Discom WWW
Discom WWW
In720
INTERDISCIPLINARY SKILLS
FOR COOPERATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
ISBN 978-9934-543-35-7
Reviewers
Inese Druviete, Ph.D
Former Fulbright-Schuman Innovation grantee, Latvia
Ketevan Iremashvili, Ph.D
Carnegie Fellow, Erickson Certified Coach, Professor at Tbilisi Open University,
Georgia
Ruslana Havrylyuk, LLD
Head of Department of Public Law, Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National
University, Certified mediator, Ukraine
Edited by
Dana Rone, Ph.D
Docent at Turiba University, Sworn advocate, certified mediator, Latvia
Ivita Kīsnica, Vice Dean of Law Faculty, Turiba University, Latvia
Kristīne Tihanova, Head of Project department, lecturer at Turiba University,
Latvia
This book is created in frame of ERASMUS+ Strategic partnership project
“Development of Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict
management”, project number 2019-1-LV01-KA203-060423.
The European Commission's support for the production of this publication does not
constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors,
and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein.
Contents
Index of Authors............................................................................................................................7
Introduction....................................................................................................................................9
7
INTRODUCTION
About this book and the project
By Dana Rone and Kristine Tihanova
9
10 Dana Rone, Kristine Tihanova
and youth. Another aim of the DISCOM project was to develop and implement
innovative practices, to elaborate interdisciplinary study materials and tools
(including a mobile application) for students and teachers of different faculties.
The project was started in autumn 2019 and completed in summer 2022.
The project was implemented by Turiba University from Latvia in cooperation
with five partner Universities – Genoa University from Italy, Mykolas Romeris
University from Lithuania, the Netherlands Business Academy from the
Netherlands, Jagiellonian University from Poland and Graz University from
Austria.
This ERASMUS+ project focused on five significant soft skills – 1) the
ability of students to cooperate in team, 2) setting professional and academic
goals, 3) time management skills and efficient planning, 4) multicultural
communication and 5) conflict diagnostics and conflict management. These
skills are crucial for the ability to study efficiently in universities of the modern
world. Curriculum of universities mostly do not offer separate courses to
develop those specific skills. Moreover, these skills are required not only during
academic studies, but even after graduation, to be prepared for professional life
challenges. Therefore the project partners went for elaboration of inter-faculty
study materials for the students from Law, Business, Communication and other
Social science faculties in order to increase these skills and for the university
teachers could widely access such study materials.
This book is only one of the products developed in frame of this project.
The authors of the book encourage the readers to explore other soft skills’
training materials – video lectures, reading materials, exercises for individual
work and group work, and the mobile phone application. All materials are
available on project website: http://skills.turiba.lv
In the spring of 2020 the project partners made a survey and asked to the
students and teachers from different countries at what extent they have heard
about „soft skills”, do they think universities are paying sufficient attention to
training of soft skills to the students and which are the most important skills
that students would like to develop.
340 students from six countries and 76 teachers from nine countries took
part in the survey. Analysis of the profile of students showed that the bachelor
level students are 61%, master level students 35% and doctoral level students
Introduction 11
4%. Most of the students (70%) confirmed that they have heard about soft skills,
but 54% of them pointed out that in their study programs they do not have
courses which tackle to develop soft skills. Communication was highlighted
most frequently in a list of crucial soft skills (23%), followed by critical thinking
(19%), team work (12%), time management (11%), positive thinking (11%)
and conflict management (9%). More than a half of students (54%) think that
universities are not paying sufficient attention to the development of “soft
skills” of their students.
Students pointed out that they would be interested during their studies
to develop mowre intensively such soft skills as communication (16%), critical
thinking (16%), conflict management skills (13%), time management and
effective planning skills (11%) and leadership (10%).
The project partners gathered also valuable feedback from the teachers,
who shared their experience about soft skills and their experience and teaching
practice.
The teachers were asked if they agree with the statement, that nowadays
in order to succeed at work and personal life “soft skills” of students have
the same importance as professional skills (hard skills). 89% of the teachers
agreed with the statement and assured that soft skills in a modern world is a
key to success. Almost the same number of teachers (86%) pointed out that
their universities should pay more attention to the development of soft skills
of the students. 43% of the teachers who participated in the survey stressed
that students absolutely lack or have weak conflict diagnostics and conflict
management skills. 35% of the teachers think that multicultural communication
skills of the students are weak and should be trained more. Most of the teachers
also agreed that such skills as setting professional and academic goals, time
management skills, efficient planning and ability to cooperate in team are
average or should be improved.
12 Dana Rone, Kristine Tihanova
Teachers emphasized in the survey that lack of those skills can possibly
lead to difficulties to find job, make good carrier or even to failure in private
or professional life. Young professionals risk not being able to solve complex
problems, their performance results will be average or even below the standard.
It can bring to fear and narrow-mindedness. If the students don’t learn soft
skills in universities, it can take them long years and life-experience to learn
these skills in practice.
Analysis of survey shows that teachers suggest to introduce changes in
universities. The best and the most obvious solution is to include additional
courses in the study program. However not all universities can afford immediate
changes to their curriculum. Many study programs already now have very busy
schedule and adding additional courses is not an option. Most of the teachers
suggest to revise and update already existing courses and teaching techniques.
It is important to include more practical studies – group works, practical
exercises, role-plays, discussions, field work, web-quests, project work,
simulations, debates and similar methods. Additionally, voluntary work as a
part of the study program or in study program, recognized volunteering time
during study period can teach some of the soft skills. There are universities
in Europe which are already including voluntary work as a part of the study
process. Also support, advice or coaching from the side of university can be very
helpful. Those universities who have career centers or anowther structures
providing guidance, professional support or coaching are better situated and
can track and provide support in development of soft skills.
It is clear that in the future soft skills have the same importance as
professional skills. At the moment the Z generation starts to study in universities
– young people with high requirements and expectations, the ones who already
request universities to provide education which suite their academic needs and
the needs of the labor market. And consequently the universities will respond
to the needs of modern society.
CHAPTER 1
SOFT
SKILLS
MODERN REALITY – SOFT SKILLS
By Daina Škuškovnika
Keywords: soft skills, hard skills, soft skills typology, soft skills in higher
education, learning process, development, lifelong learning
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to provide an insight into recent research on the
role of soft skills in modern society. Different approaches to defining soft and
hard skills and its typology are considered. The article examines the experience
of different countries and universities in developing soft skills in the learning
process. It is emphasized that the development of successful soft skills
requires strategic planning and interaction at five levels: national, institutional,
curricula, extracurricular activities and the individual level. The second chapter
of the article deals with teaching/learning methods used for teacher-student
interaction. At the end of the article, the 5-step method proposed within the
ERASMUS+ Strategic partnership project DISCOM is described, which can
help students decide about the need to consciously improve certain aspects of
their personality. This small-scale study was conducted using the analysis of
scientific literature and the author’s professional experience.
17
18 Daina Škuškovnika
1
The World Economic Forum (2020). These are the top 10 job skills of tomorrow – and how long it takes
to learn them. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/10/top-10-work-skills-of-tomorrow-how-long-it-
takes-to-learn-them/
2
Manyika, J., L und S., Chui, M., Bughin, J., Woetzel, J., Batra, P., Ko, R., & Sanghvi, S. (2017). Jobs lost, jobs
gained: What the future of work will mean for jobs, skills, and wages. McKinsey Global Institute https://www.
mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-of-work/jobs-lost-jobs-gained-what-the-future-of-work-will-mean-
for-jobs-skills-and-wages#
3
Ibid.
4
Zainuddin, S. Z., Pillai, S., Dumanig, F. P., & Phillip, A. (2019). English language and graduate employability.
Education and Training, 61(2), pp. 79–93; DOI: 10.1108/ET-06-2017-0089
5
Zubaidah, S. (2016). 21st century skills: skills taught through learning (in Bahasa). Seminar Nasional
Pendidikan, 2(2), pp. 1–17
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 19
Skills are the ability and capacity to carry out processes and to be able to
use one’s knowledge in a responsible way to achieve a goal. Skills are part of a
holistic concept of competency, involving the mobilisation of knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values to meet complex demands.7
Hard skills are methods or knowledge that a person acquires at school
or in the workplace. Soft skills are interpersonal characteristics, also known as
human skills, and personal characteristics that a person possesses. Soft skills
are related to personality, human skills and work ethics. The majority of soft
skills an individual possesses are not taught directly but are developed through
life experience both in the family, at school and in communication with friends.
A study on the role of soft skills in the workplace conducted by Klaus in 2010
found that 75% of long-term success at work depends on people skills, while
only 25% depend on technical knowledge. Hard skills contribute only 15% to
success, whereas 85% of success is related to soft skills.
6
Bunney, D., Sharplin, E., & Howitt, C. (2015). Generic skills for graduate accountants: The bigger picture, a
social and economic imperative in the new knowledge economy. Higher Education Research & Development,
34(2), pp. 256–269, https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.956700
7
OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-
learning/learning/skills/Skills_for_2030_concept_note.pdf
20 Daina Škuškovnika
8
Tran Le Huu Nghia (2021). Building Soft Skills for Employability. Challenges and Practices in Vietnam. Routledge,
ISBN 9781032089508
9
Kozhanova, N. V. (2021). Language peculiarities of “soft skills” in German electronic texts of vacancy
advertisements. Vestnik of North-Eastern Federal University Named After M. K. Ammosov, 82 (2), pp. 39–46,
DOI: 10.25587/p6523-9839-2389-x
10
Ananiadou, K. & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for New Millennium Learners in OECD
Countries, https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019
11
Eportfolio (2011). http://www.eportfolio.eu/organisations/rpic-vip
12
IFTF (2010). The Future is a High Resolution Game: The 2010 Map of the Decade, https://www.iftf.org/
our-work/global-landscape/ten-year-forecast/2010-ten-year-forecast/2010-map-of-the-decade/
13
Manpower Group (2014). https://www.manpowergroup.com/wcm/
14
OECD (2015). Skills for Social Progress, https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-for-social-progress-
9789264226159-en.htm
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 21
15
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Today’s Workplace. Business
Communication Quarterly, 75 (4), pp. 453–465
16
Handayani, A., & Wienanda, W. K. (2020). International mobility programs to improve soft skills of Vocational
College students and alumni. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 14(3), pp. 377–384, ISSN 2089-9823,
DOI: 10.11591/edulearn.v14i3.14538
17
Ibrahim, R., Boerhannoeddin, A. & Bakare, K. K. (2017). The effect of soft skills and training methodology on
employee performance. European Journal of Training and Development, V41(4), pp. 388–406, DOI: 10.1108/
EJTD-08-2016-0066
18
OECD (2018). The OECD Learning Compass 2030, https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-
and-learning/learning/
22 Daina Škuškovnika
22
Stewart, C., Marciniec, S., Lawrence, D. & Joyner-McGraw, L. (2020). Thinkubator Approach to Solving the Soft
Skills Gap. American Journal of Management, 20 (2), pp. 78–89
23
Bunney, D., Sharplin, E., & Howitt, C. (2015). Generic skills for graduate accountants: The bigger picture, a
social and economic imperative in the new knowledge economy. Higher Education Research & Development,
34(2), pp. 256–269, https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.956700
24
Tran Le Huu Nghia (2021). Building Soft Skills for Employability. Challenges and Practices in Vietnam. Routledge,
ISBN 9781032089508
25
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation tudy.
World Journal of Education, 11(1), pp. 42–50
26
OECD (2015). Skills for Social Progress, https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-for-social-progress-
9789264226159-en.htm
24 Daina Škuškovnika
27
Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP "Development of
Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict management"
28
Handayani, A. & Wienanda, W. K. (2020). International Mobility Programs to Improve Soft Skills of Vocational
College Students and Alumni. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 14(3), pp. 377–384
29
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD (2005). https://www.oecd.org/about/
34711139.pdf
30
Mutalemwa, D. U. & Harold M. N. (2020). Soft Skills as a Problem and a Purpose for Tanzanian Industry: Views
of Graduates. Economic Insights – Trends & Challenges, 4, pp. 45–64
31
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation
Study. World Journal of Education, 11(1) pp. 42–50, https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v11n1p42
32
ElShaabany, M. M. & Ahmad, M. U. (2020). An EFA based stakeholder’s perspective on Accounting and Finance
courses. Journal of Xidian University, 14(4), pp. 1510–1524, https://doi.org/10.37896/jxu14.4/174
33
Dolce, V., Emanuel, F., Cisi, M., & Ghislieri, C. (2019). The soft skills of accounting graduates: perceptions versus
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 25
The need for a paradigm shift in education is a global reality. If in the past good
education was treated as knowing a lot, then today the goal of education is
to understand the essence and be able to use knowledge.36 The knowledge
base should not be divided according to the principle of separate subjects and
courses, but should be oriented towards interdisciplinary or transversal skills.
The student must be able to use knowledge, skills and express attitudes in a
complex way, solving problems in changing real life situations.
37
Martin, T. N. (2019). Review of Student Soft Skills Development Using the 5Ws/H Approach Resulting in a
Realistic, Experiential, Applied, Active Learning and Teaching Pedagogical Classroom. Journal of Behavioral &
Applied Management, 19 (1), pp. 41–57, Database: Academic Search Ultimate
38
Sharma, S. & Shekhawat, S. (2020). Learning Soft Skills Through Group Discussion. IUP Journal of Soft Skills,
14 (4), pp. 12–19, Business Source Ultimate
39
Manishankar, C. (2021). The Dynamics of Soft Skills. IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 15(1), pp. 20–26, Database:
Business Source Ultimate
40
Deep, S., Ahmed, A., Suleman, N., Abbas, M., Nazar, U., Shaheen, H. & Razzaq, A. (2020). The Problem-Based
Learning Approach towards Developing Soft Skills: A Systematic Review. Qualitative Report, 25 (11),
pp. 4029–4054, Database: Academic Search Ultimate
41
Thompson, K., Conde, R., Gade, M. & Mims, T. (2021). An Immersion Approach to Client-Sponsored Projects:
Preparing Students with Soft Skills Required for Hiring – Face to Face & Virtual Methods. International Journal
of Higher Education, 10(2), pp. 42–61, Database: ERIC
42
Jalinus, N., Syahril, N., & Rahmat, A. (2020). How Project-Based Learning and Direct Teaching Models Affect
Teamwork and Welding Skills among Students. Online Submission. International Journal of Innovation,
Creativity and Change, 11 (11), pp. 85–111, Database: ERIC
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 27
methods and the use of different platforms for e-learning. A method and tools43
have been developed for the development of soft skills in students, which can
be used in various subjects and as part of the strategy of higher education
institutions. Although pilot studies are still ongoing, it is believed that this
method will help integrate the development of soft skills through online
learning and their link with the course subjects will help universities better
train students for 21st century reality even after the Covid-19 crisis. Santora44
recommends special training for e-coaches who, using e-coaching methods,
can remotely develop the soft skills of individuals.
In order to promote student learning, it is also important to assess
effective performance by providing quality feedback. When analysing group
work on a specific phenomenon that is being acquired, during the feedback,
it is necessary to encourage students to assess their soft skills, which were
necessary to complete the specific learning task. When creating the traditional
feedback on what has been learned and understood during the lesson, it is
necessary to encourage students to analyse questions such as: What soft skills
are needed to apply what has been learned in practice? How do I currently
assess my own level of development of the required soft skills? What can I do to
increase these soft skill levels? A tool to evaluate team based learning in nursing
has been developed and tested45, with the help of which it is possible to assess
group synergies and team learning among nursing students. ePortfolio46 is an
innovative tool for promoting the development of soft skills. Three ePortfolios
can be distinguished according to their main tasks: 1) e-portfolio to support
learning; 2) an e-portfolio related to learning outcomes 3) an e-portfolio to
present yourself in the world of work. The authors emphasize that the e-portfolio
is a powerful tool to support the self-assessment of individuals throughout the
studies with the provision of feedback from teachers and practice managers not
only on academic or professional results, but specifically on the development
of soft skills.
It should be noted that soft skills help to be dynamic, ready for change, to
look for solutions in every situation.47 During the Covid-19 pandemic, employers
43
Naamati, S. L., Meirovich, A., & Dolev, N. (2020). Soft Skills On-Line Development in Times of Crisis. Romanian
Journal for Multidimensional Education, 12, pp. 122–129, DOI: 10.18662/rrem/12.1sup2/255
44
Santora, J. C. (2021). E-Coaching: Building Better Employee Soft Skills. International Leadership Journal, 13 (1),
pp. 120–123
45
Keister, K. J., Farra, S. L., Smith, S. J., & Bottomley, M. (2021). Development of a Scale to Measure Synergy: A Tool
to Evaluate Team-Based Learning in Nursing. Nursing Education Perspectives (Wolters Kluwer Health), 42 (2),
pp. 87–92, DOI: 10.1097/01.NEP.0000000000000783
46
Cimatti, B. (2016). Assessment of soft skills and their role for the quality of organizations and enterprises.
International Journal for Quality Research, 10(1), pp. 97–130, DOI: 10.18421/IJQR10.01-05
47
Manishankar, C. (2021). The Dynamics of Soft Skills. IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 15(1), pp. 20–26, Database:
Business Source Ultimate
28 Daina Škuškovnika
had to make great use of both their own and employees’ soft skills – to react
quickly to the situation, often to restructure their activities, train employees to
perform new duties, where it was important to understand the employee and
apply the most appropriate type of communication and training.
Students learn not only to obtain an academic degree, but get competencies
and abilities that will be developed lifelong (Longlife Learning). Soft Skills
acquisition, of course, does not occur only in the university, competencies are
also obtained outside the school in everyday personal and social life and so one
of the higher education missions is to create a desire in students to develop,
improve and enhance their abilities throughout their lifetime. It has been
found48 that soft skills acquisition has a positive impact not only on students’
education / professional experience, students’ readiness to learn the course and
willingness to improve academic and professional skills and abilities, but also
on their readiness and motivation to develop soft skills. Ammani & Chitra49 point
out that the existence of soft skills helps create a good working environment
for sharing knowledge, ideas and information. It is therefore necessary to
focus on developing areas such as individual self-confidence, self-motivation,
cooperation, empathy, interpersonal skills, listening skills, negotiation and
humour. Work performance and the expression of other soft skills affects the
individual’s skills to realize and manage their stress. Even in situations that
create stress, it is possible to gain strong positive and constructive energy
that can be used productively, focusing on the goal. M. Tripathy50 emphasizes
that deliberate stress management in the workplace promotes wellbeing and
emotional freedom.
To develop future capabilities and skills, every individual needs to
understand their personality, be aware of their strengths and weaknesses and
consciously decide on the development of their skills and abilities. If individuals
consciously set the objective of improving themselves, it is up to them to decide
what to focus on – the identification and development of their talents or on
training skills and abilities that are not so well developed. Nobel Prize winners
48
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation
Study. World Journal of Education, 11(1), pp. 42–50, https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v11n1p42
49
Ammani, S. & Chitra, V. B. (2020). Blended Learning of Soft Skills Through Life Skills in an Organization. IUP
Journal of Soft Skills, 14 (4), pp. 7–11
50
Tripathy, M. (2018). Recognizing & Handling the Underlying Causes of Stress at Workplace: An Approach
through Soft Skills. International Journal of Management, Accounting & Economics, 5 (7), pp. 619–632,
Database: Business Source Ultimate
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 29
51
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin Books, ISBN 9780141033570
52
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions on Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press
53
Burnett, B. (2017). 5 steps to designing the life you want. TED x Talks, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=SemHh0n19LA
30 Daina Škuškovnika
54
Škuškovnika, D. (2021). Soft skills – what does it mean? http://skills.turiba.lv/files/ABOUT%20SOFT%20
SKILLS%20.pdf
55
Mental help (2021). Introduction to Psychological Testing, https://www.mentalhelp.net/psychological-
testing/
56
Personality Project (2018). Personality Theory and Research, https://personality-project.org/
57
Dilts, R. (b.g.). Agile, The Dilts Pyramid and the Changes, http://agile-space.com/en/agile-dilts-pyramid-changes/
58
Personal Goal Setting. Planning to Live Your Life Your Way (b.g.). https://www.mindtools.com/page6.html
Chapter 1. Soft Skills 31
Conclusion
The 21st century skills required include learning to know, learning to do,
learning to be and learning to live. The new knowledge economy resulting
from technological development requires graduates in all disciplines with
flexible thinking and transferable skill sets that are able to innovate and adapt
to a dynamic work environment. As a result, universities need to develop the
transferable general skills necessary for graduates to advance their careers
and foster economic innovation and social development. The student must be
able to use knowledge, skills and express attitudes in a complex way, solving
problems in changing real life situations.
