UDK 005

In720

INTERDISCIPLINARY SKILLS
FOR COOPERATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

ISBN 978-9934-543-35-7

© Turiba University, 2022, 288 p.

http://skills.turiba.lv
Printed by Ltd "Drukātava"

Reviewers
Inese Druviete, Ph.D
Former Fulbright-Schuman Innovation grantee, Latvia
Ketevan Iremashvili, Ph.D
Carnegie Fellow, Erickson Certified Coach, Professor at Tbilisi Open University,
Georgia
Ruslana Havrylyuk, LLD
Head of Department of Public Law, Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National
University, Certified mediator, Ukraine

Edited by
Dana Rone, Ph.D
Docent at Turiba University, Sworn advocate, certified mediator, Latvia
Ivita Kīsnica, Vice Dean of Law Faculty, Turiba University, Latvia
Kristīne Tihanova, Head of Project department, lecturer at Turiba University,
Latvia
This book is created in frame of ERASMUS+ Strategic partnership project
“Development of Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict
management”, project number 2019-1-LV01-KA203-060423.

Project is implemented by following academic partners:

The European Commission's support for the production of this publication does not
constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors,
and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein.
Contents

Index of Authors............................................................................................................................7

Introduction....................................................................................................................................9

Chapter 1. SOFT SKILLS...........................................................................................15

Modern Reality – Soft Skills ..................................................................................................17

Chapter 2. TIME MANAGEMENT............................................................................33

Advantages of Learning Time Management Skills During College Studies
and in Professional Life: Literature Review and Prospects.....................................35

Chapter 3. ABILITY TO COOPERATE IN A TEAM...............................................51

The Next Level of a High-Performance Team.................................................................53

Chapter 4. SETTING THE GOALS BY MEANS OF COACHING..........................73

Setting Professional and Academic Goals by Means of Modern Coaching:
Getting to Know Coaching to Grow in Life .....................................................................75

Chapter 5. MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION...............................................89

Multicultural Communication – a Sought-After Soft-Skill
in the XXI Century? ....................................................................................................................91

Chapter 6. CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT...............................109

Conflict Diagnosis: How to Deal with a Conflict?...................................................... 111
Conflict Management: What is Important to Learn, and How to Improve?.......123
Appendix. Examples for Training About Conflict Styles......................................... 135

Exercises. TIME MANAGEMENT..........................................................................139

Methodology for Teachers.................................................................................................. 141
Exercises for Students’ Individual Work....................................................................... 151
Exercises for Students’ Group Work............................................................................... 160

Exercises. ABILITY TO COOPERATE IN A TEAM............................................169

Methodology for Teachers.................................................................................................. 171
Exercises for Students’ Individual Work....................................................................... 178
Exercises for Students’ Group Work............................................................................... 182
Exercises. SETTING THE GOALS BY MEANS OF COACHING........................189
Methodology for Teachers.................................................................................................. 191
Exercises for Students’ Individual Work....................................................................... 196
Exercises for Students’ Group Work............................................................................... 204

Exercises. MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION............................................213

Methodology for Teachers.................................................................................................. 215
Exercises for Students’ Individual Work....................................................................... 225
Exercises for Students’ Group Work............................................................................... 234

Exercises. CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT................................245

Conflict Diagnosis Methodology for Teachers............................................................ 247
Conflict Diagnosis Exercises for Students’ Individual Work................................ 251
Conflict Diagnosis Exercises for Students’ Group Work......................................... 257
Conflict Management Methodology for Teachers..................................................... 261
Conflict Management Exercises for Students’ Individual Work.......................... 267
Conflict Management Exercises for Students’ Group Work.................................. 280
Index of Authors
Agnė Tvaronavičienė, Ph.D
Full time professor at Mykolas Romeris University Law School, Lithuania
Agnieszka Góra, Mgr. iur
Lawyer, Mediation and Negotiation Trainer at Jagiellonian University, Poland
Daina Škuškovnika, Dr. psych.
Lecturer at Turiba University, Latvia
Daiva Račelytė, M.A.
Psychologist, lecturer at Mykolas Romeris University and Vytautas Magnus
University, Lithuania
Dana Rone, Ph.D
Docent at Turiba University, Sworn advocate, Certified mediator, Latvia
Francesca Maoli, Ph.D
Post-doc Research Fellow at University of Genoa, Italy
Francesco Pesce, Ph.D
Associate Professor at University of Genoa, Italy
Gea van Klompenburg, MME
International Registered Mediator, Lecturer at the Netherlands Business
Academy, the Netherlands
Jacek Czaja, Mgr. iur
Attorney-at-law, Mediation and Negotiation Trainer at Jagiellonian University, Poland
Jan van Zwieten, Prof. Dr., RI, RA, RO
Professor, Rector at the Netherlands Business Academy, the Netherlands
Karin Sonnleitner, DDr. iur. et phil. M.A.
Senior Lecturer at University of Graz, Austria
Kristina Nesterova, MBA
International Certified Coach, Lecturer at Turiba University, Ph.D student at
Turiba University, Latvia
Marjon Kuipers-Hemken, MSc, MME
Behaviour Analyst, International Registered Mediator, Lecturer at the
Netherlands Business Academy, the Netherlands
Stefano Dominelli, Ph.D
Researcher at University of Genoa, Italy
Verena Gschweitl, Mag. iur.
Lawyer and Certified Mediator in Graz, Austria

7
 INTRODUCTION
About this book and the project
By Dana Rone and Kristine Tihanova

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Nowadays communication, teamwork, cooperation, conflict management,

also known as soft skills are very important for any professional in all fields.
Experience shows that at times students lack those interdisciplinary skills. Only
rarely university curriculum includes specific courses tackling these topics and
skills. The same can be said about volume of training materials which academics
could use in the study process in order to train the above mentioned skills of
students.
These reasons motivated the authors to create this book, which can be
useful material in teaching process and also can be exciting reading and training
material for anyone interested in the soft skills’ topic.
This book is a collection of articles developed by authors from six partner
universities from Latvia, Lithuania, Italy, Austria, Poland and the Netherlands.
In the second part of the book there are exercises for individual work and group
work.
A target audience of this book is teachers, educators and trainers from
various fields. Teachers can raise their knowledge about related soft skills and
also can use methods and exercises in their teaching process – regardless of
what subject they teach. Also students who are willing to develop their soft
skills can use articles as valuable reading materials and practice exercises,
especially those which are created for individual work.

ABOUT THE DISCOM PROJECT

The DISCOM project is ERASMUS+ Strategic partnership project financed by

the European Union. Partnerships for cooperation are transnational projects
designed to develop and share innovative practices and to promote cooperation,
peer learning, and exchanges of experiences in the fields of education, training

9
10 Dana Rone, Kristine Tihanova

and youth. Another aim of the DISCOM project was to develop and implement
innovative practices, to elaborate interdisciplinary study materials and tools
(including a mobile application) for students and teachers of different faculties.
The project was started in autumn 2019 and completed in summer 2022.
The project was implemented by Turiba University from Latvia in cooperation
with five partner Universities – Genoa University from Italy, Mykolas Romeris
University from Lithuania, the Netherlands Business Academy from the
Netherlands, Jagiellonian University from Poland and Graz University from
Austria.
This ERASMUS+ project focused on five significant soft skills – 1) the
ability of students to cooperate in team, 2) setting professional and academic
goals, 3) time management skills and efficient planning, 4) multicultural
communication and 5) conflict diagnostics and conflict management. These
skills are crucial for the ability to study efficiently in universities of the modern
world. Curriculum of universities mostly do not offer separate courses to
develop those specific skills. Moreover, these skills are required not only during
academic studies, but even after graduation, to be prepared for professional life
challenges. Therefore the project partners went for elaboration of inter-faculty
study materials for the students from Law, Business, Communication and other
Social science faculties in order to increase these skills and for the university
teachers could widely access such study materials.
This book is only one of the products developed in frame of this project.
The authors of the book encourage the readers to explore other soft skills’
training materials – video lectures, reading materials, exercises for individual
work and group work, and the mobile phone application. All materials are
available on project website: http://skills.turiba.lv

SURVEY ABOUT SOFT SKILLS

In the spring of 2020 the project partners made a survey and asked to the
students and teachers from different countries at what extent they have heard
about „soft skills”, do they think universities are paying sufficient attention to
training of soft skills to the students and which are the most important skills
that students would like to develop.
340 students from six countries and 76 teachers from nine countries took
part in the survey. Analysis of the profile of students showed that the bachelor
level students are 61%, master level students 35% and doctoral level students
 Introduction 11

4%. Most of the students (70%) confirmed that they have heard about soft skills,
but 54% of them pointed out that in their study programs they do not have
courses which tackle to develop soft skills. Communication was highlighted
most frequently in a list of crucial soft skills (23%), followed by critical thinking
(19%), team work (12%), time management (11%), positive thinking (11%)
and conflict management (9%). More than a half of students (54%) think that
universities are not paying sufficient attention to the development of “soft
skills” of their students.
Students pointed out that they would be interested during their studies
to develop mowre intensively such soft skills as communication (16%), critical
thinking (16%), conflict management skills (13%), time management and
effective planning skills (11%) and leadership (10%).

The project partners gathered also valuable feedback from the teachers,
who shared their experience about soft skills and their experience and teaching
practice.
The teachers were asked if they agree with the statement, that nowadays
in order to succeed at work and personal life “soft skills” of students have
the same importance as professional skills (hard skills). 89% of the teachers
agreed with the statement and assured that soft skills in a modern world is a
key to success. Almost the same number of teachers (86%) pointed out that
their universities should pay more attention to the development of soft skills
of the students. 43% of the teachers who participated in the survey stressed
that students absolutely lack or have weak conflict diagnostics and conflict
management skills. 35% of the teachers think that multicultural communication
skills of the students are weak and should be trained more. Most of the teachers
also agreed that such skills as setting professional and academic goals, time
management skills, efficient planning and ability to cooperate in team are
average or should be improved.
12 Dana Rone, Kristine Tihanova

Teachers emphasized in the survey that lack of those skills can possibly
lead to difficulties to find job, make good carrier or even to failure in private
or professional life. Young professionals risk not being able to solve complex
problems, their performance results will be average or even below the standard.
It can bring to fear and narrow-mindedness. If the students don’t learn soft
skills in universities, it can take them long years and life-experience to learn
these skills in practice.
Analysis of survey shows that teachers suggest to introduce changes in
universities. The best and the most obvious solution is to include additional
courses in the study program. However not all universities can afford immediate
changes to their curriculum. Many study programs already now have very busy
schedule and adding additional courses is not an option. Most of the teachers
suggest to revise and update already existing courses and teaching techniques.
It is important to include more practical studies – group works, practical
exercises, role-plays, discussions, field work, web-quests, project work,
simulations, debates and similar methods. Additionally, voluntary work as a
part of the study program or in study program, recognized volunteering time
during study period can teach some of the soft skills. There are universities
in Europe which are already including voluntary work as a part of the study
process. Also support, advice or coaching from the side of university can be very
helpful. Those universities who have career centers or anowther structures
providing guidance, professional support or coaching are better situated and
can track and provide support in development of soft skills.
It is clear that in the future soft skills have the same importance as
professional skills. At the moment the Z generation starts to study in universities
– young people with high requirements and expectations, the ones who already
request universities to provide education which suite their academic needs and
the needs of the labor market. And consequently the universities will respond
to the needs of modern society.
CHAPTER 1

SOFT
SKILLS
 MODERN REALITY – SOFT SKILLS
By Daina Škuškovnika

Annotation: This article highlights the importance of role of soft skills in

modern society. The aim of this small volume study is to explore terminology,
measurement tools and typology of soft skills. The article starts with an
introduction to term soft skills and explores the roles of those skills in modern
society and labour market. Furthermore, article explores importance of soft
skills in the context of higher education.
Focusing on soft skills development at the university may have a positive
impact not only on academic successes, but also on future professional life.

