to the
semiconductor, then this diffusion process cannot continue indefinitely. As electrons
diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are left behind. Similarly, as
holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover negatively charged acceptor atoms.
The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce an electric field in
the region near the metallurgical junction, in the direction from the positive to the
negative charge, or from the n to the p region.
The net positively and negatively charged regions are shown in Figure 3. These two
regions are referred to as the space charge region. Essentially all electrons and holes
are swept out of the space charge region by the electric field. Since the space charge
region is depleted of any mobile charge, this region is also referred to as the depletion
region; these two terms will be used interchangeably.

Figure 3. The space charge region, the electric field, and the forces acting on the charged carriers.
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the
space charge region. We can think of a density gradient as producing a “diffusion
force” that acts on the majority carriers. These diffusion forces, acting on the electrons
and holes at the edges of the space charge region, are shown in the figure. The electric
field in the space charge region produces another force on the electrons and holes,
which is in the opposite direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In
thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the E-field force exactly balance each
other.

ZERO APPLIED BIAS

We have considered the basic p-n junction structure and discussed briefly how the
space charge region is formed. In this section we will examine the properties of the
step junction in thermal equilibrium, where no currents exist and no external excitation
is applied. We will determine the space charge region width, electric field, and potential
through the depletion region.
The analysis in this chapter is based on two assumptions that we have considered in
previous chapters. The first assumption is that the Boltzmann approximation is valid,
which means that each semiconductor region is nondegenerately doped. The second
assumption is that complete ionization exists, which means that the temperature of the
p-n junction is not “too low.”

Built-in Potential Barrier

If we assume that no voltage is applied across the p-n junction, then the junction is in
thermal equilibrium—the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the entire system.
Figure 4. shows the energy-band diagram for the p-n junction in thermal equilibrium.
The conduction and valance band energies must bend as we go through the space
charge region, since the relative position of the conduction and valence bands with
respect to the Fermi energy changes between p and n regions.
 Figure 4. Energy-band diagram of a p-n junction in thermal equilibrium.

Electrons in the conduction band of the n-region see a potential barrier in trying to
move into the conduction band of the p-region. This potential barrier is referred to as
the built-in potential barrier and is denoted by Vbi. The built-in potential barrier
maintains equilibrium between majority carrier electrons in the n-region and minority
carrier electrons in the p region, and also between majority carrier holes in the p region
and minority carrier holes in the n region. This potential difference across the junction
cannot be measured with a voltmeter because new potential barriers will be formed
between the probes and the semiconductor that will cancel Vbi. The potential Vbi
maintains equilibrium, so no current is produced by this voltage.
The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the
junction; thus, the built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between
the intrinsic Fermi levels in the p and n regions. We can define the potentials φFn and

φFp as shown in Figure 4, so we have

Vbi = |φFn + φFn|…………………… (1)

In the n region, the electron concentration in the conduction band is given by
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )
no= Nc exp[ ]…………….. (2)
𝐾𝑇

Which can also be written in the form

 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐹𝑖
no= ni exp[ ]……………….. (3)
𝐾𝑇

Where ni and EFi are the intrinsic carrier concentration and the intrinsic Fermi energy,
respectively. We may define the potential φFn in the n-region as

q φFn = EFi - EF ……………….... (4)

Equation (7.3) may then be written as
−(φFn)
no= ni exp[ ] ……………... (5)
𝐾𝑇

Taking the natural log of both sides of Equation (5), setting 𝑛° = ND, and solving for
the potential, we obtain

φFn= -𝐾𝑞𝑇 ln [𝑁𝑛𝐷] ……………….(6)

𝑖

Similarly, in the p-region, the hole concentration is given by

𝐸𝐹𝑖 −𝐸𝐹
Po = NA= ni exp[ ] ………. (7)
𝐾𝑇

Where Na is the acceptor concentration. We can define the potential φFp in the p-region
as
q φFp = EFi - EF ………………… (8)
Combining Equations (7) and (8), we find that

φFp = + 𝐾𝑇
𝑞
𝑁
ln [ 𝐴 ] ………………………. (9)
𝑛 𝑖

Finally, the built-in potential barrier for the step junction is found by substituting
Equations (6) and (9) into Equation (1), which yields
𝐾𝑇 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
Vbi = ln [ ] = VT ln [ ] …….. (10)
𝑞 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2

Where VT = kT/q and is defined as the thermal voltage.

At this time, we should note a subtle but important point concerning notation.
Previously in the discussion of a semiconductor material, ND and NA denoted donor and
acceptor impurity concentrations in the same region, thereby forming a compensated
semiconductor. From this point on in the text, ND and NA will denote the net donor and
acceptor concentrations in the individual n and p regions, respectively. If the p-region,
for example, is a compensated material, then NA will represent the difference between
the actual acceptor and donor impurity concentrations. The parameter ND is defi ned in
a similar manner for the n region.

Example: Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a p-n junction. Consider a silicon
pn junction at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of NA = 2×1017 cm-3 and ND = 1015
cm-3.
Solution:
The built-in potential barrier is determined from Equation (7.10) as
KB T NA ND (2×1017 )(1015 )
Vbi = ln [ ] = 0.0259 ln [ ]
q n2i (1.5×1010 )2

Vbi = 0.713 volt

If we change the doping concentration in the p-region of the p-n junction such that the
doping concentrations become NA = 1016 cm-3 and ND = 1015 cm-3, then the built-in
potential barrier becomes Vbi = 0.635 V.