It is concluded that the implementation of the basics of soft skills should
be taken care of at 5 levels: national, institutional, curricula, extracurricular
activities and the individual level. Businesses and higher education institutions
need to work together not only to raise students’ awareness of the importance
of soft skills, but also to make them individually responsible for acquiring and
developing these essential skills in order to adapt to a constantly changing
labour market. In order to promote student learning, it is important to use
modern teaching/learning methods and also to provide quality feedback when
assessing the effectiveness of student performance.
The article describes the 5-step method offered within the ERASMUS+
Strategic Partnership DISCOM project, which can help students make decisions
regarding the need to consciously improve certain aspects of their personality.
Using this model, it is possible to be aware of the need for change, analyse
the strengths and weaknesses of one’s personality, analyse the situation and
available resources, develop a plan and not only make a decision, but also start
to implement this decision.
CHAPTER 2
TIME
MANAGEMENT
ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING TIME
MANAGEMENT SKILLS DURING COLLEGE
STUDIES AND IN PROFESSIONAL LIFE:
LITERATURE REVIEW AND PROSPECTS
By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
Introduction
1
Seneca, L. A. De Brevitate Vitae, 49 AD, VIII
35
36 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
Time management and efficient planning refers to the world of the so-called
“soft skills” that defined as a set of character traits, attitudes and behaviours
that enhance a person’s interactions and job performances.6 Acquiring strong
and effective time management skills is of crucial importance in current society.
Today, students and workers at any stage and level experience difficulties in
making good choices, because of the wide range of possibilities that suggest
“consumers” to do many things in order to be successful. This is even more
difficult considering that people are constantly exposed to any kind of
distractions (e.g. social media) in their daily life.7 The absence of a real method
for addressing the demands of daily life makes more and more difficult to
manage our daily choices and actions in a way that is effective for reaching our
most important goals.
Higher demands in performance have made time management and
efficient planning skills a substantial prerequisite in the professional and
occupational context. The strong competitiveness business organizations
face in an environment of continuous change involves the search for cost
reduction and increased productivity, all of which require the employee
greater requirements in terms of tasks and hours of work.8 There is a clear
understanding on the relation between time and organizational productivity,
as the first is a fundamental element of the second: according to Doob,9 the
efficiency of an operation is measured on its accomplishment with the smallest
expenditure of energy and time.
6
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Today’s Workplace, in Business
Communication Quarterly, 4, pp. 453–456, at p. 457; T. L. Parsons (2008). Definition: Soft Skills, as cited in
Robles (2012)
7
According to the Global Digital Report 2020. Available at http://wearesocial.com, in January 2019 there
were 3.48 billion social media users, with the worldwide total growing by 288 million (9 percent) since
January 2018. There were 3.26 billion people using social media on mobile devices in January 2019, with a
growth of 297 million new users representing a year-on-year increase of more than 10 percent
8
Garhammer, M. (2002). Pace of life and enjoyment of life, Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, pp. 217–256
9
Doob, L. W. (1971). Patterning of Time, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p. 349
38 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
10
See for instance Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, S. (1982). The One Minute Manager. New York: William Morrow
& Co
11
Aeon, B., & Aguinis, H. (2017). It’s About Time: New Perspectives and Insights on Time Management, in
Academy of Management Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 4, p. 324
12
Green & Skinner, 005; King & al. (1986); Macan (1994); Slaven & Totterdell (1993); Van Eerde (2003); Hall &
Hursch (1982); Orpen (1994)
13
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at work and time management training, in Journal of Psychology, Vol.
137, p. 421 ff.
14
Watts & Watts (2008)
Chapter 2. Time Management 39
15
Zimmermann, B. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological
developments, and future prospects, in American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 45, p. 166 ff.; Ning, H. K., &
Downing, K. (2010). The reciprocal relationship between motivation and self-regulation: A longitudinal study
on academic performance, in learning and Individual Differences, v. 69, p. 205 ff.; Xu, J., Du, J., Wang, C., Liu, F.,
Huang, B., Zhang, M., & Lie, J. (2020). Intrinsic motivation, favorability, time management, and achievement:
A cross-lagged panel analysis, in Learning and Motivation, Vol. 72, p. 1 ff.
16
Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college
students, in Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 16, p. 385 ff.
17
Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: test of a process model, in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79,
p. 381 ff.; Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College students’ academic stress and its relation to their anxiety,
time management, and leisure satisfaction, in American Journal of Health Studies, Vol. 16, p. 41 ff.; Pérez-González,
F., García-Ros, R., & Talaya González, I. (2003). Learning styles and management skills of academic time in
secondary education, Revista Portuguesa de Educação, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 59–74; Strazdins, L., Griffin, A. L.,
Broom, D. H., Banwell, C., Korda, R., & Dixon, J. (2011). Time scarcity: another health inequality? Environment
and Planning A, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 545–559; Boixadós, M., Hernández-Encuentra, E., & Pousada, M. (2012).
Personal time management and quality of life in the network society, in Stoilov, T. (Ed.). Time Management, InTech,
New York, 19 p., ISBN: 978-953-51-0335-6, available at: www.intechopen.com/books/timemanagement/
personal-time-management-and-quality-of-life-in-the-network-society
40 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
18
Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work-family conflict, and
strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, pp. 72–7
19
See Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work–family conflict,
and strain, in Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 4, p. 72 ff.
20
Reference is made, for the purpose of this contribution, to time-based conflicts where time demandes associated
with family roles and work roles interfere with each other: Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). cit., p. 72
21
Following the accredited work of Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: test of a process model, cit., time
management behaviours are divided in three main categories: a) setting goals and priorities; b) making lists
and schedules; c) organization.
Chapter 2. Time Management 41
22
Womble, P. (2003). Impacts of Stress factors on college student’s academic performance. Undergraduate
Journal of Psychology, 16(1), pp. 16–23
23
Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades, cit.; Núñez, J. C.,
Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A. & Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental
involvement in homework, student homework behaviors, and academic achievement: differences among
elementary, junior high, and high school students, in Metacognition and learning, Vol. 10(3), p. 375 ff.
24
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2010). The Psychology of Academic Achievement, in Annual Review of Psychology,
Vol. 61, p. 653 ff.
25
APA Dictionary of Psychology, available at https://dictionary.apa.org/ (last accessed November 12th, 2020)
26
Heckhausen, J., Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivation and Action: Introduction and Overview, in J. Heckhausen, H.
Heckhausen (eds.), Motivation and Action, 3rd ed., p. 1 ff.
27
Ning, H. K., & Downing, K. (2010). The reciprocal relationship between motivation and self-regulation, cit., p.
205 ff.; Xu, J., Du, J., Wang, C., Liu, F., Huang, B., Zhang, M. & Lie, J. (2020). Intrinsic motivation, favorability, time
management, and achievement, cit., p. 9 ff.
28
In this contribution we follow the definitions given by Ryan R. M. and Deci E. L. within their Self-Determination
Theory: see Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New
Directions, in Contemporary Educational Psychology, Vol. 25, p. 54
42 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
29
See the studies cited above, at note 34
30
Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College students’ academic stress and its relation to their anxiety, time
management, and leisure satisfaction, in American Journal of Health Studies, Vol. 16, p. 41 ff.
31
Awosusi, O. O. (2011). International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria,
Chapter 2. Time Management 43
Motivation and Job Performances Among Nurses in the Ekiti State Environment of Nigeria, Vol. 2; Ahmad, Nor
Lela & Yusuf, Ahmad & Shobri, Nor & Wahab, Samsudin (2012). The Relationship between Time Management
and Job Performance in Event Management. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 65, pp. 937–941; Erwin,
M. (2009). 21st Century Time management: New Delhi: time creation press; Goddard, R. (2001). Time in
Organisations. Journal of management and development, Vol. 20, Iss/pp. 19–27; Häfner, A., & Stock, A. (2010).
Time Management Training and Perceived Control of Time at Work, The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 144,
pp. 429–447
32
Claessens, B. J. C., Eerde, W. V., Rutte, C. G., & Roe, R. A. (2007). A review of the time management literature.
Personnel Review, Emerald Group Publishing, 36 (2), pp. 255–276
33
Alvani, C. M. (2008). Public management. Tehran: Ney publication
34
Brummelhuis, L. L., Hoeven, C. L., Bakker, A. B., & Peper, B. (2011). Breaking through the loss cycle of burnout:
The role of motivation, in Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 84, p. 268; Khodaveisi,
M., Bahar, G. S., & Ahmadi, S. (2015). The Relation between time management and job stress in physical
education lecturers and faculty members of Hamedan Universities. Sport Science, 8(1), pp. 60–63
35
Perlow, L. A. (1999). The time famine: Toward a sociology of work time. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44,
pp. 51–81
36
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development and well-being, in American Psychologist, Vol. 55, p. 68–78
37
Macan (1994)
44 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
38
As out outlined by Al Khatib AS, Time management and its relation to students’ stress, gender and academic
achievement among sample of students at Al Ain University of science and technology, UAE. International
Journal of Business and Social Research, 2014, 4(5), pp. 47–58
39
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at Work and Time Management Training, The Journal of Psychology,
137:5, pp. 421–434
40
Sabini, J., Silver, M. (1982). Moralities of everyday life. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
41
Tracy, B. (2013). Time management. New York, NY: AMACOM, p. 67
42
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer
Chapter 2. Time Management 45
43
Procrastination affects between 40 and 70 percent of university students and is closely related to academic
performance (see Pastana, J. V. and Codina, N. (2014). The academic performance of university students: their
temporary perspectives and procrastinating tendencies, in en Pérez-Serrano, G. and De-Juana Oliva, A. (Eds),
Education and Youth in Times of Change, pp. 1–27)
44
Ellis, A., & Knaus, W. J. (1977). Overcoming procrastination. New York: Institute for Rational Living; Solomon, L.
J., & Rothblum, B. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: frequency and cognitive behavioural correlates. Journal
of Counselling Psychology, 31, pp. 503–509; Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). Academic
procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental
Education, 25, pp. 14–24
45
Haghbin, M., McCaffrey, A. Pychyl, T. A. (2012). The Complexity of the Relation between Fear of Failure and
Procrastination. J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther, Vol. 30, pp. 249–263
46
Lay, C., Schouwenburg, H. (1993). Trait Procrastination, Time Management, and Academic Behavior. Journal of
Social Behavior and Personality, 8, pp. 647–662
47
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at Work and Time Management Training, cit.
46 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
Conclusions
This contribution fosters the idea that time management and efficient planning
skills should be acquired before an individual enters the job market. If students
already face many challenges in the management of their time during their academic
career and those challenges are not processed in a well-rounded and constructive
way, personal tendencies and habits will occur also in professional life.
The cited studies that have addressed many aspects of time management
strengthen the idea that time management skills may have beneficial effects on
48
Gallander, M., Dilouya, B., Mark, S., Pratt, M., Birnie-Lefcovitch, S., Polivy, J., & Adams, G. (2011). Academic
achievement in first-year university: who maintains their high school average? High Education, Vol. 62
No. 4, pp. 467–481, DOI: 10.1007/s10734-010-9399-2; Häfner, A., Oberst, V., & Stock, A. (2014). Avoiding
procrastination through time management: an experimental intervention study, Educational Studies, Vol. 40,
No. 3, pp. 352–360
49
Pham, L. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1999). From Thought to Action: Effects of Process-Versus Outcome-Based Mental
Simulations on Performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 25, pp. 250–260
50
Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. (2010). Overcoming Procrastination through Planning. Publ. in: The thief of time:
Philosophical essays on procrastination / ed. by Andreou C., White M. D, New York: Oxford University Press,
pp. 185–205
Chapter 2. Time Management 47
51
Wratcher, M. A., & Jones, R. O. (1988). A time management workshop for adult learners, in Journal of College
Student Personnel, 27, p. 566 ff.
52
On the contrary, education systems should contribute in building soft skills, as a recognition of individuals’
capacity, including non-academic knowledge: in this sense Levy, P. (2000). La cibercultura y la educación,
Pedagogía y Saberes, No. 14, pp. 23–31, available at: doi.org/10.17227/01212494.14pys23.31
53
See the studies by Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades,
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 83 No. 3, pp. 405–410; Lay, C. H. & Schouwenburg, H. C. (1993). Trait
procrastination, time management, and academic behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 8,
No. 4, pp. 647–66
54
Macan, T. H., & Shahani, C. (1990). College Students’ Time Management: Correlations With Academic
Performance and Stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 760–768
55
Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades, cit.; Khanam, N., Sahu
T., Rao, E. V., Kar, S. K., & Syyed Zahiruddin Quazi (2017). A study on university student’s time management
and academic achievement. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, Vol. 4, No. 12,
pp. 4761–4765
56
Seinz, M. A., Ferrero, A. M., & Ugidos, A. (2019). Time management: skills to learn and put into practice, in
Education and Training
48 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli
57
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills, cit., p. 453 ff.; Klaus, P. (2010).
Communication Breakdown, in California Job Journal, Vol. 28, p. 1 ff.
CHAPTER 3
ABILITY TO
COOPERATE
IN A TEAM
THE NEXT LEVEL
OF A HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAM
By Jan van Zwieten
Summary: Introduction – 1. Why are people together and when can one
speak of a team? – 2. Team development. – 3. Teamstar model. – Conclusions.
Introduction
During the second half of the twentieth century, many companies have started
working with the concept of “High Performance Team”. What is new in this
manner of thinking, is that there is much more attention to the team members,
their mindset and their behaviour. We started to realise that a team consists
of individual persons and that motivation, interaction and communication are
essential for performance. In 1950, the Tavistock Institute (U.K.) had already
described the characteristics of a high performing team, yet it would still take
many years before larger companies welcomed the concept with open arms.
This acceptance (mostly in the United States) grew simultaneously with the
results of successful implementations into a select group of big organisations.
However, as is often the case, success may become a pitfall. Many advisors
developed variants that did not always lead to better results. The concept’s
popularity thereupon decreased, but the general way of thinking about the
53
54 Jan van Zwieten
1
Katzenbach, et al. (2003). The Wisdom of Teams, Harper Business
2
Bard, R. (2015). Strategies to achieve high performance in hybrid project teams: Addressing the relationship
between Swedish project managers and Indian specialists at IBM Global Services. Chalmers University of
Technolog
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 55
When thinking about teams in the elementary form, we thus find a clear
dichotomy: the core of this thought is that it is not only about making the
individual members of the team stronger, but that there is also a dimension to
make them optimally work together. This collaboration starts with divisions of
tasks and placing the right person in the right place, yet evidently goes much
further. How do we make sure that they actually work together to achieve
the goals?3 The interpretation of the characteristics and thus the formula for
success as a team is always different for all authors.
In this article we follow the structure of the Teamstar model. This
model includes all the characteristics that have emerged in major, serious
investigations since 1950, and in addition includes thinking in continuity and
sustainability. Out of this we can construct the following structure:
• Unifying separate individuals into a single entity; alignment and
involvement;
• The optimal level of functioning as a dream team; efficiency and
effectivity;
• Ensuring a sustainable dream team is created; development and vitality.
3
Van Zwieten, et al. (2015). De Talent Coach, Vakmedianet
56 Jan van Zwieten
This article discusses the basic structure of thinking about teams. What
is a team? In what way has thinking about teams developed over time? What
are the characteristics of a dream team? This all comes together in the three
aforementioned main elements. These key elements are the core for successful
working in teams.
There are many different reasons why people are together, and with
that comes a variety of forms of cooperation. This is important to understand,
because it also determines what leads to optimal collaboration. What interests
do people have? What moves them? Why do they do what they do? And in
this context, when are we talking about a team? To answer these questions, a
number of elements are decisive:
• The degree of connectedness. There is a significant difference
in whether people are together only once for example to watch a
disaster, artist or event, whether people are connected based on a
common identity (religion, culture), or whether they have to perform
a common task together (organisation, sports team).
• The duration of cooperation. Often groups are connected for a
certain period of time. This may be for one-time activities, a project,
time-related or permanent.
• The frequency of being together.
Depending on the objective, the tasks are determined. These are thereafter
assigned to team members. Whenever a team lacks expertise, it will look for
this outside the team.
4
Ragala, S. (2020). Crowd, Mob, Group & A Cohesive Team
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 59
5
Pentland, A. (2012). The New Science of Building Great Teams, Harvard Business Review
60 Jan van Zwieten
Our way of thinking about teams origins in the 1950s. This is a logical
looking at the development of society over the years. Between 1750 and
1950 (Industrial Revolution), we see companies are managed primarily on
operations. Logistics, planning and structure must occupy center-stage. The
principles of Frenchman Henri Fayol and the American Frederick Taylor
(described and put into practice between 1860 and 1920) are regarded as
a model for the aforementioned way of management. This is described as
scientific management or knowledge management. People (employees) are not
important as human beings and treated as a machine.
Around 1950 managers start realizing that teams are made up of people.
The first studies are carried out to see how we can bring these people to reach
optimal performance. In particular, the publications of the “Tavistock Institute”
in the 1950s gave a good overall view of the new way of thinking, people are
key. Their concept of “High Performance Teams” (HPT) was quickly gaining
popularity.
The concept of HPT is basically quite simple; a solid team that continuously
achieves good results because of cooperation and innovation. The focus on the
results ensures that they as a unity manage to solve all problems.
Follow-up studies such as those of Gully (from 1995 to 2002)6 and Baker
(2006)7 gave a new boost with additional evidence that the following elements
lead to more effective team performance:
• A clear goal in which involved individuals actually believe;
• The required knowledge, ability and skills in order to realise the goals;
• Flexibility and capacity to adapt (self confidence in one’s own abilities);
• All team members are individually prepared to do what it takes in
order to reach the goals and do take their responsibility;
• Participants give up part of their autonomy and tune their actions in
accordance with colleagues. Hereby, we find good mutual relationships;
• Conflicts and feedback are used constructively and do not affect the
atmosphere.
6
Gully, et al. (1995). A Meta-Analysis of Cohesion and Performance: Effects of Level of Analysis and Task
Interdependence, Michigan State University
7
Baker, et al. (2006). Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 61
2. Team development
The basis of thinking about the phases a team experiences has been
laid by Professor Bruce Tuckman. In 1965, he described the phases of group
development. He concluded there are four phases: forming – storming – norming –
62 Jan van Zwieten
Tuckman’s studies showed that about 50% of the teams skipped phase
2 (storming) and went directly from phase 1 to phase 3. Teams that did go
through the storming phase risked getting stuck inside it or falling back into it
because the relations were structurally disturbed.
8
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups, Psychological Bulletin; Tuckman, B. W., &
Jensen, M. A. C (1971). Stages of Small-Group Development Revisited, Group and Organisation Studies
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 63
More and more, the emphasis of thinking about teams has shifted to
partnership. It is therefore not surprising that there is much attention paid
to personality traits of team members. The starting point is often that one
searches for characteristics that match the primary task and purpose of the
team. Later, however, people became aware that there must be sufficient
diversity. The complementarity ensures that all the necessary competencies are
present when the team ultimately has to execute the tasks. An overly one-sided
composition of the team presents problems in performing certain tasks and
possible blind spots that can prevent the team from reaching its goals or even
break up the team. As an example – the management team of a construction
company consisted of all structured rational thinkers who had made their
mark in carrying out complex construction projects. Eventually, they were
unsuccessful on the market, because of a lack of creativity and flexibility. In an
ever changing market, they did not move fast enough and the strategy was not
focused on future challenges.
Initially, DISC was often used as one of the first methodologies in the
field of behavioural determination. Then, in 1981, Belbin published his book
64 Jan van Zwieten
2.3 Lencioni
9
Belbin, M. (1981). Management Teams: Why They Succeed To Fail, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann; Belbin, M.
(1983). Team Roles At Work, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 65
3. Teamstar Model
10
Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team, John Wiley & Sons Inc; Lencioni, P. (2012). The Advantage,
John Wiley & Sons Inc
66 Jan van Zwieten
3.1 Alignment
On the one hand, the goal must be clear and appealing. If we do not know
where we are going, we will never get there. But it also is demanding good
leadership. Does the leader know how to inspire and motivate people to go
for these goals? Because we are speaking of a team, this goes beyond just the
interests and motivation of the individual. The willingness to support individual
interests to the team interest requires a culture of trust based on conformity of
Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 67
shared values and norms. Understanding the personality of the team members
helps to inspire and motivate them. If the culture is such that open feedback
can be given and conflicts have a constructive character in the cooperation, the
team will be able to achieve synergy.
3.2 Performance
3.3 Sustainability
Conclusions
11
ERASMUS+ Strategic Partnership “Development of interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict
management” – DISCOM, Project number 2019-1-LV01-KA203-060423, Survey about soft skills, Report,
http://skills.turiba.lv/files/SOFT%20SKILLS%20SURVEY%20REPORT.pdf
CHAPTER 4
SETTING
THE GOALS
BY MEANS
OF COACHING
SETTING PROFESSIONAL AND
ACADEMIC GOALS BY MEANS
OF MODERN COACHING: GETTING TO
KNOW COACHING TO GROW IN LIFE
By Dana Rone and Kristina Nesterova
Annotation: This article describes the concept of coaching, its main models
and techniques as well as the benefits of coaching for university students. The
aim of this article is to get university students acquainted with means and
instruments of modern coaching for setting professional and academic goals.