Keywords: soft skills, hard skills, soft skills typology, soft skills in higher
education, learning process, development, lifelong learning

Summary: Introduction – 1. The role of soft skills in modern society. – 2. The

modern educator – student’s personality development coach. – Conclusions.

Introduction

The purpose of this article is to provide an insight into recent research on the
role of soft skills in modern society. Different approaches to defining soft and
hard skills and its typology are considered. The article examines the experience
of different countries and universities in developing soft skills in the learning
process. It is emphasized that the development of successful soft skills
requires strategic planning and interaction at five levels: national, institutional,
curricula, extracurricular activities and the individual level. The second chapter
of the article deals with teaching/learning methods used for teacher-student
interaction. At the end of the article, the 5-step method proposed within the
ERASMUS+ Strategic partnership project DISCOM is described, which can
help students decide about the need to consciously improve certain aspects of
their personality. This small-scale study was conducted using the analysis of
scientific literature and the author’s professional experience.

17
18 Daina Škuškovnika

1. The role of soft skills in modern society

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report

on education policies for the 21st century emphasizes that in order to live and
work in the knowledge society, students need to gain a deeper conceptual
understanding of the world through learning, wrather than superficial facts
and procedures. The World Economic Forum (2020)1 points out that greater
robotization and the rapid introduction of new technologies over the next five
years will mean a demand for new skills in the workplace. A study by McKinsey
estimates that up to 30 percent of the hours worked globally could be automated
by 2030. It is projected2 that during the period 2015 – 2030 total spending on
technology will increase by more than 50%. About half the spending would be
on information technology services. This means that by 2030, this trend could
create 20 to 50 million jobs worldwide. It is estimated,3 that global consumption
could grow by USD 23 trillion between 2015 and 2030, most of which will come
from the fast-growing consumer economy. The impact of these new consumers
will be felt not only in the countries where the income is generated, but also
in the economies that export to these countries. The impact of income growth
alone on consumer goods alone is projected to create 250 to 280 million new
jobs, with an additional 50 to 85 million jobs resulting from higher health and
education spending.
Employers talk about the lack of skills and competencies of college and
university graduates necessary to optimise work performance: lack of skills to
communicate, work in a team, solve problems and critically evaluate information.
The majority of professions in the 21st century will need knowledge and
understanding of globalization and the ability to communicate with different
cultures. To promote the enterprise’s competitiveness employers4 are in the
search for candidates, who are fluent in English. The necessary 21st century
skills include learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to
live.5

1
The World Economic Forum (2020). These are the top 10 job skills of tomorrow – and how long it takes
to learn them. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/10/top-10-work-skills-of-tomorrow-how-long-it-
takes-to-learn-them/
2
Manyika, J., L und S., Chui, M., Bughin, J., Woetzel, J., Batra, P., Ko, R., & Sanghvi, S. (2017). Jobs lost, jobs
gained: What the future of work will mean for jobs, skills, and wages. McKinsey Global Institute https://www.
mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-of-work/jobs-lost-jobs-gained-what-the-future-of-work-will-mean-
for-jobs-skills-and-wages#
3
Ibid.
4
Zainuddin, S. Z., Pillai, S., Dumanig, F. P., & Phillip, A. (2019). English language and graduate employability.
Education and Training, 61(2), pp. 79–93; DOI: 10.1108/ET-06-2017-0089
5
Zubaidah, S. (2016). 21st century skills: skills taught through learning (in Bahasa). Seminar Nasional
Pendidikan, 2(2), pp. 1–17
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 19

The new knowledge economy6 resulting from technological development

requires graduates in all disciplines with flexible thinking and transferable
skill sets, who are able to innovate and adapt to a dynamic work environment.
Consequently, universities need to develop the transferable general skills
needed for graduates to advance their careers and foster economic innovation
and social development.

1.1. Hard and soft skills

Skills are the ability and capacity to carry out processes and to be able to
use one’s knowledge in a responsible way to achieve a goal. Skills are part of a
holistic concept of competency, involving the mobilisation of knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values to meet complex demands.7
Hard skills are methods or knowledge that a person acquires at school
or in the workplace. Soft skills are interpersonal characteristics, also known as
human skills, and personal characteristics that a person possesses. Soft skills
are related to personality, human skills and work ethics. The majority of soft
skills an individual possesses are not taught directly but are developed through
life experience both in the family, at school and in communication with friends.
A study on the role of soft skills in the workplace conducted by Klaus in 2010
found that 75% of long-term success at work depends on people skills, while
only 25% depend on technical knowledge. Hard skills contribute only 15% to
success, whereas 85% of success is related to soft skills.

Countries Equivalent names for soft skills

Australia Generic graduate attributes, generic skills, key competencies,
employability skills
UK Key skills, core skills, life skills, key transferable skills, cross
competencies
USA Necessary skills, workplace know-how
New Zealand Essential skills
Germany Schlüsselkompetenzen (key competencies), Übergreifende
kompetenzen (general competencies)

6
Bunney, D., Sharplin, E., & Howitt, C. (2015). Generic skills for graduate accountants: The bigger picture, a
social and economic imperative in the new knowledge economy. Higher Education Research & Development,
34(2), pp. 256–269, https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.956700
7
OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-
learning/learning/skills/Skills_for_2030_concept_note.pdf
20 Daina Škuškovnika

Denmark Nøglekompetence (key competencies)

France Competétences transversales (transversal competencies)
Spain Competencias generales (general competencies)
Vietnam Kỹ năng sống (life skills), kĩ năng mềm (soft skills)
Table 1: Terms referring to soft skills in some countries8

Examining and comparing students’ and employers’ perceptions of the

importance of soft skills in different European countries, it was found that 86%
of respondents indicate that there has been an increased emphasis on soft skills
over the last 5–10 years and that companies consider them more important than
students’/graduates’ academic knowledge. In addition, significant differences
were found in the different levels of soft skills priorities.
Several studies indicate that despite the universal perception that soft
skills are very much needed in modern society, soft skills terminology and
measurement tools vary widely across organizations and academia, with no
standard definitions or assessment methods (refer table 1). As can be seen
from figure 1, the most widely used concepts are key competencies (Australia,
Germany, Denmark) and life skills (UK, Vietnam). An analysis of German job
advertisements revealed9 that the most commonly used terms when looking for
employees were working style, teamwork, communication skills and flexibility
(Arbeitsweise, Teamfähigkeit, Kommunikationsfähigkeit and Flexibilität).
Apart from the terms listed in figure 1, the following terms could also be found
in literature: 21st century skills,10 transferable skills,11 future work skills,12 Soft
Skills for Talent,13 Skills for Social Progress14 etc., which could cause confusion –
what exactly is being discussed, as well as confusion on what really should be
understood by the use of one or the other term.

8
Tran Le Huu Nghia (2021). Building Soft Skills for Employability. Challenges and Practices in Vietnam. Routledge,
ISBN 9781032089508
9
Kozhanova, N. V. (2021). Language peculiarities of “soft skills” in German electronic texts of vacancy
advertisements. Vestnik of North-Eastern Federal University Named After M. K. Ammosov, 82 (2), pp. 39–46,
DOI: 10.25587/p6523-9839-2389-x
10
Ananiadou, K. & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for New Millennium Learners in OECD
Countries, https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019
11
Eportfolio (2011). http://www.eportfolio.eu/organisations/rpic-vip
12
IFTF (2010). The Future is a High Resolution Game: The 2010 Map of the Decade, https://www.iftf.org/
our-work/global-landscape/ten-year-forecast/2010-ten-year-forecast/2010-map-of-the-decade/
13
Manpower Group (2014). https://www.manpowergroup.com/wcm/
14
OECD (2015). Skills for Social Progress, https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-for-social-progress-
9789264226159-en.htm
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 21

1.2. Soft skills typology

A diversity in soft skills typology could also be observed, which is often

linked to changes in the labour market. In 2012, business executives emphasized
the following skills as the most important15: integrity, communication,
courtesy, responsibility, social skills, positive attitude, professionalism,
flexibility, teamwork and work ethics. On the other hand graduates16 in 2020
named flexibility and adaptation skills and communication skills as essential
soft skills required for work. Summarizing the research results, Ibrahim
et al.17 point out that the most frequently mentioned areas of soft skills are:
1) communication, 2) critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving,
3) moral and professional ethics, 4) teamwork, 5) leadership, 6) entrepreneur-
ship and 7) emotional intelligence.

Practical and Cognitive and Social and

physical skills meta-cognitive skills emotional skills
are those required to a set of thinking strategies a set of individual capacities
use and manipulate that enable the use of that can be manifested
materials, tools, language, numbers, in consistent patterns
equipment and artefacts reasoning and acquired of thoughts, feelings
to achieve particular knowledge. They comprise and behaviours that
outcomes, include verbal, nonverbal and enable people to develop
using new information higher-order thinking themselves, cultivate their
and communication skills, include critical relationships at home,
technology devices. thinking, creative thinking, school, work and in the
learning-to-learn and self- community, and exercise
regulation; the ability to their civic responsibilities
recognise one’s knowledge, and include empathy, self-
skills, attitudes and values. efficacy, responsibility and
collaboration.
Table 2: Three different types of skills18

15
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Today’s Workplace. Business
Communication Quarterly, 75 (4), pp. 453–465
16
Handayani, A., & Wienanda, W. K. (2020). International mobility programs to improve soft skills of Vocational
College students and alumni. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 14(3), pp. 377–384, ISSN 2089-9823,
DOI: 10.11591/edulearn.v14i3.14538
17
Ibrahim, R., Boerhannoeddin, A. & Bakare, K. K. (2017). The effect of soft skills and training methodology on
employee performance. European Journal of Training and Development, V41(4), pp. 388–406, DOI: 10.1108/
EJTD-08-2016-0066
18
OECD (2018). The OECD Learning Compass 2030, https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-
and-learning/learning/
22 Daina Škuškovnika

The OECD Learning Compass 2030 distinguishes between three different

types of skills (see table 2): Practical and physical skills, Cognitive and meta-
cognitive skills, Social and emotional skills. Physical and practical skills are
essential for students’ overall functioning and well-being. Components of
cognitive skills19 are interwoven with social and emotional skills so closely
that it is difficult to tease apart and attribute the acquisition of these skills to
one category or another. For instance, critical thinking involves questioning
and evaluating ideas and solutions. This definition encompasses components
of metacognition, social and emotional skills (reflection and evaluation
within a cultural context), and even attitudes and values (moral judgement
and integration with one’s own goals and values), depending on the context.
Critical thinking skills are also significantly affected by both traditional school
experiences and by life experiences outside the classroom.
While cognitive skills have also long been considered the most
important determinants of success in employment, recent studies show20
that social and emotional skills also directly affect occupational status and
income. In fact, social and emotional skills can be equally – and in some
cases even more – important as cognitive skills in determining future
employment.

1.3. Soft skills development opportunities in tertiary education

According to The OECD Learning Compass 2030 the future conceptual

learning system will enable students to implement transformative competencies
to help them be competent and, if necessary, flexible and ready for change. The
vast majority of business leaders21 (94%) now expect employees to pick up new
skills on the job. Respondents to the Future of Jobs Survey estimate that around
40% of workers will require reskilling of six months or less, but that number
is higher for those in the consumer industry and in the health and healthcare
industry. Training will be delivered internally, according to 39% of employers.
But, as Professor Schwab noted, this will be supplemented by online learning
platforms (16% of training) and external consultants (11% of training).
19
OECD (2016). Preliminary reflections and research on knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary for 2030,
https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/about/documents/PRELIMINARY-REFLECTIONS-AND-
RESEARCH-ON-KNOWLEDGE-SKILLS-ATTITUDES-AND-VALUES-NECESSARY-FOR-2030.pdf
20
OECD (n.d). Social and Emotional Skills: Well-being connectedness and success, https://www.oecd.org/
education/school/UPDATED%20Social%20and%20Emotional%20Skills%20-%20Well-being,%20
connectedness%20and%20success.pdf%20(website).pdf
21
The World Economic Forum (2020). These are the top 10 job skills of tomorrow – and how long it takes to learn them.
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/10/top-10-work-skills-of-tomorrow-how-long-it-takes-to-learn-
them/
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 23

Understanding the nature of skills22 is essential for the successful

implementation of these skills in the context of higher education. Bunney et
al.23 point out that the issue of general skills of university students needs to
be addressed from a systemic perspective, across national and disciplinary
boundaries. Based on the analysis of research and theories related to the
implementation of education policy in different countries around the world,
four levels for the implementation of conceptual foundations of soft skills in
higher education institutions can be distinguished24:
1. National level: implementation of soft skills in the general context
2. Institutional level: Specific mechanisms and strategies for soft skills
policy implementation
3. Curricula level: setting goals for soft skills development and defining
the dynamics of soft skills development
4. Extracurricular level: extracurricular programs to develop soft skills.

It is also necessary to emphasize the 5th level for the implementation of

the conceptual basis of soft skills in everyday life – the conscious decision of
each individual to take responsibility for the development of their skills. The
acquisition of soft skills25 is positively influenced by students’ educational /
professional experience, students’ preparedness to acquire the course and the
desire to improve not only their academic and professional, but also personal
skills.
Policies and programs to measure and improve socio-emotional skills
vary considerably from country to country. The OECD report26 provides an
analytical synthesis of the importance of socio-emotional skills and proposes
strategies to enhance them. It analyses the impact of skills on various indicators
of individual well-being and social progress, covering as diverse aspects
of our lives as education, labour market outcomes, health, family life, civic
participation and life satisfaction. The report emphasizes that policy makers,
schools and families facilitate the development of socio-emotional skills
through intervention programs, teaching/learning and parenting practices.

22
Stewart, C., Marciniec, S., Lawrence, D. & Joyner-McGraw, L. (2020). Thinkubator Approach to Solving the Soft
Skills Gap. American Journal of Management, 20 (2), pp. 78–89
23
Bunney, D., Sharplin, E., & Howitt, C. (2015). Generic skills for graduate accountants: The bigger picture, a
social and economic imperative in the new knowledge economy. Higher Education Research & Development,
34(2), pp. 256–269, https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.956700
24
Tran Le Huu Nghia (2021). Building Soft Skills for Employability. Challenges and Practices in Vietnam. Routledge,
ISBN 9781032089508
25
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation tudy.
World Journal of Education, 11(1), pp. 42–50
26
OECD (2015). Skills for Social Progress, https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-for-social-progress-
9789264226159-en.htm
24 Daina Škuškovnika

Many projects are currently being implemented at the EU level with

the aim of promoting the development of modern work skills of students
and graduates, to educate and train flexible future specialists, who are ready
to meet the changes. An example is the ERASMUS+ Strategic Partnership
project DISCOM, 27 under which this book was written. The development and
implementation of the project is being carried out by 6 partner universities.
This project focuses on soft skills such as: cooperation in a team, setting goals,
time management, multicultural communication and conflict management.
The development of several soft skills takes place most naturally in a
real communication process in communication with strangers using foreign
language knowledge to learn or provide the necessary information. Determining
the advantages of international mobility programs in the development of soft
skills28, it has been found that particularly high development rates are observed
in the development of language and communication and interpersonal skills,
teamwork skills, cultural awareness and adaptability and openness.
The significance of tertiary education systems is the major concern
in meeting the countries’ economic and social requirements that are rising
globally.29 Given that most of the accreditation criteria for educational
institutions are related to general competencies, it may be necessary to
improve the accreditation processes in order to keep pace with the changing
requirements of the labour market. Higher education institutions develop their
own development strategies based on international standards and national
education strategies.30 Based on them, specialists in each specific professional
field develop concepts that are the basis for the content of specific courses.
For example a study by M. M. ElShaabany31 confirms that students studying
accounting and finance are interested in learning soft skills in addition to
professional courses. 81% of the respondents32 (accounting and finance
students) recognize that group work and other communication skills acquired
together with professional knowledge help them in their work. Graduates
attributed33 a higher level of importance to the following macro-areas of skills:

27
Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP "Development of
Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict management"
28
Handayani, A. & Wienanda, W. K. (2020). International Mobility Programs to Improve Soft Skills of Vocational
College Students and Alumni. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 14(3), pp. 377–384
29
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD (2005). https://www.oecd.org/about/
34711139.pdf
30
Mutalemwa, D. U. & Harold M. N. (2020). Soft Skills as a Problem and a Purpose for Tanzanian Industry: Views
of Graduates. Economic Insights – Trends & Challenges, 4, pp. 45–64
31
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation
Study. World Journal of Education, 11(1) pp. 42–50, https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v11n1p42
32
ElShaabany, M. M. & Ahmad, M. U. (2020). An EFA based stakeholder’s perspective on Accounting and Finance
courses. Journal of Xidian University, 14(4), pp. 1510–1524, https://doi.org/10.37896/jxu14.4/174
33
Dolce, V., Emanuel, F., Cisi, M., & Ghislieri, C. (2019). The soft skills of accounting graduates: perceptions versus
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 25

task orientation, motivation, self-awareness, valorisation, and interpersonal

relationships. In turn the MarLEM34 project implementers35 point out that in
addition to professional knowledge, a great deal of attention is paid to the
development of people skills in student training, which includes creativity and
innovation; personal and team leadership; critical thinking and problem solving;
decision making; intercultural communication and negotiation. In order to
educate and train university graduates to meet modern requirements and be
competitive in the labour market, it is necessary to purposefully integrate the
process of hard and soft skills development during studies, using integrative
and innovative teaching methods.

2. The modern educator –

student’s personality development coach

The need for a paradigm shift in education is a global reality. If in the past good
education was treated as knowing a lot, then today the goal of education is
to understand the essence and be able to use knowledge.36 The knowledge
base should not be divided according to the principle of separate subjects and
courses, but should be oriented towards interdisciplinary or transversal skills.
The student must be able to use knowledge, skills and express attitudes in a
complex way, solving problems in changing real life situations.

2.1. Teaching/learning methods for soft skills development

To a certain extent, the modern educator becomes a student’s personal

development coach, helping the student not only to acquire certain knowledge,
but also promoting the student’s desire to be aware of how the acquired will be
put into practice, what soft skills are needed to make it more effective. Already
while defining the goal and tasks of a particular study course, it is necessary to
include the conscious development of the student’s soft skills as an essential task

expectations. Accounting Education, DOI: 10.1080/09639284.2019.1697937

34
Maritime Logistics Engineering and Management aims to develop a joint Master’s program in Maritime
Logistics Engineering and Management and to promote cooperation between Industry and Academia
35
Geada Borda de Água, P. M., Dias da Silva, F. A., de Jesus Carrasqueira, M. & Manuel Modas Daniel, J. (2020).
Future of maritime education and training: blending hard and soft skills. Scientific Journal of Maritime
Research, 34(2), pp. 345–353
36
Right to education (2021). Education 2030, https://www.right-to-education.org/issue-page/education-2030
26 Daina Škuškovnika

and encourage students to evaluate their skills. Training students to become

successful professionals requires the faculty to use a myriad of approaches.
Active learning is widely used in the development of soft skills, which
requires students to engage and collaborate to create their own experience in
the classroom; understand the problem, analyse it, discuss and based on the
acquired knowledge, develop solutions that would be presented to the teacher
and other students. Structured team activities37 focused on solving realistic
problems develop students’ soft skills. Group discussions38 are a robust way
to teach not only communication skills to the students but also non-verbal
communication, difference between assertiveness and aggressiveness, how
to be polite, how to put across your points, how to encourage the reticent
participants. Group-Based Learning39: a blended mode where classroom-based
training is also offered as a support and Game-Based Learning: playing games
in simulated condition that form the basis of developing soft skills are often
used. The role of Problem-based learning40 in the development of soft skills
while training students of the technical and other specialities is invaluable.
This form of training enables not only enhancing students’ conflict resolution
skills, leadership and interpersonal skills, but also factors influencing the
process; clarity of instruction, instructor personality, lead time, etc. One of
the approaches that has been widely used in recent years is client-sponsored
projects as an excellent method of transferring practical experience compared
to using text case studies. Educators can use a variety of procedures to develop
classroom experiences by integrating real business world pressures, coaching,
and responsibilities to better prepare graduates for their careers and meet the
skills expected by business leaders.41; 42
The development of soft skills became even more difficult during the
Covid-19 pandemic. Universities were forced to adapt quickly to digital learning

37
Martin, T. N. (2019). Review of Student Soft Skills Development Using the 5Ws/H Approach Resulting in a
Realistic, Experiential, Applied, Active Learning and Teaching Pedagogical Classroom. Journal of Behavioral &
Applied Management, 19 (1), pp. 41–57, Database: Academic Search Ultimate
38
Sharma, S. & Shekhawat, S. (2020). Learning Soft Skills Through Group Discussion. IUP Journal of Soft Skills,
14 (4), pp. 12–19, Business Source Ultimate
39
Manishankar, C. (2021). The Dynamics of Soft Skills. IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 15(1), pp. 20–26, Database:
Business Source Ultimate
40
Deep, S., Ahmed, A., Suleman, N., Abbas, M., Nazar, U., Shaheen, H. & Razzaq, A. (2020). The Problem-Based
Learning Approach towards Developing Soft Skills: A Systematic Review. Qualitative Report, 25 (11),
pp. 4029–4054, Database: Academic Search Ultimate
41
Thompson, K., Conde, R., Gade, M. & Mims, T. (2021). An Immersion Approach to Client-Sponsored Projects:
Preparing Students with Soft Skills Required for Hiring – Face to Face & Virtual Methods. International Journal
of Higher Education, 10(2), pp. 42–61, Database: ERIC
42
Jalinus, N., Syahril, N., & Rahmat, A. (2020). How Project-Based Learning and Direct Teaching Models Affect
Teamwork and Welding Skills among Students. Online Submission. International Journal of Innovation,
Creativity and Change, 11 (11), pp. 85–111, Database: ERIC
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 27

methods and the use of different platforms for e-learning. A method and tools43
have been developed for the development of soft skills in students, which can
be used in various subjects and as part of the strategy of higher education
institutions. Although pilot studies are still ongoing, it is believed that this
method will help integrate the development of soft skills through online
learning and their link with the course subjects will help universities better
train students for 21st century reality even after the Covid-19 crisis. Santora44
recommends special training for e-coaches who, using e-coaching methods,
can remotely develop the soft skills of individuals.
In order to promote student learning, it is also important to assess
effective performance by providing quality feedback. When analysing group
work on a specific phenomenon that is being acquired, during the feedback,
it is necessary to encourage students to assess their soft skills, which were
necessary to complete the specific learning task. When creating the traditional
feedback on what has been learned and understood during the lesson, it is
necessary to encourage students to analyse questions such as: What soft skills
are needed to apply what has been learned in practice? How do I currently
assess my own level of development of the required soft skills? What can I do to
increase these soft skill levels? A tool to evaluate team based learning in nursing
has been developed and tested45, with the help of which it is possible to assess
group synergies and team learning among nursing students. ePortfolio46 is an
innovative tool for promoting the development of soft skills. Three ePortfolios
can be distinguished according to their main tasks: 1) e-portfolio to support
learning; 2) an e-portfolio related to learning outcomes 3) an e-portfolio to
present yourself in the world of work. The authors emphasize that the e-portfolio
is a powerful tool to support the self-assessment of individuals throughout the
studies with the provision of feedback from teachers and practice managers not
only on academic or professional results, but specifically on the development
of soft skills.
It should be noted that soft skills help to be dynamic, ready for change, to
look for solutions in every situation.47 During the Covid-19 pandemic, employers