The introduction of the article briefly describes the history of coaching, its
connection with psychology, neuro-linguistic programming and other related
studies and disciplines. The main part of the article defines the concept of
coaching and relation with mentoring as well as the most popular models
and techniques of coaching and its advantages for university students. The
conclusions of the article emphasize the benefits and importance of coaching
integration into the study process in order to unleash students’ potential and
maximize their professional and academic performance.
Introduction
1
Fellman, D., & Simberg, S. (2017). Prevelance and Risk Factors for Voice Problems Among Soccer Coaches.
Journal of Voice, No. 31 (1), p. 121
75
76 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
Since its first use, the meaning of the words coaching and mentoring changed.14
According to Greek mythology and the Homeric epic The Odyssey, Mentor
was the son of Alcimus, who at the old age was a close friend of Odysseus. The
11
Tak-yin Hui, R. & Sue-Chan, C. (2018). Variations in coaching style and their impact on subordinates’ work
outcome. Journal of Organizational Behavior, No. 39, p. 663
12
McCarthy, & Ahrens, j. (2011). Challenges of the coaching manager. 25th Annual Australia New Zealand
Academy of Management Conference (ANZAM 2011). Wellington, New Zealand
13
Sutton, J. (2021). What is the Group Coaching Model? Published in: https://positivepsychology.com/group-
coaching-model/
14
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), pp. 137–15
78 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
warrior and world traveller Odysseus placed Mentor in responsibility of his son
Telemachus, while the hero was away fighting at the Trojan War. When Athena
visited Telemachus, she took the disguise of Mentor and encouraged Telemachus
to go abroad to find out what happened to his father. Because of Mentor’s
relationship with Telemachus, and the disguised Athena’s encouragement and
practical plans for dealing with personal dilemmas the personal name Mentor
has been adopted in Latin, English and other languages, as a term meaning
someone who imparts wisdom to and shares knowledge with a less-experienced
person.15 The combination of Athena and Mentor represents the focus on the
instrumental male role of the mentor (Mentor) like counselling or guiding, on
the one hand, and the (emotional) female role (Athena) affective or emotional
quality on the other hand.16 The combination of male and female roles is known
as psychological androgyny.17 Since then a mentor was described as tutor or as
a person, who provides a variety of functions that support, guide, and counsel
the young adult.18 St-Jean, Radu-Lefebvre, and Mathieu describe the goal of
mentoring programs is to strengthen the mentees’self-efficacy.19
During the Renaissance, aristocrats and scientific communities used
mentoring practices to educate promising young people.20 The word “mentor”
became synonymous with wisdom, guidance, counselling and advising.21
In its turn coaching can be defined as the process of on-going, on-the-
job training carried out regularly by a person with the intent of developing
another person’s skills.22 Asking questions is one of the most typical coaching
techniques, first developed in the ancient Greece, where several philosophers,
including Aristotle and Plato followed the “Socratic Method” of asking questions
instead of presenting an argument.23 Socrates is regarded as one of the first
15
Roberts, A. (1999). The origins of the term mentor. History of Education Society Bulletin, No. 64, November,
pp. 313–329
16
Roberts, A. (1998). The androgynous mentor: Bringing gender stereotypes in mentoring. Mentoring &
Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 6(1–2), pp. 18–30
17
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
18
Kram, K. E. (1983). Phases of the mentor relationship. The Academy of Management Journal, 26(4), pp. 608–625
19
St-Jean, E. Radu-Lefebvre, M., & Mathieu, C. (2018). Can less be more? Mentoring functions, learning goal
orientation, and novice entrepreneurs’ self-efficacy. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior &
Research, 24(1), pp. 2–21
20
Wickman, C., & Sjodin, T. (1997). Mentoring: The most obvious yet overlooked key to achieving more in life than
you dreamed possible. A success guide for mentors, New York: McGraw-Hill
21
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
22
Ritter, M. L. (1994). Senior leader mentoring: Its role in leader development doctrine (Master’s theses). West
Point, USA: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College
23
Garvey, B., Stokes, P., & Megginson, D. (2009). Coaching and mentoring, theory and practice. London: Sage
Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 79
24
De Haan, E. (2007). Relationele coaching. Wegen naar meesterschap in helpende gesprekken. Assen, the
Netherlands: Van Gorcum
25
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
26
Ibid., p. 138
27
Dixon, P., Garnham, N., & Jackson, A. (2004). Shareholders and shareholding: The case of football company in
late Victorian England. Business History, 46(4), pp. 503–524
28
Garvey, B. (2012). A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about coaching and mentoring.
London: Sage
29
Haggard, D. L., Dougherty, T. W., Turban, D. B., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2010). Who is a mentor? A review of evolving
definitions and implications for research. Journal of Management, 37(1), pp. 280–304
30
Parsloe, E. (1995). Coaching, mentoring and assessing: A practical guide to developing competence (revised
edn.). London: Kogan Page
31
Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M. K. (2007). Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique.
Administration & Society, 39(6), pp. 719–739
80 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
44
Regarding feeling of professional satisfaction in academic work, see: Phillips, N. (2019). What is academic
success anyway? A rejoinder to “confronting the crisis of confidence in management studies”. Academy of
management learning and education, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 306
45
Law, H. (2019). Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step. The Coaching Psychologist,
Vol. 15, No. 2, December, p. 39
46
Miller, K. D. 73 powerful coaching questions to ask your clients, https://positivepsychology.com/coaching-
questions
47
Moore, C. (2021). 100 Most Powerful Life Coaching Questions, https://positivepsychology.com/life-coaching-
questions/
48
Forbes Coaches Council, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2018/06/21/16-powerful-
questions-coaches-ask-their-clients-to-help-achieve-their-goals/
82 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
51
Panchal, S., & Riddell, P. (2020). The GROWS model: Extending the GROW coaching model to support
behavioural change. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 12
52
Stelter, R. (2012). A guide to third generation coaching: Narrative-collaborative theory and practice. Dordrecht
Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, p. 8
84 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
of lived experience and supports them to identify values, skills, meaning and
strengths in order to redevelop those stories and re-author them, which opens
new possibilities in the future.53 As noted by Thomson, if you listen to a client as
though he is from another planet, you learn a lot.54 A great way to start coaching
intervention is to ask the client to tell their life story. By listening and observing
the story a coach can have the first impression of a person, values, goals and
ways to work further with a particular person.
According to White the narrative approach may consist of the following
techniques: i) externalizing conversations, ii) remembering/re-authoring,
iii) outsider witness re-telling (in group) and iv) definitional ceremony
(community) – re-tellings of re-tellings.55 Going through step by step the
narrative coaching process a coach first of all invites a coachee to tell a story
about recent events and the personal experiences about them, focusing on
specific and unique outcomes, learning and problem-solving skills identified
in the story. A coach asks broad and also narrow questions to precise time,
place, environment and other aspects of the story. Further a coach encourages
a coachee to reflect and evaluate the impact of the story, and then asks to justify
coachee’s action and make judgments about the agreed action in relation to
dreams, hopes and values. The coachee is invited to think about what he or
she will do next. In the conclusion a coachee shall be encouraged to formulate
preferred commitments, desires, hopes and plan of action.
One of the newest coaching techniques is a coaching whilst walking.56
According to this technique a coach has coaching session in motion, having
a walk together with a client. Such technique departing from traditional
environment indoors is especially topical in the epoch of Covid-19, where
outdoors is even healthier place for conversation.
Thus it can be seen a wide diversity of coaching models and techniques
possible to be used by coaches during coaching sessions. Although coaching
models are conventionally applied between at least one coach and one coachee,
still these models and techniques can be used individually under condition that
a person, who wants to develop in some way, is ready to have a look at own
situation with eyes of neutral observer. All coaching models and techniques
have positive outcome if used correctly.
53
Law, H. (2019). Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 15,
No. 2, December, p. 40
54
Thomson, C. (2009). Enneagram styles, coaching, and the use of metaphor. The Enneagram Journal, July, p. 140
55
White, M. (2007). Maps of narrative practice. New York: Norton
56
Cook, S., & van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2020). The experience of coaching whilst walking: A pilot study. The
Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 46
Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 85
57
Lancer, N. (2020). “Yes Woman”: A career coach reflects on the experience of doing a PhD and its contribution
to coaching psychology. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 10
58
Ibid., p. 9
59
Van Deurzen, E., & Arnold-Baker, C. (2018). Existential theraphy: Distinctive features. Oxford: Routledge, p. 185
86 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova
Conclusions
MULTICULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION –
A SOUGHT-AFTER SOFT-SKILL
IN THE XXI CENTURY?
An introduction to the topic and an
overview of the multicultural
communication obstacles
By Agnieszka Góra and Jacek Czaja
91
92 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja
Introduction
1
Good example of such recognition is a survey conducted for the purpose of the Project “Development of
Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict management”. To see the outcomes, of the survey go to:
http://skills.turiba.lv/files/SOFT%20SKILLS%20SURVEY%20REPORT.pdf
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 93
2
Gallo, C. (2016). Richard Branson: “Communication Is The Most Important Skill Any Leader Can Possess.” Forbes,
August 9, https://www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2015/07/07/richard-branson-communication-is-
the-most-important-skill-any-leader-can-possess/?sh=16695fe52e8a. Retrieved 26.11.2020.
3
To give an example of a few scholar definitions John Adair understood communication as ‘the ability of one
person to make contact with another and make himself or herself understood’. Whereas Allen Louis defined that
‘communication is the sum of all the things one person does; when he wants to create understanding in the mind
of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’, when Peter
Little emphasized that ‘communication is a process by which information is transmitted between individuals
and/or organizations so that an understanding response results’ or William Newman and Charles Summer:
said that ‘Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts, opinions or emotions of two or more persons’. The above-
mentioned illustrate their various focus in the definition that is from the participants (interlocutors) to the goal
of communication or the mechanisms utilized to make the communication process more effective. Examples
of definitions can be found i.a.: R. (2020), May 29, What is Communication? Definition, Concept, Process,
& Types. ReadingJunction: https://readingjunction.com/communication-definition-concept-process-types/
Retrieved 19.09.2020.
4
Among noted theorists of such are: Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon, Weaver, McLuhan, MacLean, Rileys, Westley,
Gerbner, Rothstein, Schramn, Berlo, Osgood, Johnson or Cherry. To illustrate the manifold of theories and
models one can refer to a number of linear (e.g. Aristotle model of communication) and non-linear models of
communication (such as sadharanikaran model of communication).
94 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja
5
The two-way traffic emphasized by receiving feedback tends to align more with the non-linear models of
communication – unidirectional in nature, with a focus on mutual understanding of both sender and receiver.
See also: Adhikary, N. M. (1970). The Sadharanikaran Model and Aristotle’s Model of Communication: A
Comparative Study. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(1), pp. 268–289, https://doi.org/10.3126/bodhi.
v2i1.2877.
6
Inter alia the previously mentioned Sadharanikaran model consists of nine elements, whereas the Aristotle
model of communication features five elements
7
For more information on the process of communication, coding and decoding messages see i.a.: Gruman, J.,
Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc
DOI: 10.4135/9781071800591
8
The authors, nonetheless, do not intend to indicate any numbers or proportion. Whether it be two thirds of all
communications as stated by some authors (see: Hogan, K.; Stubbs, R. (2003). Can’t Get Through: 8 Barriers to
Communication. Grenta, LA: Pelican Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1589800755, Burgoon, Judee K; Guerrero,
Laura k; Floyd, Kory (2016). Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Nonverbal communication. New York:
Routledge, pp. 1–26, ISBN 978-0205525003 and other.) or the frequently-quoted 7% Rule according to which
communication is only 7 percent verbal and 93 percent non-verbal, as referred to in a book published Albert
Mehrabian in which he elaborated on research on non-verbal communication (see: Mehrabian, A. (1981).
Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN
0-534-00910-7 and others). The explicit numbers are further argued with by i.a David Lapakk in: Lapakko,
D. (2007). Communication is 93% Nonverbal: An Urban Legend Proliferates. Communication and Theater
Association of Minnesota Journal, 34, pp. 7–19 or by Philip Yaffe in: Philip Yaffe. 2011. The 7% rule: fact,
fiction, or misunderstanding. Ubiquity 2011, October, Article 1 (October 2011), 5 pages. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1145/2043155.2043156. Despite disagreement about the exact numbers, researchers are unanimous
in stating that communication is in majority a non-verbal process
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 95
born ‘with’ a culture and yet, everyone is born ‘into’ so many of them. Cultural
groups can be based on numerous identities, such as: gender, race, nationality,
religion, sex orientation, geography, social status, age – to name just a few. Such
groups create their own specific systems of believes, values, customs, lifestyles,
behaviours and perceptions.
What is important to be acknowledged for the purpose of this paper is
that culture has (or should we rather say cultures have) a profound influence
on the way we experience and perceive the world and people around us, as
well as on how we express ourselves. One illustration of such was given by
Debra Chopp “Our choice of words, our tone of voice, our proximity to another
person when we speak to them are all influenced by the cultures in which
we were raised. Culture also affects the attributions we make about others. If
we experience someone as rude, it is (in part) because we have a culturally
contingent understating of what it means to be polite.”12
What cannot be overemphasized is how complex the concept of culture
is and typically, how much we are only “scratching the surface” of it. The
perfect illustration of such is a very well-known metaphor of the “culture as an
iceberg”.13
12
Chopp, D. (2017). Addressing Cultural Bias in the Legal Profession. NYU Rev. of L. and Soc. Change 41, No. 3,
pp. 367–406, https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/1874/ Retrieved: 20.10.2020.
13
For more on the concept of culture as an iceberg which states that there is more than what we see on a first
glance – which is merely a visible culture – and describes unseen culture and deep culture concepts go to e.g.:
Hall, E. T. (1997). Beyond Culture by Edward T. Hall (1977-01-07), Anchor Books
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 97
On the other hand (what might be not that obvious), since communication
(inter alia) is a process during which believes, views and values are discussed
and shared between different members of the community, the communication
is a prerequisite for shaping cultures (or, from a different perspective, one of
the processes through which cultures are created and shared).14 To sum up,
there is no culture without communication.
To quote Victor “Communication and culture are inextricably intertwined.
Indeed, culture itself is one form of communication…. Consequently, the study
of cultural differences and similarities so essential to international business
success is largely inseparable from the study of international business
communication.”15
World is shrinking into a smaller place. More diversified and more global
every day. Due to such factors as: migrations, internalization, global economy,
world-wide media, social media and spreading internet accessibility, tourism,
increasing role of huge, multi-billion-worth companies, having offices all over
the world, both in our private and professional lives, we are offered a chance
to (and/or are forced to) meet and deal with people coming from different
backgrounds. We all have been communicating with people different from us our
all life (after all, there are no two identical people). Those differences, however,
are getting bigger, appear more often and become more apparent. Therefore, not
only communication skills but also cultural competency is becoming increasingly
crucial and useful – necessary to achieve our goals, become successful, but most
importantly, desperately needed to better understand the reality we live in and
people surrounding us. To see the bigger picture, if you will.
3.1. Overview
Knowing what both communication and culture are, as well how they are
inherently intertwined, this article of the paper aims at providing the overview
of the obstacles that typically occur when dealing with communication in
14
Knutson, K. (2014). June 11, Definition of Culture [Video]. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=CyrC9iLQF0s
15
Victor, D. A. (1992). International Business Communication (1st ed.). Harpercollins College Div
98 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja
16
The authors professionally teach negotiation and communication. Due to that, they have worked with people
coming from several dozens of nationalities, also oversaw projects and negotiations processes between many
nationals having place in almost all parts of the world
17
Anderson, S. R. (2010). How many languages are there in the world? Linguistic Society of America. Linguistic
Society of America, https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/how-many-languages-are-there-world
18
How many languages are there in the world? (2021, February 23). Ethnologue, https://www.ethnologue.
com/guides/how-many-languages
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 99
vocabulary choice, using same proverbs and metaphors, structure and style of
communication. And although those remarks seem trivial in nature, speaking
from experience, as non-native English speakers, in most intercultural
scenarios, their role is prominent and understanding such is the first crucial
barrier to overcome on the road to effective multicultural communication.
When discussing language as a potential barrier in a communication
process it is important to acknowledge that is not only about simple knowledge
of vocabulary and grammar individuals involved in the communication
possess. It is also about the pace, volume and accent. Our day-to-day language
is filled with ambiguous words and phrases, professional jargon, abbreviations,
colloquialism, references to current events, famous quotes, metaphors,
phrasal verbs etc. Difficulties in effective communication occur primarily
between individuals who are native-speakers of different languages, yet are
not uncommon also between two parties originating from the same language
region. There is no doubt ‘language competency’ in intercultural context
is crucial for successful communication. At the same time in such a context,
language competency should not be understood as simply a comprehensive
knowledge and fluency in the language, but rather a competency to adjust
usage of a language depending on a person one is communicating with. In most
scenarios that might even be more difficult, as it is something one has to learn
independently from simply learning the language.
To give some kind of illustration. Imagine a professional ballroom dancer.
It is one thing to know all the steps and know how to dance their part. Completely
another thing is to be able, depending on the level of skills the person they are
paired with possesses, to adjust their choreography, not to start too advanced
sequences, to lead in a distinctive and unequivocal way and not to use gestures
and signals only they and their previous partner understand.
19
For the more detailed description of some of the listed recommendations go to: Nancy J. Adler & Moses
N. Kiggundu Awareness at the Crossroad: Designing Translator-Based Training Programs in D. Landis and
R. Brislin, Handbook of Intercultural Training: Issues in Training Mythology, Vol. II. New York: Pergamin Press,
(1983), pp. 124–150
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 101
20
See: Sonnleitner, K., & Gschweitl, V. (2021). Chapter 6. Conflict management. Conflict Diagnosis: How to deal
with a conflict?
21
Goman, C. K. (2011). How Culture Controls Communication. Forbes, November 28, https://www.forbes.com/
sites/carolkinseygoman/2011/11/28/how-culture-controls-communication/?sh=4d9630ec263b
102 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja
The first intrinsic element in dealing with potential hurdle of that kind is
to notice when communicating parties use culturally different frameworks and
mechanisms that may hinder full mutual understanding. Below, the authors
present the non-exhaustive list of non-linguistic and other internal barriers to
an effective communication.
Different dependence on context. Non-verbal communication includes
facial expressions and gestures; but also room and seating arrangements,
personal distance, sense of time or the level of assertiveness in communicating.
The importance of non-verbal aspects in communication vary across cultures.
Messages are coded in a physical context or in a non-verbal way, with few explicit
words. Dependent on the importance and scope of context coded messages,
scientists identify two types of cultures: high and low context cultures, where
high-context cultures rely to a greater extent on more ambiguous methods of
communication, with a lot of meaning assigned to a non-verbal communication,
symbolism, customs and tradition. Stereotypically, some examples of high-
context cultures would be Japan, Saudi Arabia or Spain, whereas among low-
context cultures are typically Canada or USA.22
Bypassing – as it was indicated on the linguistic level (see the previous
part above) and defined as when the symbolic meaning of words is not read
correctly by communicators and the receiver gets the wrong meaning to what
the sender intended, the same applies to non-verbal communication: tones,
pitch of voice, other vocal cues.
In authors view, the perfect example of such bypassing would be a usage
of a dot (‘.’) at the end of a one-word-long text message. To illustrate, the authors
encourage the readers to think of a possible reaction to a text: ‘Fine.’ received
from an elderly professor or a teenage Snapchat user. Would the meaning and
emotions associated differ when the same text comes from different people?
Bias – is a phenomenon of misinterpretation and misjudgement of a
message by applying tests and standards inherent and unique to one’s own
culture. Ethnocentrism is the example of a more extreme cultural bias which
takes place when someone deems their particular culture to be the only lens to
look through at other cultures with an implied belief that their approach and
culture are better than the other, leading to a negative opinion of behaviours
22
Research shows, however, that the extent to which high or low-context is used in communication is also
dependent on whether a conversation is happening in a work or non-work contexts, with some interesting
changes, that are not typically in line with the general exemplification of high- or low-context cultures based
on nationalities or countries. For the mentioned research see: Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R.,
Zhao, S., & Koo, J. (2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork
contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), pp. 363–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
3514.85.2.363.