43
Naamati, S. L., Meirovich, A., & Dolev, N. (2020). Soft Skills On-Line Development in Times of Crisis. Romanian
Journal for Multidimensional Education, 12, pp. 122–129, DOI: 10.18662/rrem/12.1sup2/255
44
Santora, J. C. (2021). E-Coaching: Building Better Employee Soft Skills. International Leadership Journal, 13 (1),
pp. 120–123
45
Keister, K. J., Farra, S. L., Smith, S. J., & Bottomley, M. (2021). Development of a Scale to Measure Synergy: A Tool
to Evaluate Team-Based Learning in Nursing. Nursing Education Perspectives (Wolters Kluwer Health), 42 (2),
pp. 87–92, DOI: 10.1097/01.NEP.0000000000000783
46
Cimatti, B. (2016). Assessment of soft skills and their role for the quality of organizations and enterprises.
International Journal for Quality Research, 10(1), pp. 97–130, DOI: 10.18421/IJQR10.01-05
47
Manishankar, C. (2021). The Dynamics of Soft Skills. IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 15(1), pp. 20–26, Database:
Business Source Ultimate
28 Daina Škuškovnika

had to make great use of both their own and employees’ soft skills – to react
quickly to the situation, often to restructure their activities, train employees to
perform new duties, where it was important to understand the employee and
apply the most appropriate type of communication and training.

2.2. Soft skills development – personal decision of every individual

Students learn not only to obtain an academic degree, but get competencies
and abilities that will be developed lifelong (Longlife Learning). Soft Skills
acquisition, of course, does not occur only in the university, competencies are
also obtained outside the school in everyday personal and social life and so one
of the higher education missions is to create a desire in students to develop,
improve and enhance their abilities throughout their lifetime. It has been
found48 that soft skills acquisition has a positive impact not only on students’
education / professional experience, students’ readiness to learn the course and
willingness to improve academic and professional skills and abilities, but also
on their readiness and motivation to develop soft skills. Ammani & Chitra49 point
out that the existence of soft skills helps create a good working environment
for sharing knowledge, ideas and information. It is therefore necessary to
focus on developing areas such as individual self-confidence, self-motivation,
cooperation, empathy, interpersonal skills, listening skills, negotiation and
humour. Work performance and the expression of other soft skills affects the
individual’s skills to realize and manage their stress. Even in situations that
create stress, it is possible to gain strong positive and constructive energy
that can be used productively, focusing on the goal. M. Tripathy50 emphasizes
that deliberate stress management in the workplace promotes wellbeing and
emotional freedom.
To develop future capabilities and skills, every individual needs to
understand their personality, be aware of their strengths and weaknesses and
consciously decide on the development of their skills and abilities. If individuals
consciously set the objective of improving themselves, it is up to them to decide
what to focus on – the identification and development of their talents or on
training skills and abilities that are not so well developed. Nobel Prize winners

48
ElShaabany, M. M. (2021). Does Accounting and Finance Courses Enable Soft Skill Learning? A Mediation
Study. World Journal of Education, 11(1), pp. 42–50, https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v11n1p42
49
Ammani, S. & Chitra, V. B. (2020). Blended Learning of Soft Skills Through Life Skills in an Organization. IUP
Journal of Soft Skills, 14 (4), pp. 7–11
50
Tripathy, M. (2018). Recognizing & Handling the Underlying Causes of Stress at Workplace: An Approach
through Soft Skills. International Journal of Management, Accounting & Economics, 5 (7), pp. 619–632,
Database: Business Source Ultimate
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 29

in the economics, Kahneman51 and Thaler52 in their work describe thinking

systems characterising two ways of personality thinking. People of system 1
take decisions automatically, quickly, without mental effort (or minimal effort),
without conscious control, intuitively, easily changing their views. They have little
sense of what may happen in the future. On the other hand people of system 2
are able to actively use rational thinking, pay attention to the effort-related
mental actions. People of this system make deliberate decisions, plan their
future and assume responsibility for their decisions. Individuals, who mostly
use system 2 thinking make more informed, more rational decisions regarding
self-improvement and the development of certain soft skills and most often – the
decisions are also realized. Individuals, who in their thinking rely more on the
confluence of circumstances may find it not only difficult to make decisions on the
development of their soft skills but also in implementing such decisions. Therefore
the educator’s recommendations, planned and controlled soft skills development
process during the whole study period play an important role. In order to make
decisions regarding the necessity for change, it is possible to use the “5 steps to
designing the life you want” model developed by Professor Bill Burnett.53
One and the same person, in different circumstances, may act very
differently and even the most in depth personality research does not allow
100% certainty in predicting human behaviour in real life situations. However,
such research could prove useful in order to understand oneself, make
conscious decisions on self-improvement and changing one’s life. Within the
framework of the DISCOM project, a step 5 method is offered, which can help
students consciously make decisions on the need to improve certain aspects of
their personality (refer figure 1).

Figure 1. Model for making decisions regarding development

of one’s soft skills

51
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin Books, ISBN 9780141033570
52
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions on Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press
53
Burnett, B. (2017). 5 steps to designing the life you want. TED x Talks, https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=SemHh0n19LA
30 Daina Škuškovnika

Using this model54, it is possible to be continuously aware of the need for

change, analyse the strengths and weaknesses of your personality, analyse the
situation and available resources, develop a plan and not only make a decision,
but also start to implement this decision. The person realizes the need for change
(step 1) by receiving external encouragement (feedback from friends, parents,
teachers, direct managers), by being aware of his/her insufficient ability to do
something, and also by feeling stressed about how to succeed in realizing an
idea. To identify the strengths and weaknesses of your personality (step 2), you
can use the online personality tests and get an interpretation of the test results.
However, it should be remembered that professional personality research tools
are the work tools of certified psychologists55, 56 and a direct conversation with
a psychologist, career counsellor, personality development coach or any other
type of certified specialist can help to make a qualitative analysis of the person’s
strengths and weaknesses, as well as a situational analysis, which will facilitate
the development and implementation of the plan. When analysing the situation
and the available resources (step 3), it may also be useful to talk to someone
who has already dealt with a similar situation or is currently dealing with it.
Logical Levels model57, which is extensively used in coaching, makes it easier to
understand and be aware of the need for change in order to decide on the goal
a person wants to achieve and choose the appropriate actions.
People who consciously set goals value their happiness higher when they
achieve them than those who have also achieved the same goal, but this has
not happened as a result of a conscious decision. The conscious setting of short
term and long term goals, the creation of a conscious plan, is a step that a person
takes using system 2 thinking. While setting goals and developing a plan, keep
in mind that goals must meet the SMART58 criteria: S – Specific (or Significant);
M – Measurable (or Meaningful); A – Attainable (or Action-Oriented); R –
Relevant (or Rewarding); T – Time-bound (or Trackable). In order to stimulate
the introduction of new habits and ensure the preservation of new activities in
the long run, the plan must provide for “small peaks”, at which a person gives
himself a small “prize” (which, of course, will be completely individual). In
order to make it easier to start the implementation of the plan (step 5), it is
recommended to take at least a small step in its implementation already at the
moment of accepting the plan.

54
Škuškovnika, D. (2021). Soft skills – what does it mean? http://skills.turiba.lv/files/ABOUT%20SOFT%20
SKILLS%20.pdf
55
Mental help (2021). Introduction to Psychological Testing, https://www.mentalhelp.net/psychological-
testing/
56
Personality Project (2018). Personality Theory and Research, https://personality-project.org/
57
Dilts, R. (b.g.). Agile, The Dilts Pyramid and the Changes, http://agile-space.com/en/agile-dilts-pyramid-changes/
58
Personal Goal Setting. Planning to Live Your Life Your Way (b.g.). https://www.mindtools.com/page6.html
 Chapter 1. Soft Skills 31

To make soft skills development programs more effective, it is possible

to use different approaches and methods that help learners do, know or
understand.

Conclusion

The 21st century skills required include learning to know, learning to do,
learning to be and learning to live. The new knowledge economy resulting
from technological development requires graduates in all disciplines with
flexible thinking and transferable skill sets that are able to innovate and adapt
to a dynamic work environment. As a result, universities need to develop the
transferable general skills necessary for graduates to advance their careers
and foster economic innovation and social development. The student must be
able to use knowledge, skills and express attitudes in a complex way, solving
problems in changing real life situations.
It is concluded that the implementation of the basics of soft skills should
be taken care of at 5 levels: national, institutional, curricula, extracurricular
activities and the individual level. Businesses and higher education institutions
need to work together not only to raise students’ awareness of the importance
of soft skills, but also to make them individually responsible for acquiring and
developing these essential skills in order to adapt to a constantly changing
labour market. In order to promote student learning, it is important to use
modern teaching/learning methods and also to provide quality feedback when
assessing the effectiveness of student performance.
The article describes the 5-step method offered within the ERASMUS+
Strategic Partnership DISCOM project, which can help students make decisions
regarding the need to consciously improve certain aspects of their personality.
Using this model, it is possible to be aware of the need for change, analyse
the strengths and weaknesses of one’s personality, analyse the situation and
available resources, develop a plan and not only make a decision, but also start
to implement this decision.
CHAPTER 2

TIME
MANAGEMENT
 ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING TIME
MANAGEMENT SKILLS DURING COLLEGE
STUDIES AND IN PROFESSIONAL LIFE:
LITERATURE REVIEW AND PROSPECTS
By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

Annotation: This article explores time management under the different

profiles of the social and practical relevance of the soft skill in the contemporary
professional context, the role of time management for well-being, as well
as the relationship with procrastination. Through a review of the existing
literature on time management, the article’s objective is to establish whether
the topic is relevant for the future professional life of university students.
Learning time management techniques while at the university may have a
positive impact not only on grades and academic successes, but most of all as
concerns the future personal and professional life.

Keywords: time management, efficient planning, procrastination, performance,

motivation

Summary: Introduction – 1. Social and practical relevance of the topic. –

2. The relationship between time management and well-being from a holistic
point of view. – 3. The impact of time management on achievement and
motivation. – 4. The relationship between procrastination and performance:
time management as an effective tool against procrastination. – Conclusions.