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 103
23
Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R., Zhao, S., & Koo, J. (2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West
communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2),
pp. 363–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.363
24
Compoint, T. (2018). July 9, Six barriers to cross-cultural communications (Part 2 of 3). Déclic International,
https://declicinternational.com/6-barriers-to-cross-cultural-communications/
25
Indirectness occurs when there is a discrepancy between sentence meaning and speaker meaning. Sentence
meaning refers to the literal or semantic meaning of an utterance, and speaker meaning refers to what the
speaker intends to accomplish with the remark. Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R., Zhao, S., & Koo, J.
(2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), pp. 63–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.363
104 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja
26
Another example would be the use of irony and sarcasm in Japanese culture, as one might argue that the use
thereof is not typical in that culture. It is reasonable to learn beforehand about the culture of someone so as not
to be deemed offensive or unserious, especially in an effort of having a sensitive conversation with someone
whose origins are in Japanese culture. E. (2019). September 23, The Role of Communication in Conflict. Penn
State. Cultural Leadership Blog, https://sites.psu.edu/global/2019/09/23/the-role-of-communication-in-
conflict/
27
By definition a physical noise is any factor – external or environmental- distracting from receiving the
intended message sent by a communicator. Rothwell, D. J. (2017). In the Company of Others: An Introduction to
Communication (Illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press, USA
28
How to Combat Zoom Fatigue (2021). Harvard Business Review, February 2, https://hbr.org/2020/04/how-
to-combat-zoom-fatigue%20or%20https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/coronavirus-
zoom-fatigue-is-taxing-the-brain-here-is-why-that-happens/
29
Cockburn, A. (2001). Agile Software Development. Addison-Wesley
Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 105
Conclusions
CONFLICT
DIAGNOSIS
AND
MANAGEMENT
CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS:
HOW TO DEAL WITH A CONFLICT?
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl
Introduction
Conflicts are inevitable, they can arise whenever and wherever people meet (may
it be at the workplace, at the place of study/vocational training, within families,
with friends, etc.). Despite being often considered to have negative – sometimes
even destructive – effects, conflicts bear potential for growth and development, if
those, who are involved, want to change old attitudes.1 Without conflicts, society
would not evolve. If they are treated in a constructive way, however, progress
is initiated. Therefore, it is necessary to work on conflicts with a systematic
approach. In this regard, scientists are examining the different facets of conflicts
and developing models and tools for conflict analysis and diagnosis.
1
Solarte-Vásquez, M. C. The Wider Context: An Introduction to Conflict Management and Dispute Resolution.
Mediation in Civil and Criminal Cases to Foster European Wide Settlement of Disputes (e-Book). Retrieved
01.03.2021. from https://mediation.turiba.lv/index.php?id=42
111
112 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl
The first step when dealing with a conflict is to identify its exterior cause, which,
according to Hagen7, corresponds to the cause of action in a lawsuit (e.g. breach
of contract). In this regard one must clarify which persons are involved and what
roles they have. Further in the process, the different positions and interests of
these persons are explored to path the way for a potential consensus. In order
2
Böttcher, W., & Lindart, M. (2009). Schlüsselqualifiziert. Weinheim: Beltz Verlag, p. 112
3
Heyse, V., & Erpenbeck, J. (2004). Kompetenztraining: 64 Informations- und Trainingsprogramme. Stuttgart:
Schäffer-Poeschel Verlag für Wirtschaft, p. 329
4
Based on Hagen, J. J., & Lenz C. (2008). Wirtschaftsmediation. Wien: Manz Verlag, p. 33
5
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, pp. 3–8
6
Glasl, F. (2017). Konfliktdiagnose. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D., Lenz C.,
Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 157; Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, p. 3 f.
7
Hagen, J. J., & Lenz, C. (2008). Wirtschaftsmediation. Wien: Manz Verlag, p. 33
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 113
8
Kessen, S. (2017). Die Kunst des Fragens. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D.,
Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 324–325
9
Geier, F. (2017). Kommunikation in der Mediation. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T.,
Berning D., Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 321
10
Kessen, S. (2017). Die Kunst des Fragens, Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D.,
Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 324 f.
11
Thomann, C., & Schulz von Thun, F. (2017). Klärungshilfe 1, Handbuch für Therapeuten, Gesprächshelfer und
Moderatoren in schwierigen Gesprächen. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, pp. 92 f.
114 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl
position. The person listening devotes their full attention to the person talking,
signaling the reception of their message on a non-verbal and verbal level
(nodding their head, saying “yes”, “okay” etc.). Often the mistake is made to
immediately give advice or to talk about similar experiences made by oneself,
but the intention should be to completely understand the other person’s story,
the facts and circumstances as well as the underlying needs and feelings.12
Part of active listening is to ask questions and to paraphrase what was
said. The latter means to summarize/repeat the story in one’s own words
neutrally and without any judgment. It helps to reassure oneself that what was
heard was also understood correctly.13 Moreover, one should try to include the
“sub-text” (the actual meaning, the feelings and interests) in the paraphrase.
This way the person speaking feels understood, is supported in reflecting
her/his own situation and feelings and is invited to open up even more. These
communication techniques are not only useful in the first stage of conflict
diagnosis, but also during all steps. Furthermore, showing empathy helps to
build rapport and to prevent conflicts from escalating.14
A distinction of the type of conflicts must be made regarding the conflict parties
(internal and interpersonal conflicts), the different forms of the conflict’s
appearance (hot vs cold conflicts and latent vs manifest conflicts) as well as
the matter of dispute (conflicts of interest, value and relationship conflicts).
To provide an example: Two co-workers are having a dispute that seems like a
personal conflict between them, while the real cause of the problem lies within
the structure of the organization. It could be the case that the roles of the
employees are organized in a way that they inevitably constrain each other when
fulfilling their tasks.15 Trying to find a consensus on a personal level without
considering the structural problem will not be successful in this situation. By
defining the type of conflict, the root cause can be found and treated, which will
give the parties the best chance to find sustainable solutions.
12
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, pp. 61–62
13
Deutsch, M. (2014). Cooperation, Competition, and Conflict. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution (3rd ed.).
Coleman, P., Deutsch, M. & Marcus, E. (edt.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 15.
14
Kraus, R., Morsella, E. (2014). Communication and Conflict. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution (3rd ed.).
Coleman, P., Deutsch, M. & Marcus, E. (edt.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 174–178
15
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, p. 6
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 115
For example, you want to go home quickly after work, but you have
to finish an urgent job for your boss. Conversely, conflicts of value have
no direct impact on you personally, but you would like another person to
change his/her behavior. For example, parents do not want their children to
be pierced or tattooed.
According to Glasl, a social conflict is an interaction (a related com-
munication or action) between actors (individuals, groups, organizations
etc.), whereby at least one actor has incompatibilities in his/her thinking/
imagining/perceiving and/or feeling with the other actor (other actors),
experienced in such a way that an impairment by another actor or other
actors occurs in trying a realization.18
The following types of conflict also belong to the interpersonal level.
Conflicts of goals occur when two people pursue two goals that are difficult
or incompatible. In a team there could be a disagreement about the goals
and the expected outcome. For example, the boss expects his assistant to
complete all tasks quickly and spontaneously. For the assistant, this means
that other work remains unfinished, which in turn often leads to unpaid
overtime. The secretary feels overwhelmed and sometimes not respected.
Often a lack of agreements and coordination are the cause of a conflict of
goals. A distributional conflict arises as a result of a dispute over a scarce
good. If someone does not get what he/she thinks he/she is entitled to (e.g.
salary, further education), we speak about a distribution conflict. A lack of
resources can be the cause of a distributional conflict. In a solution conflict
there are different ideas about how to solve a task in a group. In a relationship
conflict the parties experience disruptive interpersonal tensions while
working or living together. Relationship conflicts occur when the “chemistry”
is not right anymore. These two factors can exacerbate a conflict.19 The last
type of conflict also belongs to the category “difference according to the
subject of dispute” which will be described in the next chapter.
For Glasl, the subject of the dispute is one of the main aspects of the
conflict division. Possible subjects of the dispute are different relationships,
interests, needs, values, beliefs, etc.
18
Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und Mediation (12th ed.). Bern –
Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 17 f.
19
Rüttinger, B., & Sauer, J. (2016). Konflikt und Konfliktlösen. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler, p. 90
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 117
After reflecting with what type of conflict you are dealing with, the model of
Glasl23 can be used so that the conflict parties know which of the nine levels of
escalation the conflict has reached. It is therefore a very useful diagnostic tool
for the conflict facilitator and sensitizes people to the mechanisms of conflict
escalation. Such sensitizing may lead to a greater awareness of the steps one
should take care to avoid if one wants to prevent a conflict from escalating out
of control.
The first stage of conflict escalation develops when there is a disagreement
about some issue or frustration in a relationship. It is called tension. The
problem remains and leads to irritation. Interests and opinions crystallize into
standpoints, i.e. fixed positions about a certain issue. In the perception of the
conflict parties, these standpoints tend to become mutually incompatible. The
positions attract adherents, which means groups start to form around certain
standpoints, and for or against a certain standpoint. Interactions with the other
side are disappointing, and are perceived as a waste of time and energy. The
communication between the parties is still based on mutuality. In stage 2,
the debate, the discussions lead to verbal confrontations. The parties look for
more forceful ways of pushing through their standpoints and want to appear
successful, strong and skillful rather than compliant, insecure and incompetent.
Debates are no longer only focused on which standpoint has more merits, but
also on who is most successful in promoting the standpoints. The behavior
introduces mistrust in the relationship. Discussions turn into debates, where
inflexible standpoints collide with each other. The growing mistrust creates
a sense of insecurity and loss of control. At stage 3, actions not words, the
parties no longer believe that further talks will resolve anything, and they shift
their attention to actions. The most important goal at this stage is to block the
counterpart from reaching their goal, and to push through one’s own interests.
Actions and non-verbal communication dominate the course of events, which
tends to speed up the escalation process. Fantasies about possible motives
and hidden strategies can develop unchecked. The feeling of being blocked is
further increased by the limited possibility of genuine verbal communication.
23
Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und Mediation (12th ed.). Bern –
Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 243 ff; Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham:
Springer, pp. 7 f.
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 119
Stage 7 leads to limited destruction. Threats turn into real attacks and
the damage grows bigger. The parties are only able to reach lose-lose solutions,
because the goal is to hurt the opponent. There is no chance to communicate
anymore and no possibility to win the conflict. During stage 8, which is
called disintegration, the attacks intensify and have the aim to destroy the
counterpart. Only one’s own survival is important. This survival instinct
changes at stage 9. Together into the abyss is the central interest, because
there is no returning back to a normal respectful relationship. Instead of having
a conflict, the parties fight against each other like they are in war, without
scruples, remorse and ethics.
As long as the dispute is still on level 1 to 3 the parties can either solve their
conflict on their own or use moderation as an appropriate method. Conflicts in
phases 3 to 5 have the chance to be solved with the help of a process conciliator
(process or sociotherapeutic process consultation). A conflict that is in phases
5 to 7 can be dealt with mediation. If the conflict intensifies, the conflicting
parties increasingly lose the ability to settle the conflict without outside
intervention. At phase 6 of the escalation model, the parties are no longer able
to resolve the dispute without outside help. However, the neutral “mediator
role” without decision-making power is sufficient. From phase 6 onwards,
the conflicting parties should generally think about “delegating” the decision
to a third party. In phases 8 and 9 the dispute will have to be decided by the
ordinary courts or an arbitration tribunal. These disputes can also be dealt
with the decision of an intervening power. With regard to the choice of conflict
resolution options, preference should generally be given to those that aim at a
consensus. It is essential to note that the conflicting parties can be in different
phases. This means, it is possible that A is already thinking of filing a lawsuit
(phase 7), while B perceives the conflict as less escalating (phase 5).24
Alberstötter25 created a similar model, especially for conflicts between
parents, summing up the escalation process to 3 levels. During the first stage
24
Glasl, F. (1982). The process of conflict escalation and roles of third parties. Conflict Management and Industrial
Relations. Bomers, G., Peterson, R. (edt.). Dordrecht: Springer-Science + Business Media, pp. 132 ff; Glasl, F.
(2015). Selbsthilfe in Konflikten. Konzepte – Übungen – Praktische Methoden (7th ed.). Bern: Haupt Verlag,
pp. 137 ff.
25
Alberstötter, U. (2006). Wenn Eltern Krieg gegen einander führen. Eskalierte Elternkonflikte. Beratungsarbeit
im Interesse des Kindes bei hoch strittigen Scheidungen. Weber M., Schilling H. (edt.). Weinheim and Munich:
Juventa, p. 36
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 121
Conclusions
26
Schwarz, G. (2014). Konfliktmanagement. Konflikte erkennen, analysieren, lösen (9th ed.). Wiesbaden: Springer
pp. 39 ff.
27
See chapter 4
28
Love, L., & Stulberg, J. (2019). Using Mediation for Advantage. Negotiation Essentials for Lawyers. Kupfer
Schneider, A., Honeymann, Ch. (edt.). Chicago: American Bar Association, p. 299
122 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl
Introduction
123
124 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
For many years, the dominant approach to studying how people response to
conflict has been conflict styles approach, or “dual-concerns” model.7 This
approach defines that five styles responding to conflict (cooperative (also
problem solving, integrating), competitive (also dominating, contending,
confronting or forcing), avoiding, accommodating (also yielding or obliging)
and compromising) are based on two main dimensions: concern for one’s own
goals, and concern for the other person’s goals. Accommodating style reflects a
high concern for others with low concern for self, whereas competing styles can
be illustrated by a high concern for self with low concern for others; avoidance
means a low concern for both self and others, whereas collaboration style
reflects a high concern for both self and others.
People use different behaviors to manage various conflicts. Which style
is most effective in specific situation for particular participants? Specifically,
effectiveness can be defined in two approaches. Relational outcomes are
bound up in relationship quality (e.g., interpersonal trust in parties), value
of relationship, likelihood of future relationships. Substantive outcomes are
more based upon specific goals and acceptable solutions being reached or
not reached. Various factors of the conflict context have a big impact on the
selection and usage of conflict style. It can be listed: complexity of the conflict
7
Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (2010). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument, http://www.mrema.org/
wp-content/uploads/2018/05/THOMAS-KILMANN-CONFLICT-MODE-INSTRUMENT5.6.16.pdf
126 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
issue, time, which party are able to allocated for the resolution, importance
of conflict issue to parties involved, power of parties, their relationship value,
and resources, which are available for parties.8 Person will reach higher levels
of conflict management effectiveness if she/he is more aware of contextual
features and possess an ability to use diverse styles of conflict management. It
is proved, that using a diversity of conflict handling styles results in enhanced
conflict handling effectiveness only when both the contextual factors inherent
in conflict are considered and the individual differences profile necessary
to navigate conflict is possessed.9 This means that if person applies conflict
style frame dealing with conflict, conflict management process needs a good
preparation, gained knowledge and skills, which let a person to identify
important contextual factors and choose the most appropriate strategy for the
resolution of the conflict.
The results of many studies provide a strong support for a conceptual
fit between personality traits and conflict management styles, and more
specifically, establish agreeableness as a key predictor of various conflict
management styles.10 Even different facets of agreeableness can explain
significant variance in each of the five conflict management styles. For example,
low scores on straightforwardness, compliance and modesty predict dominant
style, implying that more Machiavellian or deceitful individuals preferred to
dominate those with whom they disagreed. Compliant individuals tend to be
obliging and sacrifice their needs for others, they also may be less trusting of
others and choose to be passive and to avoid conflict. Altruistic individuals
are most likely to be self-sacrificing and willing to compromise in finding
an integrative solution.11 Extraverts are more likely than introverts to use
integrating, obliging, compromising and avoiding styles. Emotional stability
predicts integrating style, while neuroticism predicts dominating style.12
Personality traits stay relatively stable across the lifespan. The personality
traits should, therefore, be understood and considered for conflict experience,
conflict management and performance. Every person should first know himself
and be aware that his /her personal traits may have influence on conflict
management strategy preferences and choices.
8
Rahim, M. A. (2002). Toward theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict
Management, 13, pp. 206–235
9
Lamia, J. F. (2011). A theory of conflict handling: integration of individual differences and contextual factors.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Saint Louis University, p. 52, UMI 3440158 Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Thesis database
10
Komarraju, M., Dollinger, S. J., & Lovell, J. (2012). Agreeableness and Conflict Management Styles: A Cross-
Validated Extension. Journal of Organizational Psychology, 12(1), pp. 19–31
11
Ibid.
12
Ayub, N., AlQurashi, S. M., Al-Yafi, W. A., & Jehn, K. (2017). Personality traits and conflict management styles in
predicting job performance and conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 28 (5), p. 685, https://
doi.org/10.1108/IJCMA-12-2016-0105
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 127
13
Ellis, A. C. (2010). Exploring the Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Styles.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, UMI 3434138 Copyright
2011 by ProQuest LLC
14
Baillien, E., Bollen, K., Euwema, M., & De Witte, H. (2013). Conflicts and conflict management styles as
precursors of workplace bullying: A two-wave longitudinal study. European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2012.752899
15
Rognes, J. K., & Schei, V. (2010). Understanding the integrative approach to conflict management. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 25 (1), pp. 82–97, DOI: 10.1108/02683941011013885
16
Lamia, J. F. (2011). A theory of conflict handling: integration of individual differences and contextual factors.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Saint Louis University, p. 44, UMI 3440158 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest
LLC
17
Ibid, p. 50
18
Ibid.
128 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
Every person enjoys a set of individual characteristics, which make him unique.
This diversity in society is a big value because it enables us to reach the synergy
effect by combining different traits in fulfilling certain tasks or finding solutions
for some problems. The scientific research literature describes different
19
Johnson, K. E., & Hall, A. (2018). Validity of self-reported conflict handling preferences and the role of
self-enhancement. International Journal of Conflict Management, 29 (4), pp. 43–563, DOI: org/10.1108/
IJCMA-03-2018-0039
20
Siew, N. M., & Jones, S. (2018). Training approaches for improving school managers’ conflict resolution skills:
A case study. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 76(5), pp. 720–735
21
Fisher, J., & Fisher-Yoshida, B. (2017). Educating Negotiators: Using Theory, Practice, Case Studies, and
Simulations in an Integrated Learning Experience. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 10 (4),
p. 298, DOI: 10.1111/ncmr.12104
22
Bubbers, T. A. (2015). Intensive conflict management training for managers in a health care facility. University
of Phoenix. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. ProQuest LLC (2016)
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 129
23
Oore, D. G., Leiter, M. P., & LeBlanc, D. E. (2015). Individual and organizational factors promoting successful
responses to workplace conflict. Canadian Psychology, 56(3), pp. 301–310, DOI: 10.1037/cap0000032
24
Coleman, P. T. (2018). Conflict Intelligence and Systemic Wisdom: Meta-Competences for Engaging Conflict in
a Complex, Dynamic World. Negotiation Journal, 34 (1), pp. 7–35, DOI :10.1111/nejo.12211
130 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
25
Coleman, P. T. (2018). Conflict Intelligence and Systemic Wisdom: Meta-Competences for Engaging Conflict in
a Complex, Dynamic World. Negotiation Journal, 34 (1), pp. 7–35, DOI :10.1111/nejo.12211
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 131
26
Yarn, D. H. (1999). Dictionary of Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers, p. 228
27
Mayer, B. (2012). The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and Intervention (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass, p. 22
28
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to Yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 24
132 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
29
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to Yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 24
30
Ibid., p. 25
31
Mayer, B. (2012). The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and Intervention (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass, p. 23
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 133
Conclusions
32
Mayer, B. (2015). The Conflict Paradox: Seven dilemmas at the core of disputes. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, p. 48
134 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė
135
136 Appendix
(1) You have gotten into a heated political debate with your friend. As you voice
your opinion, you feel that your friend is not open to what you have to say about
the subject because they continue repeating their same argument over and
Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 137
over. Alternatively, your friend feels that they are open to your opinion but they
have not been persuaded so their position has not changed:
• You continue to restate your beliefs until it seems like your friend is
beginning to yield to your opinions. You really want to persuade them
to adopt your viewpoint (force).
• You tell them you understand their position and suggest your opinions
really are not so different. You would rather not continue arguing
(avoid).
• You give up arguing and tell the other person you understand their
viewpoint. You may even decide to give up and simply agree with
them (yield).
• You emphasize that there is some common ground between the two
of you, and you point it out. You try to persuade the other person to
accept that you have some points you agree on and accept that there
are some points which you cannot agree on (compromise).
• You acknowledge that your friend’s opinions are legitimate, but you
tell them you would appreciate it if they would take some time to
think about and really consider your position. You tell them you will
also do the same (honestly consider their points) before you continue
your discussion (problem solve).
(2) Your parents feel they do not see you often enough so they have asked you
to visit this weekend. However, you are particularly busy this week and would
prefer to relax during the weekend rather than travel to visit your parents. Your
parents are upset because they are eager to see you, but you know you will be
exhausted and visiting them would require a lot of effort on your part:
• You tell them you would not be able to see them this weekend. You
want to relax and spend time doing your own thing (force).