Introduction

“Time”, as known, is a social construct, i.e. – is created by humans and society

to measure life and activities. It is an immaterial thing that cannot be perceived
by the senses. This is the reason why the Roman philosopher Seneca lamented
that people are unable to manage time because of the poor value attributed
to it, because time is “something incorporeal, because it does not fall under
the eyes, and therefore it is considered a small thing, indeed it has almost no
price.”1 However, time is an element that pervades our existence and is present

1
Seneca, L. A. De Brevitate Vitae, 49 AD, VIII

35
36 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

in every aspect of life: all our activities require, de facto, time.2

Whereas some events are “natural” and “objective”, such as “day” and
“night”, others are “artificial” and “objective”, such as “hours”, whilst other
are influenced by psychological and internal factors. For example, how “long”
an hour is perceived by a person according to his or her emotional state at a
given moment? The perception of time also depends on our culture and on our
environment.3 As a preliminary remark, it is important to note at the outset
that “time management”, as understood below, can only refer to the last of the
three understandings of time, namely the internal and personal one.4 A “day”,
in its natural sense, cannot be managed by a person; so cannot an hour, as this
is only the social construct of humanity5 and does not exist in the world of real
and material things.
What can be “managed” are the activities a single person, and so – in last
instance his or her productivity – can proficiently carry out within the specific
time-space of the social construct she or he has at disposal.
However, if “time-management” turns into the paradigm of “activity
management during a given set of time”, and thus if the focus rests on the third
understanding of time (the internal perception), the existence of a multitude of
subjective and psychological elements – variable over time – make it difficult
to elaborate a general and absolute theory and model for time management. In
other words, it seems difficult, if not impossible at all, to elaborate a good-for-
all forecast time management solution model that applies to everyone, in all
situations.
Moreover, time management studies can contribute in the increase of
personal productivity by suggesting new approaches and solutions to (smart)
work, through planning and organization schemes aimed at rationalizing
efforts and concentrate actions, also by way of avoiding distractions and
procrastination.
The present contribution reviews the existing literature on time
management, with the scope to establish whether the topic is relevant for
the future professional life of university students. Most college studies and
universities have traditionally disregarded the importance of soft skills in the
job market and thus have not provided specific courses aimed at teaching those
2
Drucker, P. (1967). The effective executive. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 22, wrote, “Everything
requires time. It is the one truly universal condition. All work takes place in time and uses up time”
3
Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Anchor Books, p. 6; Pant, B. (2016). Different cultures see
deadlines differently, Harvard Business Review, May 23, available at: https://hbr.org/2016/05/different-
cultures-see-deadlines-differently
4
Orlikowski, W., & Yates, J. (2002). It’s about time: temporal structuring in organizations. Organization Science,
Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 684–700
5
Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: Atreatise in the sociology of knowledge.
New York: Doubleday; Zerubavel, E. (1981). Hidden rhythms. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press
 Chapter 2. Time Management 37

kind of competences to pupils and students – rather focusing on “hard skills”.

However, several studies can constitute the basis for affirming that learning
time management techniques while at the university may have a positive
impact not only on grades and academic successes, but most of all as concerns
the future personal and professional life.

1. Social and practical relevance of the topic

Time management and efficient planning refers to the world of the so-called
“soft skills” that defined as a set of character traits, attitudes and behaviours
that enhance a person’s interactions and job performances.6 Acquiring strong
and effective time management skills is of crucial importance in current society.
Today, students and workers at any stage and level experience difficulties in
making good choices, because of the wide range of possibilities that suggest
“consumers” to do many things in order to be successful. This is even more
difficult considering that people are constantly exposed to any kind of
distractions (e.g. social media) in their daily life.7 The absence of a real method
for addressing the demands of daily life makes more and more difficult to
manage our daily choices and actions in a way that is effective for reaching our
most important goals.
Higher demands in performance have made time management and
efficient planning skills a substantial prerequisite in the professional and
occupational context. The strong competitiveness business organizations
face in an environment of continuous change involves the search for cost
reduction and increased productivity, all of which require the employee
greater requirements in terms of tasks and hours of work.8 There is a clear
understanding on the relation between time and organizational productivity,
as the first is a fundamental element of the second: according to Doob,9 the
efficiency of an operation is measured on its accomplishment with the smallest
expenditure of energy and time.

6
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills Needed in Today’s Workplace, in Business
Communication Quarterly, 4, pp. 453–456, at p. 457; T. L. Parsons (2008). Definition: Soft Skills, as cited in
Robles (2012)
7
According to the Global Digital Report 2020. Available at http://wearesocial.com, in January 2019 there
were 3.48 billion social media users, with the worldwide total growing by 288 million (9 percent) since
January 2018. There were 3.26 billion people using social media on mobile devices in January 2019, with a
growth of 297 million new users representing a year-on-year increase of more than 10 percent
8
Garhammer, M. (2002). Pace of life and enjoyment of life, Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, pp. 217–256
9
Doob, L. W. (1971). Patterning of Time, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p. 349
38 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

It appears particularly important to remember how the first studies of

time management were originally directed to ensure better performances of
leading figures within top-ranking companies.10 “Managers” were the first
natural target group of time management studies and recipients of deliverables.
Nonetheless, over time, more and more worker categories have been attracted
in those included within the “beneficiaries” of these studies, as a better
individual management of productivity at any level bears positive outcomes,
not only for the single worker or employee, but for the market as well. Workers
who can better manage their time are more efficient than those falling behind
schedule. Those trends are not surprising, in the light of the growing flexibility
of work in terms of organization and time schedules, that puts the burden of
time management on employers instead of companies.11
Notwithstanding this growing need of time mastering skills – as well as the
great philosophical and scientific concern for the topic – there has traditionally
been a lack of attention for this aspect in significant areas of education.
Several studies have examined the effects of time management training
programs on job performance:12 for instance, Van Eerde in 200313 found that
participants showed a more frequent use of time management behaviors, that
significantly decreased worrying and trait procrastination. Another study
indicated that one’s success depends at 85% on soft skills and at 15% on “hard
skills” (that are the technical expertise and knowledge needed for a job).14
Learning time management skills as a student in organized and well-rounded
way allows to consolidate effective capacities before accessing to the labor
market, other than enhancing academic results that increase their chances of
better job-placement. Having the possibility to acquire and learn those skills
enable students to develop a consolidated personalized method, which can
easily be applied in the future.
If Universities are supposed to prepare people for their future profes-
sional life, a teaching on time management and efficient planning should be
offered, if not even considered compulsory, since those abilities have evident
effects on how jobs are and will be performed, as well as they might contribute
in attaining an acceptable work-life balance.

10
See for instance Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, S. (1982). The One Minute Manager. New York: William Morrow
& Co
11
Aeon, B., & Aguinis, H. (2017). It’s About Time: New Perspectives and Insights on Time Management, in
Academy of Management Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 4, p. 324
12
Green & Skinner, 005; King & al. (1986); Macan (1994); Slaven & Totterdell (1993); Van Eerde (2003); Hall &
Hursch (1982); Orpen (1994)
13
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at work and time management training, in Journal of Psychology, Vol.
137, p. 421 ff.
14
Watts & Watts (2008)
 Chapter 2. Time Management 39

2. The relationship between time management and

well-being from A holistic point of view

As mentioned, the first studies on time management were focused on managers,

in order to enable them to reach better performances at work. Subsequently,
time management investigations turned to the work environment and
techniques in the field as a whole, reaching also employees and, in general, the
overall organization of workplaces. Later on, the science of time management
has evolved and further broadened its scope: many researches had started to
find out the impact of time management and organization skills over the quality
of people’s life in a broader and more general sense.
Time management has caught an attention not only of business, but
also of the self-development literature that follows a more holistic approach,
embracing life in general and with aspects of educational perspective.15 In this
context, time management represent a self-regulation behavior that consists
in a series of individual initiatives to monitor and regulate time use,16 that also
has beneficial outcomes for people’s physical and mental health, and for overall
satisfaction and well-being.
The relationship of time management with non-economic variables such
as the ones mentioned above has been analyzed by various authors.17 Person-
related outcomes such as reduced anxiety, reduced job-induced and somatic
tensions, job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction have been related to the
learning and application of time management, organization and planning skills.
In general, the outcomes have confirmed the existence of a positive relationship
between the control of time (expressed through time management behaviors)
and the so called work-life balance.

15
Zimmermann, B. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological
developments, and future prospects, in American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 45, p. 166 ff.; Ning, H. K., &
Downing, K. (2010). The reciprocal relationship between motivation and self-regulation: A longitudinal study
on academic performance, in learning and Individual Differences, v. 69, p. 205 ff.; Xu, J., Du, J., Wang, C., Liu, F.,
Huang, B., Zhang, M., & Lie, J. (2020). Intrinsic motivation, favorability, time management, and achievement:
A cross-lagged panel analysis, in Learning and Motivation, Vol. 72, p. 1 ff.
16
Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college
students, in Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 16, p. 385 ff.
17
Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: test of a process model, in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79,
p. 381 ff.; Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College students’ academic stress and its relation to their anxiety,
time management, and leisure satisfaction, in American Journal of Health Studies, Vol. 16, p. 41 ff.; Pérez-González,
F., García-Ros, R., & Talaya González, I. (2003). Learning styles and management skills of academic time in
secondary education, Revista Portuguesa de Educação, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 59–74; Strazdins, L., Griffin, A. L.,
Broom, D. H., Banwell, C., Korda, R., & Dixon, J. (2011). Time scarcity: another health inequality? Environment
and Planning A, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 545–559; Boixadós, M., Hernández-Encuentra, E., & Pousada, M. (2012).
Personal time management and quality of life in the network society, in Stoilov, T. (Ed.). Time Management, InTech,
New York, 19 p., ISBN: 978-953-51-0335-6, available at: www.intechopen.com/books/timemanagement/
personal-time-management-and-quality-of-life-in-the-network-society
40 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

In this sense, an important aspect concerns the consideration of time

management and its positive outcomes not only in the work environment – and
within the professional performance – but also in relationship with personal
life: work-life balance has been studied as an outcome of the application of
time management skills.18 In this perspective, the positive effects following
a proper time management are naturally experienced at work, on the basis
of the most recent approach that considers personal and professional life as
two communicating vessels, where the dynamics occurring in one context
necessarily influence the others’. Starting from the assumption that our lives are
not made of clean, separated and disconnected “boxes”, the natural interference
between family life and work constitutes a field of study on the well-being of
people as a consequence of a certain type of organization.19 Since family and
work “interfere” with each other20 (so to say), if this relationship is conflictual
it is possible to experience dissatisfaction and even health complaints. In this
context, the learning and application of time management behaviors21 has
proven to be beneficial for the reduction of work-family conflicts, through a
specific influence on the perceived control of time. This means that workers
who perceive themselves as having greater control over their (work, but also
family) time are less prone to stress caused by a dysfunctional work-family
balance, to job dissatisfaction and to health problems.
From the above, it is apparent how soft skills acquired mainly for
professional purposes, if correctly employed in other contexts, may exert
positive direct or indirect externalities – either because a better work time
management helps reducing a work-life conflict, either because methodologies
and techniques for time management cad be replicated in non-professional
tasks as well increasing the capacity to perform task and reduce anxiety. The
beneficial effects of time management are the result of a better self-perception
of one’s ability to be in charge of roles, tasks and duties. In other words, a more
active role in the definition of one’s goals and priorities, as well as a better
schedule and application of organization techniques, determines a better
psychological self-perception of one’s success in managing all aspects of life.