• You decide to go see them. You do not want to hurt their feelings (yield).
• You avoid responding to your parents and set this issue aside. You
focus on your daily routine, and make a decision last minute (avoid).
• You tell them you would love to see them but suggest that next week
will be better, and you ask if this would work just as well. You know
you are going to need your down time this weekend (problem solve).
• You agree to visit them this weekend as long as they are aware of, and
considerate of, your desire to relax (compromise).
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 2
TIME
MANAGEMENT
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
Time Management 141
Introduction
Time management and efficient planning skills are aimed at (i) managing time
effectively so that the right time is allocated to the right activity; (ii) planning
you actions according to your own goals.
The development of specific skills on time management and efficient
planning has now consolidated its importance in the professional and
occupational context.
Like every other soft skill, the ability to manage time can be learned
and trained, until it becomes an automatic and consolidated habit. Time
management is not an emergency plan, to use only when you are falling behind
your work, but a long-term and sustainable lifestyle. For this purpose, and since
time management strongly depends on each individual’s personal approach
towards work and life, it is very to proceed with a preliminary subjective self-
assessment test.
Time management and efficient planning skills are in high demand across
all industries and jobs. Employers and recruiters are expecting strong capacities
in the management of the work from their employees or future colleagues.
They require the achievement of great results in less time: the ability to use
time makes the all the difference in the choice of a good employee or associate,
and in the success of your own business. Therefore, the ability to efficiently
use your time, avoiding at the same time stress, burnouts and a poor quality of
work, is critical.
The key idea is that the ability to plan and to manage time efficiently allows
us to work smarter than harder. A poor time management may result in: low
work quality, missing deadlines and appointments, poor professional reputation,
dealing only with urgencies, inability to learn new things and inability to pursue
long-term goals. On the “personal” side, this might lead to work and life imbalance
and, consequently, to dissatisfaction and possibly to burnouts.
Learning time management skills as a student allows to consolidate
effective capacities before accessing to the labor market, other than enhancing
academic results that increase their chances of better job-placement. Having
the possibility to acquire and learn those skills enable students to develop a
consolidated personalized method that can easily be applied in the future.
If universities are supposed to prepare people for their future professional
life, a teaching on time management and efficient planning should be considered
compulsory, since those abilities have evident effects on how jobs are and will
be performed, as well as they might contribute in attaining an acceptable work-
life balance.
Time Management 143
In the following sections we offer 4 exercises for individual work and 5 exercises
for the group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4). Exercises for group work are
marked with letters (A, B, C, D, E). Below you will find short explanation how to
use those exercises.
Exercise 1
Self-assessment of time management attitude
Short-range planning
1. Do you make a list of the Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things you have to do each 5 4 3 2 1
day?
2. Do you plan your day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
before you start it? 5 4 3 2 1
3. Do you make a schedule Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
of the activities you have to 5 4 3 2 1
do on work days?
4. Do you write a set of goals Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
for yourself for each day? 5 4 3 2 1
5. Do you spend time each Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
day planning? 5 4 3 2 1
6. Do you have a clear Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
idea of what you want to 5 4 3 2 1
accomplish during the next
week?
7. Do you set and honor Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
priorities? 5 4 3 2 1
Time attitudes
1. Do you often find yourself Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
doing things which interfere 1 2 3 4 5
with your schoolwork
simply because you hate to
say “No” to people?
Time Management 145
Exercise 2
Manage your distractions
Exercise 3
The art of setting priorities
Exercise 4
The urgent important matrix
Exercise A
Roles and responsibilities in a team
The goal of this exercise is to train the ability of the students: i) to identify
the personal characteristics and abilities of the members of a group, in order
to find the most useful ones to perform a particular assignment; ii) to split a
big task in small passages; iii) to valorize the capacities of each member of the
team; iv) to be aware of the positive outcomes that may derive from a correct
allocation of tasks.
1. This exercise is done in groups of 5–6 students.
2. The teacher’s task is to assign each group one of the given scenarios
(the same scenario can be assigned to more than one group if
necessary):
3. Each member of the group lists all the personal characteristics and
abilities that they think would be useful for the group in performing
the assignment.
4. The group works together on a list of tasks that will need to be done
148 Exercises
Exercise B
Planning and delegating
The following exercise is very useful for groups in order to learn the
importance of a good planning and of delegating, in order to achieve a task in
the shortest amount of time.
Exercise C
Fighting time-wasters
1. This exercise is done in groups of 5–6 students. Each group has a set
of blank cards or papers and a pen.
2. There should be ss many envelopes as there are groups.
3. On the back of every envelope, the teacher writes names of time-
wasters: e.g. Facebook/Instagram; unexpected visitor; excessive
meetings; e-mail overload; inability to say “no”; perfectionism; multi-
tasking; lack of motivation.
4. Each group receives one envelope to write on a blank card/paper all
the possible ways to overcome the time-waster that is written on the
envelope. Time for this task is 4 minutes,
5. After the 4 minutes are up, each group is asked to put the compiled
card/paper on the envelope and to pass their envelope to the next
group. In this way, each group shall have a different envelope at every
round.
6. It is recommended to perform this exercise for a few rounds. (if
possible, each group shall have the possibility to work on each time-
waster).
7. At the end of all rounds, students are invited to discuss the results
of the exercise and share their opinions. Each time-waster can be
examined together with the multiple ways participant found to
overcome it. Participants could also discuss about the best strategies
to fight each time-wasters.
Exercise D
The Parkinson’s law
The work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.
1. This exercise is done in groups.
2. The teacher gives the groups a task to do. It can be a simple task, like
organize a deck of cards in a specific way, or to arrange furniture, or
to color some papers.
3. Some of the teams receive a time limit (e.g. 10 minutes) to complete
the exercice. And other teams get a shorter time limit (e.g. 5 minutes).
The rest of the teams have no time limit.
150 Exercises
4. However, all teams are asked to finish their tasks as soon as they can.
5. Chances are that the teams with the shortest time limit will be finished
first, followed by the teams with the longer time limit. Those who had
open-ended time frames will take the longest.
6. Students learn about the Parkinson’s law and the practical ways to
incorporate it into real life.
Exercise E
Identification of priorities
These exercises will help you to improve your time management and
planning skills.
Exercise 1
Self-assessment of time management attitude
Introduction
The first step that is necessary in order to acquire new skills and integrate
them into our daily life is to know from which point we are starting.
The development of an effective individual time management plan is not
a contingency strategy, but rather requires time, and adjustment. This can only
be constructed over the self-assessment of our daily activity and habits.
Exercise
The following questionnaire will enable you to acquire knowledge about
the way time is managed in your life at the present moment. Please compile the
questionnaire and submit it to your teacher for the score calculation.
Short-Range Planning
1. Do you make a list of the Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things you have to do each ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
day?
2. Do you plan your day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
before you start it? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
152 Exercises
Exercise 2
Manage your distractions
Introduction
In most occasions, in particular where work is performed in groups,
the possibility to carry our activities is greatly influenced by the surrounding
environment. Colleagues and distractions (such as cell phone, social medial,
etc.) negatively affect your time management. Whereas some negative factors
can easily be controlled (even though not necessarily completely eliminated
as a moment of relax is not per se negative), a multitude of interruptions can
prejudice if not even nullify a well-constructed time-management plan, obliging
you to keep up with work or study at home, thus breaking the work-life balance
time management should contribute to preserve.
This exercise will make possible that your well-reasoned time mana-
gement plan is not negatively affected by outside elements and sources.
Exercise
Step 1
Analyse the environment you usually work in and count i) the number of
times that you check the phone (to check what time it is; to check social media
account, etc.); ii) the number of times you are interrupted by people (even if
they are just passing by and greeting);
154 Exercises
Step 2
How many minutes in average in 3 working hours did you lose due points
i) and ii) above?
Step 3
Try to identify “silence working areas” in libraries (or close the doors
in offices with “no disturb” signs) for 2 hours in the morning and identify one
hour for work in common spaces (or work in the office with open door). For the
same time, avoid using cell phones for non-professional purposes.
Evaluation
Check after two weeks if your perception of external distraction has
increased your capacity of time management.
Exercise 3
The art of setting priorities
Introduction
Most people think time management is about doing as more activities
as possible in the shortest amount of time. However, time management is an
instrument that allows us to achieve previously established goals according to
our desires and duties. In establishing goals (and the executive activities that
are necessary to achieve them), we set them in a hierarchical order on the basis
of priority.
As Stephen Covey wrote in The seven habits of highly effective people, “The
key is not to prioritize what’s on your schedule, but to schedule your priorities”.
We should rely to our priority hierarchy while deciding:
1. In which tasks to engage first;
2. The amount of time to dedicate to each task.
Time Management 155
Exercise
Step 1
Make a list of goals you want to achieve in the upcoming week or month
(the time span can be modulated according the course schedule).
Step 2
Examine the list and give a score to each goal:
1 = Extremely important
2 = Very important
3 = Somewhat important
4 = Less important
Step 3
Take into consideration each goal and split it in a list of activities which
are necessary in order to reach that goal. Activities should be as specific as
possible.
Subsequently, rank each activity (within a single goal), according to its
importance in achieving that goal:
a = extremely important
b = very important
c = somewhat important
d = unimportant
Step 4
Make a new list of goals, with the order that reflects the score given to
each goal (1 to 4). At the right side of each goal, the students shall put the list
of the activities assigned to each goal, with the order that reflects the ranking
given to each activity (a to c). Activities with ranking “d” should be left out.
Step 5
Fill in a weekly (or a monthly) calendar, in which to plan the activities
that you would like to perform each day (or each week) according to the fixed
set of priorities.
156 Exercises
Evaluation
At the end of the week (or month), make an assessment of:
• goals reached;
• activities effectively performed;
• amount of effort dedicated to the activities performed, compared
with the importance ranking given to each activity at the beginning
of the exercise.
Exercise 4
The urgent important matrix
Introduction
The urgent important matrix has been developed by Stephen Covey
following an inspirational quote of the former US president Eisenhower: “What
is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important”. It is an
important tool to move us towards our goals, because it enable us to manage
our time more effectively.
Using a simple grid, Covey helps us to define our tasks according to two
parameters:
1. Urgent tasks are the tasks that we are required to perform
immediately, or within a short time framework. We are usually obliged
to stop what we are doing to focus on the urgent task instead. Not
dealing with urgent tasks usually brings immediate consequences.
E.g.
2. Important tasks are the tasks that move us towards our bigger goals
and projects. Since those tasks are often not associated with a close
deadline, it is easier to procrastinate on them: we are more likely to
prioritize tasks with a deadline, even if other tasks may have major
payoffs in the long term.
Starting from this, The urgent important matrix consists in four quadrants
that classify your daily/weekly/monthly activities on the basis of the aforemen-
tioned parameters.
Time Management 157
Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2
Crises Preparation and planning
IMPORTANT
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
NOT
Interruptions Distractions
Exercise
Step 1
List all the activities that you must and want to perform in one day, one
week or one month. It is possible to use the list developed in the previous
exercise.
Step 2
At the beginning of the day/week/month, fill the four quadrants according
to the qualifications given in the introduction.
Step 3
Please keep in mind that it is not always possible to foreseen all the
activities that may fall in Quadrant 1 (Crises) and in Quadrant 3 (interruptions).
Therefore, you should regularly update the chart, signing up those activities
that come unexpectedly and can be classified into those quadrants.
Step 4
During the day/week/month, try to operate as much as possible in
Quadrant 2 (preparation and planning). You may prepare a daily/weekly/
monthly plan that fits with this objective.
Evaluation
• If you find Quadrant 1 filled with a lot of urgent and important
activities, are there some activities that you could have foreseen?
How those activities could have been scheduled in advance in order
to deal with them before they became urgent?
• Did you manage to spend as less time as possible in Quadrant 3 and
Quadrant 4?
• On average, do you think that you have spent enough time on Quadrant 2?
160 Exercises
EXERCISES FOR
STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli and Francesca Maoli
Exercise A
Roles and responsibilities in a team
Introduction
Each group, be it a company, an association of professionals, or a team of
any kind, has its own characteristics. Identifying those characteristics enables
the group to understand what to improve and what to valorize. This is also true
for time management and efficient planning.
A group is different from a mere gathering of people. In a group, two or
more people are connected by common characteristics or goals.
Knowing your team is the first step to determine the best use of time
and achieve an overall effective organization. A clear identification of roles and
responsibilities is a way to correctly balance the energies and strengths of a
team.
This exercise should highlight the importance to valorize the capacity of
each member of the team in order to better perform a task or reach a particular
goal. When each member is able to offer what he/she can do better, the overall
energy of the group will be spent more efficiently.
Time Management 161
Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people.
2. Each group is given one of the following scenarios:
Scenario 1
You are a study group. You have to perform a scientific experiment
that involves to plant five little jars of basil and to take care of the
plants until the gems come off the ground. This means providing the
necessary materials and to take care of the experiment in all the phases.
Meanwhile, it will also be necessary to conduct a scientific study on
the ways to plant, grow and harvest basil and on the properties of the
plant for health and nutrition purpose. The results of the research will
need to be written in a report of 20 pages.
Scenario 2
You are employed in a bank as a team of the HR office. You are presented
with 20 curriculums of candidates for a new position in the bank. You
have 2 weeks to make a first selection of CVs, to conduct all interviews
and to choose the ideal candidate.
Scenario 3
You are a team and you have to organize a half-day conference on “Time
management and efficient planning” in two months. This requires
choosing the topics of the presentations (how many presentations?),
invititing speakers, setting the location, setting the travel and accom-
modation arrangements for each speakers, advertising the event and
organizing the subscriptions for participants. A person in charge of
taking care of speakers during their stay in town will also be necessary.
Scenario 4
You are a team and you have to help a family of six people in need.
You need to raise some money through charity in order to buy food,
clothes, medicines, etc. Someone has to take care of the budget and
has to decide what to buy and when. You also need to establish who
will run the direct contact with the family (go visit, talk with them,
bring them necessary items).
3. After reading the assignment, each member of the team writes down all the
personal characteristics and abilities that they think would be useful for
their team in performing the assignment.
162 Exercises
4. Each team develops a list of tasks that needs to be done in order to perform
the assignment effectively and distributes the tasks among the members,
discussing the abilities/strengths that each of them has offered to contribute
in the assignment.
Exercise B
Planning and delegating
Introduction
The following exercise is very useful for groups in order to learn the
importance of a good planning and delegating, in order to achieve a task in the
shortest amount of time.
Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people.
2. Each group is given a deck of playing cards to shuffle them.
3. The teacher shows to all the groups a composition of six cards arranged in
a specific order.
4. Each group starts searching the same cards from their deck and in order to
arrange the cards in the same specific order that you have shown. The team
that completes the task in the shortest amount of time wins.
5. It is recommended to do more than one round.
Evaluation
• What was the strategy of your team to perform this exercise?
• Did you use planning and delegating in order to manage time
successfully?
Exercise C
Fighting time-wasters
Introduction
Time wasters are one of the most common reasons for not achieving goals
in a set amount of time. They can occur anytime during the day, interrupting
us from our main activity. There are many strategies to avoid time-wasters:
working in groups on this will enable participants to learn a high number of
ways to cope with time wasters in a short amount of time.
Time Management 163
Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people. Each group should have a set of
blank cards or papers and a pen.
2. Each group is given one envelope and 4 minutes to write on a blank card/
paper all the possible ways to overcome the time-waster that is written on
the envelope.
3. The compiled card/paper should be put in the envelope and passed to the
next group. In this way, each group shall have a different envelope at every
round.
4. If possible, each group shall have the possibility to work on each time-
waster.
Evaluation
• How do you overcome these time-wasters?
• What is your best strategies to fight each time-wasters?
Exercise D
Parkinson’s law
Introduction
This is the famous Parkinson’s law, coined by Cyril Northcote Parkinson in
1955, that explains the importance of deadlines and to give a pre-selected amount
of time of each activity we need/want to accomplish. If we set one hour to write
a paper, it will probably take us one hour to do the job. However, if you set four
hours, the very same task will probably take you four hours to be completed.
Procrastination is a key component in understanding Parkinson’s Law:
looming deadlines makes us hesitant to start a task, especially if it is adverse or
undesirable or unpleasant for us. As a consequence, if we set a certain period of
time to perform that task, it likely that we will use all the time available.
Exercise
1. Divide into small groups.
2. Each group receives a tast from the teacher.
3. Some teams are given a time limit, others work without a time limit.
However, all teams should finish their task as soon as they can.
Evaluation
Do you know any practical ways to incorporate the Parkinson’s law into
real life?
164 Exercises
Exercise E
Identification of priorities
Introduction
Our perception of an efficient use of time may be undermined by the
fact that we perform non-important tasks and we postpone important ones. In
establishing goals, it is very important to identify the executive activities that
are necessary to achieve them and to set them in a hierarchical order on the
basis of priority. We should rely to our priority hierarchy while deciding: a) in
which tasks to engage first; b) the amount of time to dedicate to each task.
The development of an effective planning finds its basis in the ability to set
into actions our pre-determined desires and goals. Once we have established
our direction, and we have identified our long-term and short-term goals, we
need to translate them into a well-defined set of actions.
Exercise
1. Divide into small groups no more than 4 students in one group.
2. Each group member writes on a piece of paper a personal goal for the future
and shows this goal to the other members of his/her group. The goal can
relate to work, study or any other area of life.
3. Each member of the group individually writes down actions/activities that
he or she considers necessary to reach that goal. Activities should be as
specific as possible.
4. After a couple of minutes, each group discusses together their lists of
activities. The person that has chosen the goal will notice if there are
differences between his/her list and the other member’s list.
5. After the first round, other rounds can be performed in which other members
of each group shares a personal goal and different ways of implementation
can be discussed.
Time Management 165
References
Schwartz, T., McCarthy, C. (2007). Manage your Energy, not Your Time, in
Harvard Business Review
Shin, K., Chung, Y. K., Kwon, Y.-J., Son, J.-S., Lee, S.-H. (2016). The Effect of Long
Working Hours on Cerebrovascular and Cardiovascular Disease; A Case-
Crossover Study, in American Journal of Industrial Medicine, pp. 753–761
Simons, D. J., Galotti, K. M. (1992). Everyday planning: an analysis of daily time
management, in Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, p. 61
Tracy, B. (2013). Time Management. American Management Association
Video
Earl Nightingale, The Strangest Secret. Available at https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=EFhkdzj-x80&t=254s
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 3
ABILITY TO
COOPERATE
IN A TEAM
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 171
Introduction
Soft skills are personality traits and interpersonal skills that characterise
an individual’s professional behaviour and how they relate to others. In the
workplace, soft skills are considered to complement “hard skills”, which
refer to an individual’s knowledge and concrete abilities. A well-functioning
team consists of several individuals whose motivations, interactions and
communication synergize to produce effective team results. Individual and
joint consciousness exercises contribute to the development of a strong team.
The relationships among the team members themselves are of great impor-
tance for the team’s functioning, both in the short and the long run. Well-
cared-for relationships within the team ensure the development of a sense
of well-being and safety. Via this process, (temporary) loss of team members
and, consequently, the team’s loss can be minimised as much as possible. The
exercises mentioned above are intended to enable team members to gain
experience with their self-consciousness.
The main goals when teaching students soft skills in teams include the following:
Exercise 1
Personal development plan
Exercise 2
Awareness of vitality
Exercise 3
Perception
Exercise 4
Self-reflection
This exercise does not require any background knowledge. The purpose
of this exercise is for the student to become aware that their own behaviours
and reactions determine how communication with other people proceeds.
The exercise is recommended to take approximately 15 minutes.
Exercise A
Values I
If the value on “10” feels more important than the value on “9”, these
should be exchanged.
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 175
Repeat this process for all 10 values until it feels correct for the person
whose values are on the floor. Students have now created a “top 10” list of their
values with the (current) most important values on top.
This exercise can take up to 40 minutes (20 minutes per person).
Exercise B
Values II
Exercise C
Compliments
Round I
One person sits in front of the group, and the others take turns giving
them a compliment. The recipient acknowledges the compliment with a “thank
176 Exercises
you” and says nothing else. Once everyone has had their turn, participants
should discuss their experience of the exercise.
Round II
One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns making
negative comments about them. The recipient is not allowed to say anything.
Both the group and the recipient should then discuss the following
questions:
1. How did this round differ from the round of compliments?
2. What is it that you see of feel?
Exercise D
Perception
Exercise E
Lie or actually the truth?
The purpose of this exercise is for students to get to know each other
better.
Each person writes down three sentences about themselves that are true
and one that is a lie. Each participant must read their statements in a random
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 177
order. Listeners discuss the stories and must evaluate which statements are
true and which one is made up.