18
Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work-family conflict, and
strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, pp. 72–7
19
See Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work–family conflict,
and strain, in Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 4, p. 72 ff.
20
Reference is made, for the purpose of this contribution, to time-based conflicts where time demandes associated
with family roles and work roles interfere with each other: Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). cit., p. 72
21
Following the accredited work of Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: test of a process model, cit., time
management behaviours are divided in three main categories: a) setting goals and priorities; b) making lists
and schedules; c) organization.
 Chapter 2. Time Management 41

3. The impact of time management on achievement

and motivation

Researches showing that student’s academic performances are influenced by

various factors, among which there is time management, have also highlighted
the importance of the role of Universities in identifying those factors and in
improving the acquisitions that those factors and the related skills by students.22
When studying the effects of time management behaviors on learning outcomes
and academic results, it was found that there is a positive relationship between
time management and achievement.23 The latter indicates the capacity to
be successful in an activity or, in other terms, the act of reaching a goal, thus
concerning the actual outcomes of a performance.24 The prior use of self-
regulatory strategies of that kind showed subsequent better results in those
terms.
Other than achievement, motivation is another factor which enables
people to reach their goals. In psychology, motivation is defined as the drive
or impulse that gives purpose or direction to human behavior.25 Motivation
psychology addresses the “whys” and “hows” of activities that reflect the
pursuit of a particular goal.26 According to some studies, a correlation between
time management and motivation has been found, according to which prior
time management conduces to higher motivation.27
In order to understand the reasons why certain self-regulation behaviors
may increase motivation, it is necessary to introduce the concepts of intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation.28 Intrinsic motivation is the impetus or
inspiration to do something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable.
When acting because of an intrinsic motivation, there is no obvious external
reward, but the act is driven by an internal will: the end result satisfies the

22
Womble, P. (2003). Impacts of Stress factors on college student’s academic performance. Undergraduate
Journal of Psychology, 16(1), pp. 16–23
23
Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades, cit.; Núñez, J. C.,
Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A. & Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental
involvement in homework, student homework behaviors, and academic achievement: differences among
elementary, junior high, and high school students, in Metacognition and learning, Vol. 10(3), p. 375 ff.
24
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2010). The Psychology of Academic Achievement, in Annual Review of Psychology,
Vol. 61, p. 653 ff.
25
APA Dictionary of Psychology, available at https://dictionary.apa.org/ (last accessed November 12th, 2020)
26
Heckhausen, J., Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivation and Action: Introduction and Overview, in J. Heckhausen, H.
Heckhausen (eds.), Motivation and Action, 3rd ed., p. 1 ff.
27
Ning, H. K., & Downing, K. (2010). The reciprocal relationship between motivation and self-regulation, cit., p.
205 ff.; Xu, J., Du, J., Wang, C., Liu, F., Huang, B., Zhang, M. & Lie, J. (2020). Intrinsic motivation, favorability, time
management, and achievement, cit., p. 9 ff.
28
In this contribution we follow the definitions given by Ryan R. M. and Deci E. L. within their Self-Determination
Theory: see Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New
Directions, in Contemporary Educational Psychology, Vol. 25, p. 54
42 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

conscious, the ego, or the self-esteem in a positive way. Extrinsic motivation,

on the other hand, refers to doing something because it leads to a separable
outcome: there are many sources of extrinsic motivation, whose common
trait is to stem from a source that is external and separate from (although not
necessarily in conflict with) the inner goals and aspirations of the subject.
Extrinsic motivation may also occur when a person carries out an action because
there will be a tangible reward to it (such as good grades or an increment in
salary).
According to some studies, there is a close relationship between time
management and intrinsic motivation.29 On the one hand, the emotional
implications that underline our intrinsic motivation, the value each person
assigns to his or her work, and the self-perception of competences and abilities
may affect to the way we manage our time. On the other hand, if we acquire
time management skills, our perceived control of time may affect positively our
motivation to perform a certain task. The underlying attitudes and goals that
give rise to action are psychological, in the sense that increasing our perceived
control of time makes us more confident in the performance of activities. The
prior organization of time, eventually through the development of a clear plan
and the reservation of specific time slots for the performance of an activity, raises
the perceived importance of the tasks to be done and makes the subsequent,
effective performance more likely.
In this context, time management seems to play an important role
especially for students. Assuming that students’ motivation and performances
are often affected by their way of coping with academic stress and anxiety (e.g.
following a negative result or before a deadline or an exam), students who take
advantage of time management skills should be able to manage stress more
effectively. In this regard, research has shown that time management skills
bring more positive effects than leisure satisfaction activities,30 that may have
a role in reducing stress in the short-term, but may obviously obstacle the
effective achievement of academic goals in the long run. In other terms, time
management skills would consent a better use of time also for the purpose of
engaging in leisure and stress-reducing activities and without compromising
academic success.
As concerns the work environment, the management of human resources
is very much focused on the improvement in performance of employers, with
a view of increasing their efficiency through motivation.31 Time management

29
See the studies cited above, at note 34
30
Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College students’ academic stress and its relation to their anxiety, time
management, and leisure satisfaction, in American Journal of Health Studies, Vol. 16, p. 41 ff.
31
Awosusi, O. O. (2011). International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria,
 Chapter 2. Time Management 43

behaviors have been found to be positively correlated with job satisfaction,

health32 and motivation.33 Time management also has an important role in
reducing the risk of burnout. Burnout is a stress syndrome generally caused by
heavy workloads or high performance demands in a job’s given time throughout
its lifespan. Other than the burnout that may occur during university studies, this
phenomenon is one of the most studied problems in the field of organizational
psychology.34 Indeed, one of the factors that has a main role in job-related stress
is time perceived as a “resource”: the feeling of having too much to do and not
enough time to do it is what causes the negative consequences linked to stress
and burnout. “Time famine” is the expression used by Perlow to indicate this
feeling.35
Among the factors that are particularly likely to influence burnout,
motivation has been studied as a key to break the vicious circle between high
demands, accumulation of tasks and the stress resulting from the heavy
workload. In particular, intrinsic motivation can improve well-being and
performance, since persons who are intrinsically motivated may have more
persistence, concentration and effort.36
Since the good application of time management techniques may improve
our perceived control of time and therefore may result beneficial for our intrinsic
motivation, it could be possible to infer that an improvement in the management
of time may have a certain role in preventing and/or reducing the risk of burnout
as well. Moreover, people who have excellent time management skills can better
cope with a heavy workload, thus preventing demand accumulation.37
On the basis of these considerations, institutions of higher education that
offer courses in soft skills, and specifically on time management, usually serve
their students well. Firstly, the acquisition and application of time management

Motivation and Job Performances Among Nurses in the Ekiti State Environment of Nigeria, Vol. 2; Ahmad, Nor
Lela & Yusuf, Ahmad & Shobri, Nor & Wahab, Samsudin (2012). The Relationship between Time Management
and Job Performance in Event Management. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 65, pp. 937–941; Erwin,
M. (2009). 21st Century Time management: New Delhi: time creation press; Goddard, R. (2001). Time in
Organisations. Journal of management and development, Vol. 20, Iss/pp. 19–27; Häfner, A., & Stock, A. (2010).
Time Management Training and Perceived Control of Time at Work, The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 144,
pp. 429–447
32
Claessens, B. J. C., Eerde, W. V., Rutte, C. G., & Roe, R. A. (2007). A review of the time management literature.
Personnel Review, Emerald Group Publishing, 36 (2), pp. 255–276
33
Alvani, C. M. (2008). Public management. Tehran: Ney publication
34
Brummelhuis, L. L., Hoeven, C. L., Bakker, A. B., & Peper, B. (2011). Breaking through the loss cycle of burnout:
The role of motivation, in Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 84, p. 268; Khodaveisi,
M., Bahar, G. S., & Ahmadi, S. (2015). The Relation between time management and job stress in physical
education lecturers and faculty members of Hamedan Universities. Sport Science, 8(1), pp. 60–63
35
Perlow, L. A. (1999). The time famine: Toward a sociology of work time. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44,
pp. 51–81
36
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development and well-being, in American Psychologist, Vol. 55, p. 68–78
37
Macan (1994)
44 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

skills improves academic performance. Secondly, academic performance is

connected and leads to better job opportunities. Thirdly, the positive effects of
the acquisition of time management skills is able to affect offers students with
techniques and methodologies that can be adapted to the work market and
thus serve stress management also outside the academic environment, after
graduation in the professional life.38

4. The relationship between procrastination and

performance: time management as an effective tool
against procrastination.

Procrastination is defined as a behavior that consists in the avoidance of the

execution of an intended action.39 In other words, it is a dilatory tendency that
consists in postponing tasks and activities that are perceived as unpleasant,
using an alternative and less important activity as a distraction. The latter
usually is an action that can be taken up and abandoned within a short time
span.40 This behavior produces an immediate – yet temporary – release from
stress, but may serious negatively affect fundamental and significant academic
and professional achievements and satisfaction in the long term. Procrastinators
are more likely to be behind schedule on personal and professional projects, to
study for an exams less hours than intended, to miss deadlines and to engage
in higher level of anxiety and agitation. It is no coincidence that procrastination
has been defined as the “thief of life”.41
There are many root causes of procrastination, since the phenomenon
involves many psychological aspects42: people may adopt dilatory behaviors
when motivation or enthusiasm are lacking, when they are worried about failing
or when they engage in perfectionist tendencies. Therefore, procrastination
cannot be defined solely as a “time management issue”, but rather is an
“emotional management issues” that affects the way we use our time, the way
we pursue our goals and the overall results of our work.
Yet, procrastination is one of the most discussed topics in the field of

38
As out outlined by Al Khatib AS, Time management and its relation to students’ stress, gender and academic
achievement among sample of students at Al Ain University of science and technology, UAE. International
Journal of Business and Social Research, 2014, 4(5), pp. 47–58
39
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at Work and Time Management Training, The Journal of Psychology,
137:5, pp. 421–434
40
Sabini, J., Silver, M. (1982). Moralities of everyday life. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
41
Tracy, B. (2013). Time management. New York, NY: AMACOM, p. 67
42
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer
 Chapter 2. Time Management 45

time management, because it is a highly diffused behavior among people43 that

affects the use of time resources.
One of the most recurring cause of procrastination is the emotional
state connected with the fear of failure. This trait may also be connected with
perfectionist tendencies. Individuals who possess the trait procrastination tend
to believe they are not capable or are inadequate to perform a certain task and
that assignments or job demands are too numerous and/or difficult.44 It has
been studied that it is plausible that a connection exists between procrastination
and an individual’s sense of competence, meaning that a low self-perception
of competence may rise fear of failure and therefore lead to procrastinating
behaviors.45 It follows that an intervention that targets general perceived
competence and ability to successfully complete certain tasks can potentially
reduce the risk of procrastination. Other than the specific primary competences
that are necessary to engage in a professional activity, time management should
be considered as a secondary skill that enables individual to have a better self-
perception of their ability to perform certain tasks. The perceived control of
time may help in increasing self-confidence in the possession of the necessary
competences.
Indeed, the relationship between time management and procrastination
has been studied in the sense that the first can have a positive impact on the
second. Lay and Schouwenburg in 199346 presented the result of a research that
intended to study the positive or negative relation between time management
skills and procrastination, as well as between time management and negative
states as agitation or depression. According to the study, a better perceived
control of time (improved through time management skills) is able to reduce
behaviors related to procrastination. This reduces, as a consequence, the
occurrence of dilatory behavior, agitation and depression.
Van Eerde in 200347 argued that time management training can decrease
significantly avoidance behavior and can lessen overall procrastination in

43
Procrastination affects between 40 and 70 percent of university students and is closely related to academic
performance (see Pastana, J. V. and Codina, N. (2014). The academic performance of university students: their
temporary perspectives and procrastinating tendencies, in en Pérez-Serrano, G. and De-Juana Oliva, A. (Eds),
Education and Youth in Times of Change, pp. 1–27)
44
Ellis, A., & Knaus, W. J. (1977). Overcoming procrastination. New York: Institute for Rational Living; Solomon, L.
J., & Rothblum, B. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: frequency and cognitive behavioural correlates. Journal
of Counselling Psychology, 31, pp. 503–509; Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). Academic
procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental
Education, 25, pp. 14–24
45
Haghbin, M., McCaffrey, A. Pychyl, T. A. (2012). The Complexity of the Relation between Fear of Failure and
Procrastination. J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther, Vol. 30, pp. 249–263
46
Lay, C., Schouwenburg, H. (1993). Trait Procrastination, Time Management, and Academic Behavior. Journal of
Social Behavior and Personality, 8, pp. 647–662
47
Van Eerde, W. (2003). Procrastination at Work and Time Management Training, cit.
46 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

employers. Similarly, other researchers48 have concluded that people with

more training in relation to time management are able to better control
procrastination, through a more equitable allocation of time to tasks.
With specific regard to this last point, planning has positive outcomes
as concerns the development of anti-procrastination habits. Planning can
make a distant outcome more tangible, because it splits a final goal in smaller
processes and steps49. Indeed, the most prominent challenge when it comes to
pursuing a goal is getting started with goal-directed actions. In fact, even when
a goal is clear and defined, the difficulties – especially for individuals who are
prone to procrastination – are inherent to transform intentions into actions.
This strong relationship between “task aversiveness” and procrastination is
thought the result from a conflict between attractive long-term consequences
of an action and less attractive short-term consequences50: this means that a
person chooses to perform a task that is more attractive in the present moment,
instead of a task that is more useful for the pursue of the goal.
In the light of the above, the individuation of well-defined actions that
will conduce to a goal is useful for subsequent performance. This may also help
to strengthen determination and self-control, because following a plan means
consciously choosing to act according to the long-term outcome rather than
distracting oneself with less important tasks.