Subsequently, students discuss questions that delve further into whether
or not they are honest about what they feel or say, such as whether they ever
tell white lie or exaggerate.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.
Exercise F
White board or flipchart back-to-back drawing
Exercise 1
Personal development plan
Congratulations! You have done your first step for achieving your goals and
developing your personality. If the goals are set, they are prioritised, deadlines
are fixed, you have analysed threats and opportunities then everything is set.
Now just keep going and monitor your progress. Do not forget about learning,
increasing your skills and knowledge on the way of implementation of your pan!
Exercise 2
Awareness of vitality
To work on your vitality now and in the future, please answer the following
questions:
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 179
1. What is the most crucial motive for you to work on your vitality?
2. What kind of vital student do you want to be?
3. What is your ultimate goal for your vitality?
4. What are your expectations about your vitality?
5. What challenges do you encounter when developing your vitality?
6. Which behavioral pattern do you recognize in yourself that you would
like to develop further?
Vitality means the state of being strong and active, having energy. If you
do not follow your vitality you might experience burnout, structural stress,
sleep problems and poor health (such as obesity or diabetes). Question of this
exercise will help you to formulate your vitality formula and help yourself to
find your balance.
Exercise 3
Preception exercise
This exercise will help you to analyse your perception and feelings.
Note and write down:
Exercise 4
Self-reflection feedback questions
In this exercise, you will reflect on how you deal with giving and receiving
feedback.
* Below you will find a number of questions about dealing with feedback that you
answer by underlining one of the three words.
Question 1: What do you do when someone else tells you something you
do not understand?
• I frown [sometimes / often / never *]
• I ask for clarification [sometimes / often / never *]
• I am annoyed because the other person is so unclear [sometimes /
often / never *]
• I tell the other person that they are unclear [sometimes / often /
never *]
• I stop listening to the other person [sometimes / often / never *]
Question 3: You are in a working group together with three other people.
You think one participant talks too much.
• What do you do in such a situation?
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 181
EXERCISES FOR
STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Gea van Klompenburg, Marjon Kuipers and Jan van Zwieten
Exercise A
Questioning values I
5. Repeat this process for all 10 values until it feels correct for the person
whose values are on the floor. You now have created a “top 10” list of
your values with the (current) most important values on top.
Exercise B
Questioning values II
With this exercise students will challenge each other to think more about
their values, what those values really mean and why they are important to them.
Exercise C
Compliments
Round I
• One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns giving
them a compliment.
• The recipient acknowledges the compliment with a “thank you” and
says nothing else.
• Once everyone has had their turn, they should discuss their experiences
of this exercise.
184 Exercises
Round II
• Can you handle hearing negative sentiments about your personality
as well? You will most certainly feel that they affect you in one way or
another.
• One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns making
negative comments about that person. The recipient is not allowed to
say anything.
• Note for the group: pay attention to any non-verbal signals coming
from the recipient.
• How did this differ from the round of compliments? What is it that
you see? Solicit responses from both the group and the recipient.
• Finish with a round of compliments!
Exercise D
Perception II
1. Write down for yourself what you have seen, heard and felt. You can
use worksheet from Collection of exercises for individual work –
Exercise 3.
2. Then, discuss it with your team members and answer the following
questions:
• What differences exist in terms of perception?
• Do you see that which is very close to you or further away, and
do you see details or broad outlines?
• Do you hear the sounds close by, or do you hear the sounds
further away better?
• What sounds did you filter out when your colleague mentioned
them first?
• And regarding feeling, how do you differ in experiencing heat
or cold?
• Do you feel sensations internally, such as unrest or peace, or
feel only that which is external, such as the chair you are sitting
on or the shoes on your feet?
3. Discuss the differences with each other and see where adjustments
are needed or where you can support each other.
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 185
Exercise E
Lie or actually the truth?
1. Each team member receives four pieces of paper to write down three
truths and one lie about themselves. The lie must be to some extent
believable (so avoid sentences like “I drank a bottle of vodka with the
Pope”).
2. Each participant reads their statements in a random order. The rest
of the participants discuss the stories and decide which story is true
and which is made up.
Exercise F
White board or flipchart back-to-back drawing
This exercise entails breaching students’ comfort zone and daring to let
go of others’ opinions of their actions.
1. The team will be divided into two or three groups.
2. Two individuals will walk up to the whiteboard or flipchart while the other
team members stand opposite of them on the other side of the room. One
person is blindfolded, who will be the one to draw. The person without a
blindfold will be shown a drawing by the people on the other side of the
room. This person must give directions to the blindfolded person with
the goal of recreating the aforementioned drawing. However, no one is
allowed to say the name of what the drawing depicts.
3. The objective of this exercise is for people to work together in a team.
They are to provide hints such as “move up now” or “a little bit to the
right”.
186 Exercises
This exercise will help to the team to understand how they are functioning
and how well they can cooperate. There should be trust, clear and well defined
communication in order to complete this task.
Ability to Cooperate in a Team 187
References
SETTING
THE GOALS
BY MEANS
OF COACHING
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's
Individual Work
Exercises for Student's
Group Work
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 191
Introduction
The definition of coaching is helping persons to make changes in their life and
to go in a direction they want to go. Everyone wants to be happy and more
satisfied with their life but many don’t know how, therefore coaching helps to
become more self-aware, empowers choices and leads to change. It unlocks a
person’s potential to maximise his or her performance.
Traditionally, coaching has been associated with sports. Nowadays, it is
quite common to see coaching as a helping set of tools in order to achieve goals
in life and work. Coaching links the world of dreaming with the reality.
Exercise 1
Life balance wheel
Exercise 2
Setting the right goals
Exercise A
Drama triangle
Students are divided into groups of 4–6 persons per group. The distribution
is better to be done randomly and students who are not very close to each other,
get a chance to work together in one team. An example of how to team students
up can be to find something common in their appearance (colour of their clothing,
glasses or those who wear blazers, birthday months, preferred outdoor activities,
etc.). Students who match, start building a team for this exercise.
The exercise includes two dialogues between two different family
members. After students have read both dialogues, they are asked to discuss in
the groups: Who from the fictional characters is right and who is wrong?
The next task is to distribute the roles of: V = victim; R = rescuer and P =
persecutor for each speaker. Note, one speaker can keep switching roles during
the conversation. The example of how the exercise should be done is shown in
the first 3 lines of the dialogue A.
When the task is complete, students are required to discus in groups a
question of ‘who is a missing person in the given situations?’ (the answer is ‘an
adult’ or ‘a responsible person’).
The conclusion provides an answer to the question and students can
compare it to their answers.
Exercise B
Powerful questions
These exercises will help you to become more self-aware and get them a
long-term development vision.
Exercise 1
Life balance wheel
Introduction
The “Life balance wheel” or the “Wheel of life” is a visual tool used in
coaching to help people quickly understand how balanced and fulfilled their
life is at the moment.
The concept was originally created by Paul J. Meyer, founder of Success
Motivation Institute, Inc. In 1960. Today different variations of the wheel are
used in coaching for personal development reasons.
Life balance wheel usually consists of eight areas considered as important
to have a balanced and happy life. A coachee rates their level of satisfaction and
fulfilment with every area, then map this onto an image of a wheel. The exercise
gives an immediate summary of the current “life balance”.
6. Business and career. The job you do for living. It can be: self-employ-
ment, work, motherhood or volunteering;
7. Finance: Your financial security, dependency on loans and debts
(including cars, student loans, and mortgage);
8. Romance: This category includes your ‘dating’ situation, whether you
have found a partner for life or still in process.
Exercise
Below you can see an empty wheel, looking like eight pieces of a pie or
a bicycle wheel, which you should fill in with your current level of satisfaction
and fulfilment in life. The entire circle represents your overall life and you can
not know the exact numbers, so, do it according to your feelings.
Each of the categories can be assigned a value of 1 (very dissatisfied) to
10 (very satisfied). The value of 1 is closest to the centre of the wheel and the
value 10 is at the edge.
Before doing this exercise, try to clear your mind and remember there is
no right answer just be honest with yourself, that is the key.
Step 1
Please have a look at the Wheel (see figure 1).
• Which category would you like to start from?
After choosing one, go clockwise to the rest of the areas of the Life balance
wheel.
Step 2
• How much are you satisfied with this category (the answer from the
Step 1) from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied)?
Starting from the center of the wheel, colour the slice according to your
answer (see figure 1). Below you can see an example how it should look like
(see figure 2).
The example above shows the satisfaction rates with two categories:
‘Personal growth’ (the rate is 6) and ‘Business & career’ (the rate is 8).
Step 3
Evaluate all eight areas of your Life balance wheel.
When it is done, answer the following questions:
• How well-balanced is your wheel?
• As a bicycle wheel, is it possible to ride?
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 199
Step 4
If you completed your Life balance wheel and do not feel satisfied with
the results, let’s try to find out how it can be improved.
• In your opinion, which areas of the wheel impact others?
• What depends on what?
Step 5
When the connections are done, answer the following questions:
• In which area do you want to make the difference first?
• How much from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied) do you
want to be satisfied with it?
• What can you do to make the growth happen?
(write down 5–8 options)
200 Exercises
Step 6
Now when having several options,
• What will be your first step already today?
• How will you motivate yourself in reaching your goal?
Step 7
Think of a reminder for yourself. It can be something materialistic,
such as: a bracelet, a key chain, a pen, a notebook and etc. Put some time and
effort in order to find the right reminder for yourself. Have this item with you
everywhere, it will remind you of your main goal which have to accomplished
in the nearest future. Good luck!
Exercise 2
Setting the right goals
Introduction
All successful people set goals. Goals are dreams with legs, they are going
somewhere. Coaching inspires and supports in achieving goals.
Examples of HUGGs:
• become a published author;
• become a millionaire;
• establish your own successful company.
Exercise
Set between 2–4 long-term HUGGs for your life. Use your Life Balance
Wheel to help setting these goals. As these goals are in the far future, they may
not be very specific but positive and in very simple language.
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 201
Goal 1
Goal 2
Goal 3
Goal 4
Goal 4. Health
Goal 7. Finance
Goal 8. Romance
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 203
What are the immediate steps you need to take now in order to
achieve your goals in the nearest future?
Save your goals and read them through as a reminder of your BIG DREAMS!
204 Exercises
These exercises will help you to become more responsible and to unlock
your potential in professional, academic and personal life.
Exercise A
The drama triangle
Introduction
Many of us at times act like we are being victims in our lives. Every time
when we refuse to take responsibility for ourselves, we are unconsciously
choosing to act like victims.
The drama triangle is a dynamic model of social interaction and conflict
developed by Stephen B. Karpman. He specifies that “victim, rescuer and
persecutor” refer to roles people unconsciously play, or try to manipulate
others to play, and not the real circumstances in life, such as victims of crime
or abuse, etc.
The three roles of the drama triangle are typical and easily recognizable
in their extreme versions.
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 205
Exercise
1. Divide into groups of 4–6 students and read the following two fictional
stories. After reading these A and B stories below
2. Discuss in the groups who from these 4 fictional characters is right and who
is wrong?
3. Distribute roles of: V = victim; R = rescuer and P = persecutor for each
speaker. Note, one speaker can keep switching roles during the conversation.
Story A
The first situation is happening between Richard and Ann, a married
couple with children.
Richard: You burned dinner again! That’s not the first time this month, Ann!
Ann: Well, little Johnny fell and skinned his elbow, poor thing. I was busy getting
him a bandage and the dinner accidentally burnt.
Richard: You baby that kid too much!
Ann: I do not think you would want him to get an infection. I’d end up taking
care of him while he’s sick.
Richard: He’s big enough to be able to get his own bandage.
Ann: I just didn’t want leave our son bleeding all over the carpet.
206 Exercises
Richard: You know, that’s the problem with these kids? They expect you to do
everything for them
Ann: That’s natural, they are just children.
Richard: I work like a dog all day at a job I hate…
Ann: Yes, you do work very hard, dear.
Richard: And I can’t even have a good dinner home!
Ann: I can cook something else, it won’t take too long.
Richard: A waste of an expensive steak!
Ann: Well maybe if you could have stood up out of your chair for a minute while
I was busy, it wouldn’t have gotten burned!
Richard: You didn’t say anything! How was I supposed to know?
Ann: As if you couldn’t hear Johnny crying? You always ignore the kids!
Richard: I do not. I just need time to sit and relax and unwind after working all
day! You don’t know what it’s like…
Ann: Sure, as if taking care of the house and kids isn’t work!
Story B
The second fictional argument is happening between David and Kathy, a
young couple.
David: Kathy, why are you late again? I am sick of it, you are always late!
Kathy: I’m sorry, I just did not hear my alarm ringing. Please don’t be mad at me.
David: Well, you have absolutely no respect for my time. I’ve no idea why I still
put up with you!
Kathy: But you are not perfect yourself. Stop yelling at me otherwise you will
regret it!
David: OK, OK. Calm down. I didn’t mean to upset you.
Kathy: Well you never help me with my lateness so what do you expect?
David: OK, so from now on I will make sure you get out of the house on time.
After compiling the exercise, discus in the groups: who could be a missing
person in the given situations?
Conclusion
‘The only way to “escape” the drama triangle is to function as an “adult”
and not participate in the game.’ – John Goulet, MFT, Breaking the drama triangle
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 207
Each role of the drama triangle has its own outcomes. Rescuers take care
of Victims and feel good about it. Victims are usually convinced that they are
powerless or defective and needing rescue. This way have someone to blame for
their failures and to solve their problems for them. In of these circumstances,
Persecutors get a feeling of being more powerful and ‘higher’ than both victim
and rescuer.
The biggest cost of this ‘role-play’ is to keep going a dysfunctional social
dynamic and to miss out on the possibilities of healthy and strong relationships.
In fact, if every participant of the drama triangle starts making decisions
for themselves and taking responsibility for their own life, the triangle will no
longer ‘poison’ the interpersonal relationship.
Exercise B
Powerful Questions
Introduction
Most people think of coaching as giving advice and instructions. In reality,
coaching is an art of questioning. Good coaching questions are often complex
but powerful and there is more than one right answer. Powerful coaching
questions help a coachee to think and uncover what’s really important for them.
This exercise helps to learn the importance of asking the ‘right’ questions
in order to get a powerful answer.
Exercise
1. Divide into groups of 4–6 students.
2. Choose 1 person among your group, who will play a role of the “Client”.
The “Client” formulates and anounes his/her long-term goal for the nearest
future. For instance “I want to write and publish a novel”.
3. The rest of the group members perform a team coaching by asking the
“Client” one question at a time.
4. The Client gives one answer to each question.
5. There should be 2 or 3 rounds, so every coach has a chance to ask 2–3
questions.
6. After each question asked, every group member rates the quality question in
their evaluation sheet (see attachment 1), where 1 is the lowest (the weakest
question) and 10 is the highest (the strongest question).
7. Everyone should write the questions down in order to give a constructive
feedback when the exercise is done.
208 Exercises
Examples
Weak questions Powerful questions
What should you do? What do you want?
Whose fault is this? What is the solution?
Why is this happening to you? What can you learn from this?
Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 209
Attachment 1
The evaluation sheet
The client’s request (shortly formulated):
Question (Q) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q1:
Coach 1
Q2:
Q3:
Q1:
Coach 2
Q2:
Q3:
Q1:
Coach 3
Q2:
Q3:
Q1:
Coach 4
Q2:
Q3:
Q1:
Coach 5
Q2:
Q3:
210
References
Bitner, T., Clark, M. Your Wheel of Life – Balanced or Bumpy? Available online:
https://www.icfaustin.org/Resources/Documents/Wheel%20of%20Life%20
Article%20for%20Coaches%20Week.pdf
Forrest, L. (2008). The Three Faces of Victim – An Overview of the Victim
Triangle. Available online: https://www.lynneforrest.com/articles/2008/06/
the-faces-of-victim/
Gallwey, W. Timothy (1997). The Inner Game of Tennis: The Classic Guide to the
Mental Side of Peak
Goule, J. Breaking the Drama Triangle (MFT). Available online: http://www.
johngouletmft.com/Breaking_The_Drama_Triangle_Newest.pdf
International Coach Federation (2009). ICF Global Coaching Client
Study: Executive Summary. Lexington, KY: Association Resource Centre,
PricewaterhouseCoopers
Life Coach Hub (2016). Is life coaching worth the time and money? Available
online: https://www.lifecoachhub.com/beginners-guide-to-life-coaching/
is-life-coaching-worth-the-time-and-money
O’Connor, J., Lages, A. (Paperback, 2004). Coaching With NLP: How To Be A
Master Coach
Soler, S. (2014). Coaching 101: Ask Powerful Questions. Available online:
https://medium.com/@StephanieLSoler/to-be-a-great-coach-ask-powerful-
questions-d6b18614fffb
Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for Performance: GROWing People, Performance
and Purpose
Wilber, K., Patten, T., Leonard, A. (Paperback, 2008). Integral Life Practice: A
21st-Century Blueprint for Physical Health, Emotional Balance, Mental Clarity,
and Spiritual Awakening
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 5
MULTICULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
Multicultural Communication 215
Introduction
The ICC does not require simply learning about each and every culture
in the world. Moreover, it cannot be measured by the number of cultures one
learnt about. Simply put, when Leslie has studied 7 cultures, it does not mean
they are have higher cross cultural competency than Alex who has learnt 3.
The ICC is adequate when cultural differences between interacting
people do not hinder the outcome of the communication process. In other
words, when you understand and are understood to the same extend by people
of ‘your culture’ as you are understood by representatives of the ‘other culture’.
Multicultural Communication 217
The main goals of the following materials are to help learners understand:
• basic concepts e.g.: communication, culture, biases, preferences as per
communication styles, multicultural influence on communication;
• factors playing important roles in the way one communicates;
• role of importance of effective communication;
• role of culture in communication.
In order for learners to be able to:
• observe and analyze their personal and other people communication
styles;
• recognize differences in communication;
• discuss differences in communication;
• overcome obstacles in communication;
• adjust communication style and methods to maximize communication
effectiveness.
Teacher DO’s
One important perspective in teaching multicultural communication
skills is to emphasize the importance of learner’s individual efforts put into an
intercultural conversation or other interaction – in other words, one needs to
take the burden of communication on their shoulders. With that perspective,
their self-knowledge (knowing and managing oneself in a multicultural
scenario) is crucial. As well as the ability to identify which communication
happens in a multicultural context – in order for learners to be able to entail
appropriate measures and use proper communication methods. Hence, there
are two main concepts: that should be taught and explained CULTURE and
COMMUNICATION.
218 Exercises
Teacher DON’Ts
However, it is extremely crucial to avoid some counter-productive
attitudes in teaching about multicultural communication such as:
1. be careful to not reinforce stereotypes,
2. do not equate:
• a country with a culture;
• a citizen of a country with an ideal representative of a particular
‘culture of a country ’;
• a person with a stereotype;
3. do not generalize and regionalize – as in an era of communication
geographical boundaries are becoming less solid.
Exercise 1
How many cultures?
Exercise 2
What is your personal communication style?
influences HOW one speaks, not WHAT one says. Hence, differences
in communication styles can have an impact on whether the intent
of our message and the impact it has on the receiver of that message.
Differences in communication styles may in some cases hinder
communication and lead to misunderstandings.
• There is no one right or universal communication style, as each of them
have their strengths and possible challenges. Ask your students to
give some examples. Communication styles can be used as a profiling
and analysing tool in a multicultural communication situation.
• It is crucial to remember that, each of the above-mentioned pairs is
independent from other pairs. In other words ‘the left column’ does
not always go together as well ‘the right column’ does not always go
together either. Therefore, an individual always needs to stay alert to
the other person’s styles, rather than assume formal=indirect, etc.
• Communication styles are not separate boxes – rather a continuum, a
scale. While every individual uses multiple styles, they also move on
the spectrum (more towards right or left as per the graph presented
in the Worksheet) dependent on the person they communicate with
(e.g. in a conversation with a principal a student is more indirect,
whereas at home while conversing with their siblings they may be
more direct).
• Use of multiple styles is common, even though, individuals tend to
have personal preference, some kind of a default mode they lean
towards while under pressure.
Exercise 3
E-mail time
This exercise explores the impact of style and the need for adjustment of
communication tools used in each individual communication situation in order
to understand and be understood by the other person.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.
For the purposes of this exercise student must finish Exercise 2.Ask your
students to list on Worksheet 3 which of the styles in all of the indicated six
categories is their prevailing (automatically assumed) one. Next, ask them to
list the opposite styles. The task is to write an e-mail according to instruction
included in the Exercise 3 worksheet.
Multicultural Communication 221
Exercise A
Tell me… What do you think?
Exercise B
How I see you
Discuss with the group (while staying cautions to not allow pointing
fingers or putting anyone on the spotlight – rather facilitate the discussion in a
non-accusatory direction):
• What is the chosen communication style of the volunteer as per their
continuum worksheet?
• Are the other students surprised of her/his responses?
• How different is the volunteer worksheet to how he/she was described
by the other students?
Exercise C
Cross-cultural sensitivity as a goal?
These individual exercises were designed for the purpose to help students
develop knowledge and skills to communicate cross-culturally in a more effective
way.
Exercise 1
How many cultures?
Worksheet
Exercise
I Please come up with up with and list five things that, to you represent
a culture of a person from a different culture than yours:
A. _____________________________________________________________________________________
B. _____________________________________________________________________________________
C. _____________________________________________________________________________________
D. _____________________________________________________________________________________
E. _____________________________________________________________________________________
II Now, please come up with and list five things that, to you, represent
your own culture.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
226 Exercises
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________________________
III Next, come up with and list five more things that, to you, represent your
culture. However, no outsider should be able to easily learn about/
guess those.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Which of the indicated elements – above or below the water – you chose to
describe another culture?
Multicultural Communication 227
Having seen the Culture as an iceberg graphic, it often times transpires that
we tend to go more in-depth when describing our own culture – as we know it
best. At the same time it is more difficult to touch the core of another cultures.
We are not born with any culture, we rather grow into many cultures and they
have profound influence on our behaviour and the way we communicate. Be
sure to try to understand the other culture to it’s core, just like you see your
own one, as deep understanding helps to have a more effective communication
process.
Don’t forget that:
• There are more cultures than nationalities
• The term ‘culture’ includes not only culture related to nationality,
race, ethnicity, but e.g. beliefs, experiences and ways of being in
the world shared by people with common characteristics – people
with disabilities, people who are members of faith and spiritual
communities, people of various socio-economic status etc.
• There are more cultural differences ‘near you’ and you interact cross-
culturally more often than you think!
228 Exercises
Beware of:
• The assumptions that you hold about people of cultures different
from your own. The same geos to stereotypes. Did you refer to any
stereotypes in describing the other culture? Are you aware of your
stereotypes as they arise?
• Ambiguity and assessment of the limits of our knowledge. Do you
recognize that your knowledge of certain cultural groups is limited?
How much are you committed to create opportunities to learn more?
V BONUS task!
Make an effort to get to know better someone representing a culture
different than yours. Choose to learn more about their culture. Pick three
elements from “under-water” culture iceberg which you would like to inquire
about and note down what you learnt.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2
What is your personal communication style?
Exercise
There are multiple communication styles. Some possible style-pairs are
listed below. It is important to note, that there are no two separate boxes for
each communication style pair.
It is rather a spectrum – a continuum. Please, mark on the graph in each
of the six pairs as you feel is your communication style. There is one important
rule – no mark can be put in the middle!
Multicultural Communication 229
Before filling in this graphs, you can take a look at the definitions of each
communication style:
DIRECT INDIRECT
A straightforward way of expressing Meaning is conveyed in a subtle way using
thoughts and feelings; non-verbal cues, parables and stories;
Directness is equated with honesty and High respect for other person’s emotions and
respect for the other person and their time; feelings;
Do not create ambiguity or uncertainty Indirectness is equated with politeness and
by avoiding discussion on the issue (even respect for the other person;
trivial ones) – state specifics; Do not put the other person on a spot by
Values time, so every communication is being blatantly direct. Citing a mistake or
simple and clear to be quick. voicing disapproval is deemed impolite, subtle
implication allows for ‘face-saving’.
230 Exercises
FORMAL INFORMAL
Status of each person is important and Communication is less limited by conventions,
acknowledged (age, topics, rituals), a person has more flexibility in what, to whom
Strict communication rules apply. They and under what circumstances they say (e.g.
regard i.a.: forms of address, ways to the use of first name is welcome);
address persons of different age and status, Indirectness supports the value of fairness and
topics that can and cannot be discussed; equity;
Formal communication supports the values Communication has few rules – find out what
of status and hierarchy; is allowable in that particular group and follow
Communication is highly ritualized. the conventions.
DETTACHED ATTACHED
Unemotional, calm, objective, impersonal Emotional, expressive way of speaking;
communication; Strong feelings are shown and vocalized;
Dispassionate statements are considered Issues are discussed with passion and
professional and equated with objectivism, commitment,
which is valued; Ideas, issues and a person are not separate;
Focus is on objective information/data; There is strong personal stake in the outcome –
Disagreement is with the idea, not the if one cares about the idea, they show it;
person – it is not seen as personal attack; Sharing ones values and feelings about the
Highly expressive communication is issue is highly valued.
inappropriate as it is deemed biased.
LOW-CONTEXT HIGH-CONTEXT
The communication context is not assumed The context of communication is assumed to
to be shared and known; be known;
Things and meanings are explained clearly It is unnecessary or event insulting to
and precisely. overexplain and state meaning precisely, as
meaning is understood from context.
TASK FOCUSED RELATIONSHIP FOCUSED
Accomplishing the goals is a priority; Group harmony, relations are priority;
Feelings of other people are secondary; The need to make everyone feel heard;
Little or no small-talk; Any concern for the task, does not hurt or
If there is disagreement or discontent with exploit someone, their feelings and well-being;
the work of other people, it is polite and Frequent appraisals to participants for their
expected to be discussed publicly. good work;
No individual criticism on a forum.
LINEAR CIRCULAR
Communication is like a straight line – Communication takes circular manner –
moving in a linear way toward the main ‘around the main point’;
point; It is not necessary to state main point clearly,
‘The point’ is stated as quick as possible; as verbal and non-verbal messages provides
Brief and explicit communication, for sufficient understanding;
Lengthy deviations from the main point are Elegant and flowing communication full of
considered time wasters. stories and anecdotes where stories make a
point;
Meaning is inferred from stories and parables;
Supports the values of relationships, history
and group meaning.
Multicultural Communication 231
Style: ____________________________________________________________________________
Challenge: ____________________________________________________________________________
Solution: ____________________________________________________________________________
Style: ____________________________________________________________________________
Challenge: ____________________________________________________________________________
Solution: ____________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 3
E-mail time!
This exercise explores the impact of style and the need for adjustment of
communication tools used in each individual communication situation in order
to understand and be understood by the other person.
Exercise
For the purposes of this exercise use your completed Exercise 2. Also, feel
free to refer to Communication Styles definition list.
Using the Exercise 2 graph, in each of the six categories, please highlight
your own prevailing (automatically assumed) style in each of the six categories:
1. Direct Indirect
2. Formal Informal
3. Detached Attached
4. Low context High context
5. Task focused Relationship focused
6. Linear Circular
A. _____________________ B. _____________________
C. _____________________ D. _____________________
E. _____________________ F. _____________________
Your task
Imagine you are a representative of a team working with a group of
internationals and your task is to write an email to Jesse – the representative
of the other group with an invitation to a work meeting at your headquarters.
Multicultural Communication 233
Three adjustments:
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
These group exercises were developed for the purpose to help students
develop knowledge and skills to communicate cross-culturally in a more
effective way.
Exercise A
Tell me… what do you think?
Exercise
Below you will find two scenarios. Both of them describe situations with
culture-based elements. The whole group should pick just one for your further
work. Each group member is asked to read it.
Scenario I
In your country, there is a pending proceeding to deprive the mother of
parental rights arose from following circumstances. Monika is a single mum
who moved to your country quite recently from X (X is a name of the country).
One day Monika came back home after work at 22.30 and sit to dinner with
her 12-year-old beloved Sara. Only 30 mins after finishing the dinner Sara’s
stomach started to ache. Since it did not stop after a painkiller, Monika rushed to
a hospital and described the situation to doctors. As it turned out, there was no
reason to worry. At least this time. The doctors, however, got very upset about
the fact that Sara was alone at home for two hours before Monika’s arrival, did
Multicultural Communication 235
not sleep till 23.00 and, last by not least, that food prepared by Monika was not
appropriate for kids her age at all!
Monika was shocked! Sara has stayed alone at home since she was 10, as
did Monika, all her colleagues, family and friends from X. Moreover, the meal
which she prepared for Sara was Monika’s favourite when she was her age. Of
course it is quite heavy and definitely not healthy – but it is what everyone eats
from time to time…. Isn’t it?
Scenario II
Tom is 17 years old citizen of your country, of Z’s origin. His parents
are very conservative and religious. According to both: their parents’ religion
and traditions of Z, gender is not fluid and there is no such thing as changing
the sex. ‘You are who you were born as – biologically of course!’ – they say. As
indicated in a custom, every kid in Z upon birth gets a tattoos depending on the
gender (sun – a boy and moon – a girl). Tom was born as Ola, and this is how his
parents address him. As Tom identifies as a boy and indicates that he will fully
transition the day he is an adult (in 6 months according to your country’s law),
he wants to have his tat changed. Parents do not consent and no tat’s artist
agrees to do it without the parents’ consent.
Your task
1. Each group member has 5–10 minutes to write their individual, personal
response and opinion on the matter. Your statement has to be written in full
sentences. Please, note it down and keep it for next steps of this exercise.
2. Next, divide in groups of 3–4 and exchange your opinions (read out loud
your individual responses as written above). The group task is to decide upon a
GROUP RESPONSE. There are a couple of rules you need to follow while coming
up with the said response:
• one group needs to prepare just ONE response that all group members
agree on or say they could not consent on the matter;
• the response should be written in full sentences and carefully examined
by all group members to ensure they all agree with the response fully;
• the group response cannot be a copy of any individual member response.
236 Exercises
3. One representative of each group reads out the statement mutually agreed
by their groups. Follow with group discussion.
4. Now, half of your group will have the task to write an ethnocentric response to
the scenario you chose and the other half to write a culturally relative response
to the same story. How these two responses differ?
6. Discuss with the group what are the risks and positives of each of the two
attitudes.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM ETHNOCENTRISM
Exercise B
How I see you
Exercise
1. Ask one of the group members to volunteer to share their continuum
with the group. Remember, a volunteer should be a person who will feel
comfortable with sharing their continuum graph with the group. When
one of the group members volunteered ask them to keep their graph to
themselves.
2. The group task is for everyone fill in the communication styles worksheet
for the volunteer – how each of the group members sees the volunteer in
each of the six indicated communication style pairs? (For that purpose, you
can use again the worksheet as provided on the next page). Remember, do
not confer with one another yet!
3. Only after everyone has filled in their Communication style of the Volunteer
worksheet (see below), ask the volunteer to show the group her/his
personal communication styles graph and next explore:
• What is the chosen communication style of the volunteer as per
their continuum worksheet?
• Are the other students surprised of her/his responses?
238 Exercises
communicate with may see us, as they will use their own communication
style as a reference point. It is important to always stay conscious and
adapt, if needed, for the sake of the effectiveness of communication.
• Communication style influences HOW one speaks, not WHAT one
says. Hence, differences in communication styles can have an impact
on whether the intent of our message and the impact it has on the
receiver of that message. Differences in communication styles may
in some cases hinder communication and lead to misunderstandings.
• There is no one right or universal communication style – as each of
them have their strengths and possible challenges. True or false?
• Reflect on the importance and impact of differences in communication
styles on individuals and on teams.
Exercise C
Cross-cultural sensitivity as a goal?
Exercise
1. Present and discuss with the group the model on cultural sensitivity
by Milton J. Bennett briefly described below.Where there is culture (or
rather- cultures!) there are cultural differences. The developmental model
of intercultural sensitivity (the DMIS) identifies the underlying cognitive
orientations individuals use to understand cultural difference. Below you will
see the simplified DMIS model by Milton J. Bennett.
240 Exercises
The first three stages are ethnocentric as one’s own culture is central to
the perception of reality. Moving up the scale, an individual/group develops
a more and more culturally relative point of view. The experience shifts to
experiencing one’s own culture as in the context of other cultures.
The stages provide a good framework for outlining a possible way to work
with and improve the capacity for intercultural sensitivity and collaboration.
Both leading to development of the Intercultural Communication Competency.
2. Next, each group member is asked to write down three stories describing
their cross cultural interactions. One of the three stories should be a positive
memory, one a neutral one and the last one representing a bad memory. Also,
please mark which level of Bennett model is appropriate for each of your stories.
DMIS
STORY
Level
Positive
memory
Neutral
memory
Bad
memory
References
CONFLICT
DIAGNOSIS
AND
MANAGEMENT
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's
Individual Work
Exercises for Student's
Group Work
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 247
CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS
METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl
Introduction
The main goal when teaching students conflict diagnosis is to enable them to
analyze conflict situations from various angels. They can identify the current
circumstances of the conflict, which type of conflict they are dealing with, what
level of escalation it has reached and which procedure of dispute resolution
would possibly be most appropriate to achieve a satisfying outcome for the
parties involved.
In the following sections we offer 2 exercises for individual work and 2 exercises
for group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2). Exercises for group work are marked with letters (A
and B). Below you will find a short explanation how to use those exercises.
Exercise 1
The War of Roses
If conflicts are not diagnosed right (or not at all) before taking action
various problems might occur:
• The conflict might not be solved at all, because the real cause of the
dispute was not found;
• The false dispute resolution method or strategy might be chosen if
the level of conflict escalation is not diagnosed;
• One or more of the conflicting parties may be very unsatisfied with
the outcome of the chosen method/strategy, since their needs and
interests in solving the dispute were not identified right or not at all.
Exercise 2
Different ways to deal with conflicts
For example, when co-workers are having a dispute it might often seem like a
personal conflict between them, while the real cause of the problem lies within
the structure of the organization. It could be that the roles of the employees
are organized in a way that they inevitably constrain each other when fulfilling
their tasks. Trying to find a consensus on a personal level without working on
the structural problem will not work.
Another mistake would be to refer parties to the court, although the
level of escalation of their dispute would allow them still to find a solution
with the help of e.g. mediation. In practice, many people do not know about
the alternatives when (legal) problems arise and therefore immediately think
about court proceedings that should actually be ultima ratio.
Exercise A
Difficult divorce I – conflict analysis
Exercise B
Difficult divorce II – conflict analysis
Those are group exercises which require an advance reading for better
understanding. Students must read the Chapter 6 of this book. Please give an
introduction to the students about effective conflict diagnosis:
• Identifying the circumstances of the case;
• Identifying the type of conflict (inter- or intrapersonal, structural,
distributional etc.);
• Identifying the current stage of the conflict (level of escalation, are
the parties willing to cooperate etc.).
Exercise 1
The War of Roses
This exercise is based on the movie “War of Roses” from 1989 and is an
(exaggerated) example of how a conflict might escalate. We suggest to watch
this movie before completing the exercise.
In order to complete the exercise you must read about the different levels
of conflict escalation according to Glasl explained in Chapter 6 of this book.
Exercise
Please explore one more time the different levels of conflict escalation
according to Glasl.
1. Bring the different levels of conflict escalation into the right order.
Debate – Level __
Action not words – Level __
Threat strategies – Level __
Tension – Level __
Limited destruction – Level __
Loss of face – Level __
Coalitions – Level __
Together into the abyss – Level __
Disintegration – Level __
252 Exercises
Level __
The Roses buy a house, which Barbara chooses and Oliver pays for.
Over the next few years, Barbara decorates the house meticulously. Once
there is nothing left to decorate in the house, she decides to set up a catering
company. Oliver agrees but places an assistant at her disposal despite Barbara’s
repudiation. In the meantime, Oliver moved up the career ladder and is a top
lawyer. He promises to look through Barbara’s company contracts but instead,
he swats a fly with them. In turn, she seeks revenge by being noisy when he
makes important phone calls. In bed, she fights off his advances with martial
arts techniques.
Level __
A fight in front of the children and the housekeeper escalates and Oliver
spreads intimate details about his wife on the street. The lighting of the
Christmas tree flickers and the couple accuse each other of their respective
inability to look after technical issues. At night, an electrical short circuit sets
the Christmas tree on fire, the house and the family can be saved at the very last
minute.
Level __
Oliver tells Barbara about the accident with the cat. As a result, Barbara
locks him in the sauna. Just before he threatens to suffocate, she lets him out
but utters further threats.
Level __
In front of Barbara’s guests, the couple stages a battle. As Oliver refuses
to exit his vintage car, Barbara drives over his car and all its occupants. Oliver
enters the house armed with an iron bar. The situation escalates and turns
into a fight to the death. During the fight, Barbara falls over the handrail on the
second floor and lands on the chandelier. Oliver jumps on top of her and the
chandelier plummets. The housekeeper and the sent for lawyer find both of
them dead.
Level __
Three years after the birth of their youngest child, the Roses’ marriage
is plunged into a crisis. Oliver starts a promising career as lawyer and spends
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 253
less time with his family. The married couple fights over trivialities such as the
placing of the Christmas star. A serious incident occurs during a dinner with
Oliver’s superiors where he stifles his wife’s halting story and continues to tell
the story instead of her. At night he apologises for his behaviour saying: “I hope
they didn’t notice what a jerk I am.”
Level __
Oliver collapses in the middle of a work meeting and is taken to hospital
in suspicion of a heart attack. Barbara does not visit him in hospital. When
his work colleague takes him home, Barbara demands a divorce. She ignores
the love letter Oliver wrote in his hospital bed and says: “I couldn’t read your
handwriting.” Oliver moves out.
Level __
Oliver saws off the heels of Barbara’s much-loved high heels. Barbara
visits Oliver’s lawyer and wants to take advantage of his weakness for attractive
women. He declines her offers and says: “If you want this to end, all of us have
to sit down and compromise.” Oliver shows up drunk at a reception Barbara
organised for her clients and causes a scandal by his obscene entrance.
Consequently, Barbara drives her Jeep against her husband’s vintage car.
Level __
Barbara and Oliver divide the house into differently coloured zones, which
may not be entered be the opposite party. Oliver’s lawyer issues the following
warning: “There are other houses, too, and other women. Nobody will win this
case; it is only about HOW MUCH you will lose.” Oliver disagrees: “I have more
square metres.” After a fight he hits Barbara’s cat by accident.
Level __
Barbara and Oliver meet at Barbara’s lawyer’s office, Oliver’s former
partner, who quotes from Oliver’s love letter: “Everything I have I owe to you”,
a statement he wants to use to prove that Barbara is entitled to the house.
Oliver feels betrayed and announces an unconditional fight over the house. The
lawyer calms Barbara down: “My dear, once all this is over, this will be one of
your happiest days.” Oliver discusses counter-strategies with his own lawyer
and moves back into the embattled house.
3. Think about 1–2 aspects you have learned from this exercise.
Different levels of conflict by Glasl
Exercise 2
Different ways to deal with conflicts
This exercise will help you to understand the different conflict resolution
behaviours according to Schwarz.
In order to complete the exercise you must read about the different
conflict resolution behaviours explained in Chapter 6 of this book.
Exercise
Read through the examples and try to figure out what conflict resolution
behaviour is shown (according to Schwarz: delegation, escape, consensus,
destruction, compromise, subordination).
In all examples, A and B live together in a shared apartment.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 255
Example 1
A: “You never put your dishes away! I can’t cook anymore because the whole
sink is full! Whenever I come home from my night shift, I have to clean up the
kitchen first!”
B: “That’s not true, I always put my dishes away!” – and goes into his room.
Example 2
A: “I am the main tenant and I want you to move out. It just can’t go on like this!”
B: bursts into tears and packs his bags.
Example 3
A: “It just can’t go on like this! You never put your dishes away! If that doesn’t
change immediately, you’ll move out tomorrow! You know that I am the main
tenant here!”
B: “You’re so mean, but then I’ll just do it ...”
Example 4
A + B: argue again about the dishes that have not been cleared away, the dispute
escalates, landlady C is called in.
C: “The kitchen always needs to be tidied up! I don’t want to see leftovers lying
around or bugs crawling around here! If you don’t pull yourself together, you’ll
both have to move out!”
Example 5
A: “How about if we agree that the sink is always free ...”
B: “... and I can leave the dishes on the sideboard. Fits!”
A: “Ok, all right!”
Example 6
B: “What if I cook for us every day and you clean up afterwards?”
A: “Yes, you cook so well, that’s a good idea! Let’s try it!”
Exercise A
Difficult divorce I – conflict analysis
Exercise B
Difficult divorce II – conflict analysis
References
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
By Daiva Račelytė and Agnė Tvaronavičienė
Introduction
It is evident that no society can exist without conflicts between individuals and
organizations. Conflicts are an inevitable part of social interaction and no one is
able to be free from it. However, conflicts not obligatory lead us to the negative
consequences. On the contrary, conflicts can educate, encourage to explore
the interests of the parties and strive to improve their relationships through
mutually satisfying outcomes whenever possible.
We offer a set of simple and easy to follow exercises designed to obtain
the basic knowledge and skills of conflict management. The main aim is to
show variety of ways how we can engage in constructive conflict management
and reach the positive outcomes of the conflicts. As well it focuses on teachers’
perspective and strives to disclose the teachers’ role in helping students to
develop their knowledge and skills in conflict management.