Conclusions

This contribution fosters the idea that time management and efficient planning
skills should be acquired before an individual enters the job market. If students
already face many challenges in the management of their time during their academic
career and those challenges are not processed in a well-rounded and constructive
way, personal tendencies and habits will occur also in professional life.
The cited studies that have addressed many aspects of time management
strengthen the idea that time management skills may have beneficial effects on

48
Gallander, M., Dilouya, B., Mark, S., Pratt, M., Birnie-Lefcovitch, S., Polivy, J., & Adams, G. (2011). Academic
achievement in first-year university: who maintains their high school average? High Education, Vol. 62
No. 4, pp. 467–481, DOI: 10.1007/s10734-010-9399-2; Häfner, A., Oberst, V., & Stock, A. (2014). Avoiding
procrastination through time management: an experimental intervention study, Educational Studies, Vol. 40,
No. 3, pp. 352–360
49
Pham, L. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1999). From Thought to Action: Effects of Process-Versus Outcome-Based Mental
Simulations on Performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 25, pp. 250–260
50
Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. (2010). Overcoming Procrastination through Planning. Publ. in: The thief of time:
Philosophical essays on procrastination / ed. by Andreou C., White M. D, New York: Oxford University Press,
pp. 185–205
 Chapter 2. Time Management 47

achievement, motivation and general goal striving. Moreover, time management

now results to be an important tool in order to reach a correct work-life balance,
with positive effects in both aspects of life and – most of all – for the overall
wellbeing of an individual.
A general conclusion that can be drawn from the present analysis is that
time management is conditioned by the existence of a multitude of subjective
and psychological elements, that make it difficult to elaborate a general and
absolute theory and model for time management. If the task to create a time
management model valid in any circumstance for anyone seems impossible to
reach – than the quest of time management becomes more narrow, but feasible
and social utile: increase awareness in people about factors subjective and
objective factors that usually lower efficiency in productivity and help them
understand to which degree they are exposed to such factors.51 This first step
can usually be carried out by ways of self-assessment instruments, by which
persons review their approach to work or study methodology, and environment
and are called to analyze the most critical habits.
Following all the above, it is certain that the current working scenario
makes it essential to manage time efficiently: the logical consequence is time
management being perceived as a skill that should be learned at the university.
However, this is not always the case, since soft skills are not always reserved an
adequate attention within college curricula.52 At the same time, the acquisition of
those skills results to be very much needed in the higher education environment,
where students start to face challenges related to the management of workload,
the coordination of different duties and responsibilities, the fulfilment of the
activities of academic and personal life.53 Those difficulties of college students,
in absence of concrete strategies and tools to overcome them, often result in
higher levels of stress and anxiety,54 in lower academic performances,55 in the
inability to reason from a long-term perspective in setting academic goals.56

51
Wratcher, M. A., & Jones, R. O. (1988). A time management workshop for adult learners, in Journal of College
Student Personnel, 27, p. 566 ff.
52
On the contrary, education systems should contribute in building soft skills, as a recognition of individuals’
capacity, including non-academic knowledge: in this sense Levy, P. (2000). La cibercultura y la educación,
Pedagogía y Saberes, No. 14, pp. 23–31, available at: doi.org/10.17227/01212494.14pys23.31
53
See the studies by Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades,
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 83 No. 3, pp. 405–410; Lay, C. H. & Schouwenburg, H. C. (1993). Trait
procrastination, time management, and academic behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 8,
No. 4, pp. 647–66
54
Macan, T. H., & Shahani, C. (1990). College Students’ Time Management: Correlations With Academic
Performance and Stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 760–768
55
Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of Time-Management Practices on College Grades, cit.; Khanam, N., Sahu
T., Rao, E. V., Kar, S. K., & Syyed Zahiruddin Quazi (2017). A study on university student’s time management
and academic achievement. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, Vol. 4, No. 12,
pp. 4761–4765
56
Seinz, M. A., Ferrero, A. M., & Ugidos, A. (2019). Time management: skills to learn and put into practice, in
Education and Training
48 Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli, Francesca Maoli

The acquisition of time management and planning skills in college may

result in more effective positive outcomes if those capacities are developed
through specific and well-structured training programs. Moreover, employers
have become more sensitive to candidates already having acquired sets of
soft skills, which are now considered valuable assets in a future employee.57
University curricula should align with this demand from the employment
market, giving students the possibility to be aware of the importance of soft
skills.

57
Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive Perceptions of the Top 10 Soft Skills, cit., p. 453 ff.; Klaus, P. (2010).
Communication Breakdown, in California Job Journal, Vol. 28, p. 1 ff.
CHAPTER 3

ABILITY TO
COOPERATE
IN A TEAM
 THE NEXT LEVEL
OF A HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAM
By Jan van Zwieten

Annotation: A well-functioning care team consists of individuals whose

motivation, mutual interaction and communication are essential for good team
performance. A well-functioning team should also pay attention to ethical
awareness in various areas such as sustainability, social responsibility and
quality of life. Attention should also be paid to the personality characteristics
of team members. Research shows that a TopTeam requires more than just
the individual capabilities of team members.
A well-composed team is based on optimising the knowledge, skills, and
personal motivations of all team members in the areas described in this article.

Keywords: high performance team, leadership, development, sustainability,

personality analysis, alignment.

Summary: Introduction – 1. Why are people together and when can one
speak of a team? – 2. Team development. – 3. Teamstar model. – Conclusions.

Introduction

During the second half of the twentieth century, many companies have started
working with the concept of “High Performance Team”. What is new in this
manner of thinking, is that there is much more attention to the team members,
their mindset and their behaviour. We started to realise that a team consists
of individual persons and that motivation, interaction and communication are
essential for performance. In 1950, the Tavistock Institute (U.K.) had already
described the characteristics of a high performing team, yet it would still take
many years before larger companies welcomed the concept with open arms.
This acceptance (mostly in the United States) grew simultaneously with the
results of successful implementations into a select group of big organisations.
However, as is often the case, success may become a pitfall. Many advisors
developed variants that did not always lead to better results. The concept’s
popularity thereupon decreased, but the general way of thinking about the

53
54 Jan van Zwieten

successful functioning of teams remained.1, 2

At the start of this century, we thus saw a revival of this concept, albeit
with a few contemporary additions. In this article, we will refer to it as the
strive for a “dream team”. Most changes to the ‘old’ concept were caused by
external factors. The development in company life (with a culture of short-term
results and a number of large fraud cases) gave input for extra attention to the
ethical awareness. Besides, we now also take sustainability (climate) and social
responsibility and the quality of life into account. It should therefore come as
no surprise that we have seen this arise in the manner of thinking about dream
teams as well.
The basic definition of a team that comes forward in all publications
is simple: “Two or more individuals that cooperate in order to reach a
common goal.”
However, the basic thought of how High-Performance Team expresses
itself might be best clarified by Dutch philosopher (and football player) Johan
Cruyff: “If you choose the best player for every position, you would not
have a strong team, but one that falls apart like loose sand”.

Figure 1. High Performing team

1
Katzenbach, et al. (2003). The Wisdom of Teams, Harper Business
2
Bard, R. (2015). Strategies to achieve high performance in hybrid project teams: Addressing the relationship
between Swedish project managers and Indian specialists at IBM Global Services. Chalmers University of
Technolog
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 55

When thinking about teams in the elementary form, we thus find a clear
dichotomy: the core of this thought is that it is not only about making the
individual members of the team stronger, but that there is also a dimension to
make them optimally work together. This collaboration starts with divisions of
tasks and placing the right person in the right place, yet evidently goes much
further. How do we make sure that they actually work together to achieve
the goals?3 The interpretation of the characteristics and thus the formula for
success as a team is always different for all authors.
In this article we follow the structure of the Teamstar model. This
model includes all the characteristics that have emerged in major, serious
investigations since 1950, and in addition includes thinking in continuity and
sustainability. Out of this we can construct the following structure:
• Unifying separate individuals into a single entity; alignment and
involvement;
• The optimal level of functioning as a dream team; efficiency and
effectivity;
• Ensuring a sustainable dream team is created; development and vitality.

Figure 2. Teamstar by van Zwieten and Smit, 2019

3
Van Zwieten, et al. (2015). De Talent Coach, Vakmedianet
56 Jan van Zwieten

This article discusses the basic structure of thinking about teams. What
is a team? In what way has thinking about teams developed over time? What
are the characteristics of a dream team? This all comes together in the three
aforementioned main elements. These key elements are the core for successful
working in teams.

1. Why are people together and when can one speak

of a team?

1.1 Social cohesion

There are many different reasons why people are together, and with
that comes a variety of forms of cooperation. This is important to understand,
because it also determines what leads to optimal collaboration. What interests
do people have? What moves them? Why do they do what they do? And in
this context, when are we talking about a team? To answer these questions, a
number of elements are decisive:
• The degree of connectedness. There is a significant difference
in whether people are together only once for example to watch a
disaster, artist or event, whether people are connected based on a
common identity (religion, culture), or whether they have to perform
a common task together (organisation, sports team).
• The duration of cooperation. Often groups are connected for a
certain period of time. This may be for one-time activities, a project,
time-related or permanent.
• The frequency of being together.