Exercise 1
Self-reflection and discussion on the personal experiences
of students in conflict situations
This exercise can help to enhance self-awareness of the students in the field
of conflict management. It does not require any specific background knowledge.
Students should be asked to answer provided questions individually. After
it is done, teacher could ask students to share their experience and insights
about their current conflict management skills.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes.
Exercise 2
Which conflict style the parties to the below described
conflict have chosen?
Exercise 3
Supervisor conflict-related roles quiz
Exercise 4
Using authority and creativity in conflict management
Exercise 5
Self-score conflict management style test
Exercise A
My criticism log
Wilmott and Hocker (2011) suggested a great task for a group work,
helping to identify the main issues of social interaction, which drives individual
towards conflicts. This task consists of two parts: individual preparation and
small groups’ discussions.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 265
Firstly, students are asked to keep track of all their negative thoughts they
have about people in their world over a few days.
Secondly, students are invited to discuss with the group of 3–4 people
their main identity “themes” and how they predict with whom you will have
conflict or struggles.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes depending on the group size.
Exercise B
Hot buttons and constructive responses to conflict
Exercise C
Interview
This exercise may serve well for showing the importance of conflict
management skills during the job interview, and discussing conflict management
strategies used in organizational settings.
Students should be asked in small groups to develop a list of interview
questions that might be used for potential new hires.
In addition to designing appropriate interview questions, discuss what
other sources of information will provide clues as to how this person deals with
problem solving and teamwork?
Teacher may present some additional question for the further discussion.
Although the conflict management strategies usually are used as an individual-
level tool, we often see analogous behaviours within teams and even entire
organizations.
266 Exercises
• Which style best describes the unit in which you study? Why?
• Which style best describes your organization as a whole?
• How does your individual style fit in with those in your study
environment?
Exercise D
The doggie discontent
These exercises will help you to improve your conflict management skills.
Exercise 1
Self-reflection and discussion on the personal
experiences of students in conflict situations
Introduction
The first step in a process of developing personal conflict intelligence is
raising the self-knowledge. Student should be encouraged to analyse his or her
own approaches towards conflict situations and be guided in raising his or her
awareness of cognitive, motivational, moral and action orientations to conflict
situations that affects his or her conflict behaviour and responses. Moreover,
conflict intelligence requires adequate self-regulation in conflict, or the ability
to inhibit impulsive, automatic, or “hot” emotional responses to conflict. Such
kind of managed responses are possible to gain only knowing yourself and your
common natural reaction to the conflicts in advance.
Exercise
Student is invited for the reflection based on streaming to answer these
questions (based on Wilmott, Hocker, 2011):
1. Think – what is your usual response to conflicts?
268 Exercises
• Do you generally like to get everything out in the open, even if such an
effort creates tension and strong feelings?
• Or do you usually seek peace, harmony, and reduction of strong
emotions? How would you describe yourself?
2. What emotions are most common for you when you experience conflict?
• Think of three areas of conflict: family, romantic, and studies (or
work). In each area, list your most common emotions.
• If there doesn’t seem to be a set of common emotions, think of one
conflict as an example in each area. How did/do you feel? Be sure to
use words of feeling, not judgment or description.
• Think of the most disturbing conflict you have experienced in the past
half-year or so. What was your emotional response to this conflict?
3. Think about influences.
• List the 10 most important influences on your personal response to
conflict, in order of importance.
4. What influence, if any, does violence have on your conflict responses?
• You may answer this question in your own notebook, or with a small
group. What experiences have you had with violence, whether verbal,
physical, or sexual?
• Of course, you may keep your privacy in this discussion. The important
issue is to begin to think about the influence of violence on your life.
If you did not experience violence directly, what experiences that
others had have influenced you?
Exercise 2
Which conflict style the parties to the below described
conflict have chosen?
Introduction
Conflict styles are patterned responses, or clusters of behaviour, that
people use in conflict (Wilmot & Hocker, 2011). Style preferences develop over
person’s lifetime based on a cumulative blend of genetics, life experiences,
family background, and personal beliefs and values. Developing a repertoire of
diverse styles and tactics may require some stretching of one’s comfort zone.
However, having expanded choice of styles person can use will enhance his/her
chances for effective conflict management.
McCorkle and Reese (2018, p. 121) provided a really helpful example of
the five conflict styles in action. They presented a short story:
Julia and Layla are assigned as roommates their freshman year. From
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 269
different backgrounds, they have little in common. Soon their differences begin to
surface, and conflict is inevitable. Julia asks if she can borrow a scarf from Layla,
who agrees. Soon Julia is borrowing shirts, coats, and whatever else she wants
without asking.
After it McCorkle and Reese (2018) provided explanations of every style
and it’s specific:
• If Layla is an avoider, she will suffer silently, think bad thoughts about
Julia, and probably complain to friends. If Julia asks what is wrong,
Layla will say she has to go study in the library and leave the room.
• If Layla is an accommodator, she will say she doesn’t mind that Julia
borrows things. If Layla has a competitive style, she will confront Julia
and demand that all her clothes be washed and never borrowed again.
• If Layla uses a compromiser style, she will raise the issue of borrowing
clothes with Julia. Then some middle ground will be sought. For
example, the clothes can be borrowed if Julia asks every time in advance
and washes and irons the clothes when returning them.
• If Layla is a collaborator, she will ask Julia to sit down with her
to discuss the roommate situation. She will frame the issue in a
comprehensive way, asking what it means to be roommates and
discussing each of their expectations. At some point, borrowing
clothes will be discussed as part of the bigger picture.
Conflict style explains how different people can see the same thing in
opposite ways, and choose different ways of responding to conflict. Actually,
we can’t change somebody else’s basic style. Still, we can recognize it and
understand that person better. Styles can mesh together if we are aware of our
strengths and weaknesses. Relationships are stronger if people recognize style
differences, it brings when to mutual understanding quicker. Strong teams lean
into each other’s strengths and prop up each other’s weaknesses. The most
important thing, that with time and effort, new styles can be learned.
Which conflict style is most effective?
It is important to be familiar with the results of conflict style studies and
to know when these strategies are the most effective. General suggestions of
Thomas and Kilmann (2010), based on empirical study:
Accommodating is especially useful and effective:
• When person realizes that he/she is wrong – to allow a better
solution to be considered, to learn from others, and to show that one
is reasonable.
• When issue is much more important to other person – to satisfy the needs
of others and as goodwill gesture to maintain a cooperative relationship.
270 Exercises
• When person wants to build up social credits for later issues that are
important to him/her.
• When preserving harmony and avoiding disruption are especially
important.
• When person want to help others to develop by allowing them to
experiment and learn from their mistakes.
Competing is useful and effective:
• When quick, decisive action is vital.
• On important issues when unpopular courses of action need
implementing – for example, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline.
• On issues vital to person welfare and when he/she is sure in being right.
• When person needs to protect himself/herself from people who take
advantage on non-competitive behaviour.
Compromising is useful and effective:
• When goals are moderately important but not worth the effort or the
potential disruption in more assertive strategies.
• When two opponents with equal power are strongly committed to
mutually exclusive goals.
• When person wants to achieve a temporary settlement of a complex
issue.
• When person needs to arrive at an expedient solution under time
pressure.
• As a backup strategy when collaboration or competition fails.
Avoiding is useful and effective:
• When an issue is unimportant or when other, more important issues
are pressing.
• When person perceives no chance of satisfying his/her concerns-
when he/she has low power or he/she is frustrated by something
that would be very difficult to change.
• When the potential costs of confronting a conflict overweigh the
benefits of its resolution.
• When person needs to let people cool down – to reduce tensions to a
productive level and to regain perspective and composure.
• When gathering more information outweighs the advantages of an
immediate decision.
• When others can resolve the issue more effectively.
• When the issue seems tangential or symptomatic of another, more
basic issue.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 271
Exercise
For getting acquainted with different conflicts styles it is advised to
discuss a specific case with several different models of behaviour.
Beatty and Barker Scott (2004) presented such case for conflict styles
studies:
It’s Friday afternoon at 3:15, and your team meeting was supposed to start
at 3:00. Everyone is present, except for Brenda, who is late again. The team has
agreed that being on time for meetings is an important norm. At 3:25 p.m., she
rushes in, apologizing for her tardiness and explaining that the computer ate her
document.
1. Student should answer, which of the following are members most likely to do?
• Ignore the problem and continue discussion.
• Acknowledge the problem but do nothing to correct the situation.
• Acknowledge the problem and attempt to solve it.
• Acknowledge the problem, solve it, and discuss and agree on a
procedure for dealing with similar problems in the future.
2. According to the answers it is easy to explain what style was selected by the
concrete individual. See explanation of this case below this task.
Beatty and Barker Scott (2004) suggest such description of well-known
conflict styles for the situation in Exercise 9 (see below):
• Avoiding. Members choose not to confront or be involved. In the
previous case, members would choose to ignore Brenda’s tardiness,
even though they are bothered by it.
• Accommodating. Members adapt or agree to satisfy the needs of others
above their own needs. Here, members might choose to sympathize
272 Exercises
with Brenda and not raise the issue. As a result, Brenda will probably
be late for the next meeting as well.
• Competing. Members choose to satisfy their own needs by asserting,
controlling, or resisting. Here, members would likely confront Brenda
by telling her in no uncertain terms that her tardiness is unacceptable
and dictate their expectations for the future: Be on time, or else.
• Collaborating. Members attempt to create mutually satisfying
solutions through win-win strategies. Here, members would likely
acknowledge the problem, explore the causes, and work with Brenda
to create a protocol that will meet the team’s needs and Brenda’s as
well.
Exercise 3
Supervisor conflict-related roles quiz
Introduction
One of possible ways to explore how people accept conflict is to consider
the roles that they most ready to take on during conflict. The roles that people
as individuals are ordinarily most comfortable with are related to their
professional or formal roles they may choose to assume as conflict interveners,
but these formal roles are not identical to the roles that conflict may demand of
them, which they usually assume formally. Although people play many de facto
roles in conflict, the following six are key roles in the structure of most conflicts
(Mayer, 2012):
• Advocate (negotiator): Arguing or pushing for a particular outcome
or set of needs.
• Decision maker (arbitrator): deciding among competing positions or
claims.
• Facilitator (mediator): helping others communicate and negotiate.
• Conciliator (empathizer): tuning into and addressing the emotional
elements of a conflict.
• Information provider (expert): providing information or opinions to
decision makers or negotiators.
• Observer (witness, audience): watching, reporting, and reacting to
others in conflict.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 273
Each role can be played in many different ways, and each can influence
conflict process, conflict escalation or de-escalation. Elements of several
roles are often present in how people participate in any given conflict. Often
disputants enter a conflict primarily in one role but then change roles,
sometimes repeatedly and rapidly. Conflict can easily escalate when people
present themselves as playing one role (for example, facilitator or information
provider) but actually take on a different role (decision maker), and such
misapprehension can be done consciously or can be mistakenly perceived by
role player. Maintaining clarity about the role person is playing and how it might
be altered as circumstances change is a significant challenge and everybody
face when participates in conflicts as disputants or interveners (Mayer, 2012).
Ability to be aware and choose appropriate role is one of important skills for
person who is competent in conflict management.
Shuttle Serves as a “go between” Parties in conflict do not wish To help others reach
diplomat in an attempt to resolve to occupy the same physical agreements to resolve their
conflicts between two space simultaneously or you disputes
parties. determine that for safety
reasons it is best for the two
parties not to occupy the same
physical space simultaneously.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 275
Exercise
Students should be provided with an 8 stories and asked to choose the
most appropriate supervisor role(s) for each situation. Every decision should
be explained and grounded. This task is based on materials published by Chavez
Rudolph (pp. 142–143)
Choices:
• Enforcer
• Mediator
• Arbitrator
• Facilitator
• Negotiator
• Coach
• Referral agent
• Investigator
Situations
1. Celina approaches you to say she and Mikolaj keep getting locked in
disputes over how to divide their workload. They want you to decide it for
them. You trust both of them and want them to decide this on their own. You
are willing to help them decide but you do not want to decide for them.
2. Emma and Lucas work in the same office. Emma came to see you and
said, “Lucas isn’t listening to me and, frankly, I’ve been offended several times
at how he has been talking to me. I stood right up to him but things between us
are still tense. I think we need someone to help us communicate better.” Lucas
was a close friend of yours for many years before you became his (and Emma’s)
supervisor. Although you have tried to keep some distance between you since
becoming his supervisor, everyone in your department – including Emma – is
aware of your long friendship with Lucas.
3. You supervise a department which includes Aivars and Roberts, and
seven others. Roberts came in to see you to say that Aivars just called him a
very offensive name. He also said three of your other supervisees were present
and heard him say it.
4. The staff of another department (not your own) is trying to determine
how to best spend 10 000 Euro before the June 30 deadline (or they will lose
the money). You have been approached by the Director of that department
(who cannot be at the meeting where it will be discussed due to her vacation)
and asked to help them decide. She says whatever the group decides is fine
with her but everyone has his or her own ideas about how to spend the money
276 Exercises
and, although she doesn’t want to lose the money, she is tired of hearing all the
lobbying for various purchases. She tells you privately that she is glad she won’t
be there.
5. You supervise both Lena and Daniela, who work side-by-side in
computer related jobs. Lena is shy and tells you privately that, although it
really irritates her, she has not yet told Daniela how much she dislikes Daniela
listening to the radio in the office. “It’s not that it’s too loud,” Lena said. “I just
can’t stand that elevator music she listens to. It puts me to sleep!” You do not
object to these employees listening to the radio at work.
6. According to one of your supervisees, Julia, Nora (another of your staff
members) gave confidential information about an upcoming organizational
change to a member of another department who had no need to know that
information. Nora was in the meeting where the change was discussed and
where you clearly stated that this information needed to remain confidential
until it was released by the Public Relations department. You decide to speak to
Nora and she admits to having given confidential information.
7. Emilija and Daan have come in to talk to you. They cannot seem to
agree about how to divide the work on an important project you assigned to
them. It looks to you like both of them are both being stubborn. Your boss is
expecting the results of this project by Friday. It is now Tuesday at 11:30 am.
You estimate that if they don’t start actually doing the work by this afternoon at
the latest, they cannot get the work done.
8. You and Jonas have been discussing the staff meeting schedule for the
next year. The most likely times for the meetings are early in the morning or
late in the afternoon. Jonas has a strong preference for afternoon meetings and
you have an equally strong one for morning meetings. Jonas has to take his kids
to day care in the morning and would probably be late for most of the meetings.
As his supervisor you could “pull rank” on him and simply set the meetings for
mornings but you would like Jonas to be at the meetings. Also, he is so valuable
to your operation, you don’t want him to feel disregarded or unappreciated.
Exercise 4
Using authority and creativity in conflict management
Introduction
There are two major variables conflict competent individuals can use to
distinguish among the types of conflict situations within their organizations:
the organizational relationship of the participants and the degree to which the
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 277
person is involved in the conflict. In addition, they can use two basic tools in
managing conflict: authority (direct power) and creativity.
The following guidelines should be helpful in deciding how to approach
conflict:
• In conflict involving peers, superiors, or both, individuals should
usually rely on creativity rather than on authority. Collaboration can
be efficient strategy in such kind of conflicts.
• In conflict involving subordinates only, individuals may rely more on
their own authority, use competing style, even though creativity and
collaborative problem solving may still be the best way to manage
conflict.
Exercise
1. Student should think about a time when he or she used a creative solution to
resolve a conflict. He or she should briefly describe the conflict and his or her
solution.
2. The same should be done regarding a conflict when he or she simply used
power.
Exercise 5
Self-score conflict management style test
Student should think of two different contexts where they have conflicts or
disagreements with someone in study, work, or live (A and B). Then, according
to the following scale, he or she is requested to fill in his or hers scores for
situations and person A, and situations and person B. For each statement
student will have two scores.
278 Exercises
Person A/Person B
1. ___/___ I avoid open discussion of my differences with the other.
2. ___/___ I use my authority to make decision in my favour.
3. ___/___ I try to find middle course to resolve impasse.
4. ___/___ I accommodate the other’s wishes.
5. ___/___ I try to integrate my ideas with the other’s to come up with a
decision jointly.
6. ___/___ I try to stay away from disagreement with the other.
7. ___/___ I use my influence to get my ideas accepted.
8. ___/___ I propose a middle ground for breaking deadlocks.
9. ___/___ I give in to the other’s wishes.
10. ___/___ I try to work with the other to find solutions that satisfy both our
expectations.
11. ___/___ I try to keep my disagreement to myself in order to avoid hard
feelings.
12. ___/___ I generally pursue my side of an issue.
13. ___/___ I negotiate with the other to reach a compromise.
14. ___/___ I generally try to satisfy the other’s needs.
15. ___/___ I try to investigate an issue to find a solution acceptable to us.
16. ___/___ I try to avoid unpleasant exchanges with the other.
17. ___/___ I use my power to win.
18. ___/___ I use “give and take” so that a compromise can be made.
19. ___/___ I try to satisfy the other’s expectations.
20. ___/___ I try to bring all our concerns out in the open so that the issues can
be resolved.
Results
Scores for the five conflict management strategies, across two different
contexts should be visible. The column with the highest point totals shows
conflict management strategy the most typical for the person.
Student is encouraged to compare their score totals for both A and B
contexts. If results for the most typical conflict management strategy are
relatively consistent in both contexts, it means that this conflict management
strategy is his or her consistent conflict management style.
These exercises will help you to improve your conflict management skills.
Exercise A
My criticism log
Introduction
Every individual has specific attitudes towards others and their personal
characteristics, behaviour and etc. When we talk about the issues, which may
raise the conflicts and involve an individual person in it, it should be admitted
that this is also personal. For example, one individual cannot stand the unfair
behaviour and always involves in conflicts in regards of it. On contrary, other
individual may feel really neutral in regard of such issues and being able to
ignore the same unfair behaviour. Some people hate being late and do not
respect other, who is always late. On contrary, some of them are neutral for
it and do not sees the reason to conflict if their friends or colleagues are late.
Knowing yourself well helps to identify the issues, which drives one angry and
ready to struggle, helps in managing those situations.
Exercise
Wilmott and Hocker (2011) suggested a useful task for a group work,
helping to identify the main issues of social interaction, which drives individual
towards conflicts. This task consists of two parts: individual preparation and
small groups’ discussions.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 281
Exercise B
Hot buttons and constructive responses to conflict
Introduction
This activity will help participants to be aware of some of their emotional
hot buttons, and to find more constructive ways to deal with conflict more
effectively.
Exercise
1. For the next five minutes, you will have a chance to tell the other members
of your group how to push their emotional hot buttons. Please write down as
many specific things as you can. For example:
282 Exercises
Discussion Questions:
• What are your usual responses to hot buttons and what can you do
about it?
• What are some ways we can learn to recognize and to control our hot
buttons when interacting with others?
• What happens if we push someone else’s buttons?
3. Question for final discussion: How does this activity can help you deal with
conflict more effectively?
Exercise C
Interview
Introduction
Conflict management skills of employees are necessary in every
organization. In order to gain for knowledge how ability to identify the conflict
style may be used in practice, please engage in the fulfilment of this task oriented
towards job interview experience (this task is suggested by Raines (2012).
Exercise
1. In small groups, develop a list of interview questions that you will use for
potential new hires. These questions should give you a sense of how this
person responds to conflict and how well she or he will fit into your team’s
environment. Compare lists of different groups.
Exercise D
The doggie discontent
Introduction
This activity will help you to identify conflict management styles and
conflict related roles.
Conflict Diagnosis and Management 285
Exercise
McCorkle and Reese (2018, p. 130) suggest such an exercise for developing
skills to identify the most evident styles in concrete situation. The case is
presented below:
Before Tess and Molly became roommates, Tess made sure that Molly would
be fine with her lovable little dog Gretel, a five-year-old schnauzer. After about
two months, Molly met Tess at the door, obviously upset:
Molly: “We need to talk. I hate living here! I can’t stand your dog anymore.
She jumps on me and the house smells like a dog. I like some animals, but I hate
your dog!” Tess: (Shocked). “You knew about Gretel when we moved in. She’s a
schnauzer for God’s sake – they love everybody. It’s not like she’s a pit bull and
going to attack you. What did you expect?” Molly: “I was hoping the apartment
wouldn’t allow dogs.” Tess: “I wouldn’t have moved in with you then. I could never
live without Gretel.” Molly: “I think you should get rid of her.” Tess: “That is not
going to happen! You knew I had a dog. And I don’t have the money to move. You
got yourself into this situation, so you figure a way out of it.”
Molly left the apartment and slammed the door. Gretel, sensing something
was wrong, walked over to comfort Tess.
References