Basically, the subdivision of the partnerships is as follows:

• Crowd (or mob); unrelated individuals who are together for a
temporary goal;
• Alliance; a partnership of groups who (often for a limited amount of
time) want to solve a particular problem;
• Group; a number of people with a common identity;
• Team; a group that regularly works together on related tasks to
achieve a common goal or goals.
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 57

A crowd is a number of stand-alone individuals who are together for

a specific (usually fairly general) purpose. We can actually split this in two
categories; crowd and mob. A crowd comes together for something specific
(a fire or a VIP), but what is missing is the common purpose, the feeling of
belonging, there is no real bond between the people and they also do not
pursue a common goal in which they need each other. It is therefore known
from psychology that people tend to blend in with the masses and do not take
responsibility in such a situation. In the event of an accident involving many
bystanders, only with great exception will one take initiative. In the case of a
mob, there is a certain form of structure, there is a common goal for which
people want to work hard, for example the call of the masses for the resignation
of a president. Since it is about connecting many people on one subject, without
a deeper basis of identity, it is in almost all cases focussed on one aspect, and
thus ephemeral and variable.
An alliance is a partnership in which a number of groups unite to pursue
an important goal. In doing so, they often give up part of their autonomy.
However, the strength of this binding force is proportional to the importance
attached to it. In the fight against Islamic State (IS/Daesh), an alliance of all
militarily active parties in the region emerged. The weaker IS became, the
looser the alliance would return to action. The United Nations is an alliance
that has a much longer life. But here too we see that the common interest does
not always come first. This phenomenon is seen in many areas, such as politics,
businesses or even children at schools.
A group has its own identity, one may speak of social cohesion. This
provides a more structural basis for the sense belonging. This is expressed in a
common goal (at least reflecting the connection to this identity) and the values
and standards that fit the identity of the group. We can think of nations, religious
groups, diversity groups, economic partnerships, political connectedness.
People often belong to different groups (faith, country, gender, party, etc.) and
therefore have different elements in their identity. People can belong to the
same group (country), but because of belonging to other groups they still can
be in conflict. Consider the persecution of minorities in a country.
Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif defined a social unit (group) as a
number of individuals that have common ground on the following aspects:
• Common motives and goals;
• An agreed upon division of tasks, i.e., roles;
• Established status (social rang, dominance), relationships;
• Accepted norms and values relating to relevant problems for the group;
• Development of affirmed sanctions (reward and punishment) if and
when norms are strived for or violated.
58 Jan van Zwieten

In a team, people work together based on a division of tasks to achieve

certain goals. It is clearly defined what participation in the team entails and in
what manner individual roles are divided. However, the core is that even when
everyone makes their own contribution, the team as a whole is responsible
for the result. Teams are therefore formed if the tasks are too extensive and/
or too complex for an individual. Different qualities and competencies are
often necessary to achieve certain goals. For example, a football team not only
consists of forwards, but of defenders, midfielders and a goalkeeper as well.
In addition, we look at right-footed or left-footed players and their captain, a
coach, a caretaker, etcetera. It is in no way any different in business.4

Depending on the objective, the tasks are determined. These are thereafter
assigned to team members. Whenever a team lacks expertise, it will look for
this outside the team.

4
Ragala, S. (2020). Crowd, Mob, Group & A Cohesive Team
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 59

Crowd Alliance Group Team

Temporary Specific Common binding Team goal-setting
goal targeted goal through feelings and
interests
No identity No identity Common identity and Task descriptions focused
characteristics on goal
Little binding Full own Affirmed norms and Accepted norms and
autonomy values values
Temporary, Dependent on Long-term Dependent on task
unpredic- duration and
table importance of goal
Established status Clear tasks and roles
and relationships
Sanction/reward for Individual and team
norms and values results
Limited size (direct
contact between
members)
Table 1. Characteristics of crowd, alliance, group and team

Characteristic for a team is therefore mainly the specific objective and

the clear division of tasks. It is important that the individual results are clearly
defined and people bear responsibility for them as well. A team always consists
of a limited number of people who can communicate with each other effectively
to perform the tasks together. Research by MIT (Prof Alex “Sandy” Pentland)
has shown a direct link between the degree of direct contact and the results of
a team.5 Direct contact (instead of email and remote steering) provides energy,
creativity and common will in order to reach certain goals. More contact
resulted in significantly better performance. But the contacts must always be
short and effective. Based on this, the optimal team size is maintained at 7 to
10 people.
The underlying thought when discussing a team, is that the cooperation
leads to synergy, i.e., the output of the team is higher than the sum of the
performances of individual team members.

5
Pentland, A. (2012). The New Science of Building Great Teams, Harvard Business Review
60 Jan van Zwieten

1.2. Development of general visions regarding team

Our way of thinking about teams origins in the 1950s. This is a logical
looking at the development of society over the years. Between 1750 and
1950 (Industrial Revolution), we see companies are managed primarily on
operations. Logistics, planning and structure must occupy center-stage. The
principles of Frenchman Henri Fayol and the American Frederick Taylor
(described and put into practice between 1860 and 1920) are regarded as
a model for the aforementioned way of management. This is described as
scientific management or knowledge management. People (employees) are not
important as human beings and treated as a machine.
Around 1950 managers start realizing that teams are made up of people.
The first studies are carried out to see how we can bring these people to reach
optimal performance. In particular, the publications of the “Tavistock Institute”
in the 1950s gave a good overall view of the new way of thinking, people are
key. Their concept of “High Performance Teams” (HPT) was quickly gaining
popularity.
The concept of HPT is basically quite simple; a solid team that continuously
achieves good results because of cooperation and innovation. The focus on the
results ensures that they as a unity manage to solve all problems.
Follow-up studies such as those of Gully (from 1995 to 2002)6 and Baker
(2006)7 gave a new boost with additional evidence that the following elements
lead to more effective team performance:
• A clear goal in which involved individuals actually believe;
• The required knowledge, ability and skills in order to realise the goals;
• Flexibility and capacity to adapt (self confidence in one’s own abilities);
• All team members are individually prepared to do what it takes in
order to reach the goals and do take their responsibility;
• Participants give up part of their autonomy and tune their actions in
accordance with colleagues. Hereby, we find good mutual relationships;
• Conflicts and feedback are used constructively and do not affect the
atmosphere.

During later phases, a few elements were added and/or specified:

• A democratic leadership style (participative leadership), in which
team members are feeling involved;

6
Gully, et al. (1995). A Meta-Analysis of Cohesion and Performance: Effects of Level of Analysis and Task
Interdependence, Michigan State University
7
Baker, et al. (2006). Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 61

• Effective decision-making (both rational and intuitive, depending on

the decision);
• Open and clear communication;
• Open to look for complementarity. Usage of all available knowledge
and abilities in the team;
• Mutual trust; trust in the team and one’s co-workers;
• Clear roles, task descriptions and responsibilities that are acknowledged
by all team members;
• Culture characterised by openness, transparency, positivity and
future-oriented; Everything is focussed on the successful execution
of the goal.

Figure 3. Elements of High-Performance team

2. Team development

2.1. Phases of Tuckman

The basis of thinking about the phases a team experiences has been
laid by Professor Bruce Tuckman. In 1965, he described the phases of group
development. He concluded there are four phases: forming – storming – norming –
62 Jan van Zwieten

performing. In 1977 he added adjournment (farewell). Schematically, this can

be displayed as follows:8

Figure 4. The phases of a team, Tuckman, 1965–1977

Tuckman’s studies showed that about 50% of the teams skipped phase
2 (storming) and went directly from phase 1 to phase 3. Teams that did go
through the storming phase risked getting stuck inside it or falling back into it
because the relations were structurally disturbed.

8
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups, Psychological Bulletin; Tuckman, B. W., &
Jensen, M. A. C (1971). Stages of Small-Group Development Revisited, Group and Organisation Studies
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 63

In Tuckman’s phases, we see that the processes of a High-Performance

Team are central:
• Determination of strategy; the tasks of the team are derived from
the goals that are to be achieved. The basis is therefore a clear
determination of the mission, vision and the strategic objectives to
be deduced from it. In this development, the way in which these goals
are determined moves from “Tell” to “Ask”. The further the team gets,
the more the objectives are determined in consultation and the more
the leader is distanced from.
• Social interaction; how do teams cope with differences of opinion
and the frictions or even conflicts that arise from this. In later phases
the way members are motivated and want to cooperate.
• Operational processes; in order to achieve the goals, it is important
to optimise the operational processes. The start therefore mainly
concerns the coordination of activities. The further the team develops,
the more it shifts to coaching and supporting the team members and
their interaction. Ultimately, monitoring progress and evaluating the
deployment of people and resources become part of this category.

2.2 Personality analysis – DISC and Belbin

More and more, the emphasis of thinking about teams has shifted to
partnership. It is therefore not surprising that there is much attention paid
to personality traits of team members. The starting point is often that one
searches for characteristics that match the primary task and purpose of the
team. Later, however, people became aware that there must be sufficient
diversity. The complementarity ensures that all the necessary competencies are
present when the team ultimately has to execute the tasks. An overly one-sided
composition of the team presents problems in performing certain tasks and
possible blind spots that can prevent the team from reaching its goals or even
break up the team. As an example – the management team of a construction
company consisted of all structured rational thinkers who had made their
mark in carrying out complex construction projects. Eventually, they were
unsuccessful on the market, because of a lack of creativity and flexibility. In an
ever changing market, they did not move fast enough and the strategy was not
focused on future challenges.
Initially, DISC was often used as one of the first methodologies in the
field of behavioural determination. Then, in 1981, Belbin published his book
64 Jan van Zwieten

“Management Teams”. As DISC is more focused on individuals, Belbin developed

an assessment on the same bases that mapped 9 team roles. Belbin worked
for 7 years with specialists from a completely different background. They were
hence able to make a statement about a team’s performance with reasonable
certainty.
Belbin has derived some important conclusions:
• Having too many comparable profiles begets a one-sided manner of
team functioning;
• Similar profiles are inclined to compete against one another,
something that results in unproductive conflicts;
• People must be awarded a role that fits their natural preferences;
• Almost everybody has two preferences. Using them, it becomes easy
to cover all tasks;
• Team members must learn to think complementary instead of
divergent (which, in their opinion, implies dysfunctional behaviour).

Seeing personality traits as part of specific competencies has given it

an extra dimension. This complements the aforementioned studies by the
Tavistock Institute and Tuckman.9

2.3 Lencioni

Although Patrick Lencioni’s most important work was published in 2002

(“The Five Dysfunctions of a Team”), it is still undoubtedly popular to this day.
Notwithstanding that the book is negatively formulated (dysfunctions), one
can also suggest it contains the ingredients for successful functioning. Unlike
a number of the aforementioned authors, the methodology is not a result of
structural research but is based on a lot of experience in consultancy.
Lencioni describes the five frustrations as a cohesive whole. This also
indicates that the dysfunction on one of the five axiomatically leads to lower
performance. He displays this in the following model:

9
Belbin, M. (1981). Management Teams: Why They Succeed To Fail, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann; Belbin, M.
(1983). Team Roles At Work, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 65

Figure 5. Mofdel of Patrick Lencioni, 2002

It is striking that there are no specific new elements in his vision.

What makes this point of view special, is the choice of the most important
characteristics of a successful team and the coherence of the elements. The
assessments Lencioni has developed for measuring these elements have
contributed a great deal to the popularity of his vision.10

3. Teamstar Model

The Teamstar model consists of three main elements:

• Bringing unrelated individuals to a solid group (alignment); alignment
and involvement;
• The optimal functioning of a performing team; efficiency and effectivity;
• Setting the basis for a sustainable dream team; development and vitality.

10
Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team, John Wiley & Sons Inc; Lencioni, P. (2012). The Advantage,
John Wiley & Sons Inc
66 Jan van Zwieten

Here, especially thinking about the future in development and vitality

is new. The current requirements call for longer-term thinking. Here, the
individual remains central. At a time when it is difficult to attain (skillful) people,
attention should be paid to retaining the people (retainment) and maintaining
the performance of the employees.

3.1 Alignment

How do we get some loose individuals to act as a team? In sports, we see

this in its most extreme form because the results are immediately visible. How
is it possible that a team that did not perform well under one coach suddenly
wins everything when the coach is changed? Even with the same players! And
this is no different in business, but the effect is often only visible on the slightly
longer term. So, it is not the level of the team members. It is about the mindset
in which participants work together to achieve their goals. We distinguish two
main themes; Alignment and Involvement.

Figure 6. Teamstar by van Zwieten and Smit, 2019,

Alignment and Involvement

On the one hand, the goal must be clear and appealing. If we do not know
where we are going, we will never get there. But it also is demanding good
leadership. Does the leader know how to inspire and motivate people to go
for these goals? Because we are speaking of a team, this goes beyond just the
interests and motivation of the individual. The willingness to support individual
interests to the team interest requires a culture of trust based on conformity of
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 67

shared values and norms. Understanding the personality of the team members
helps to inspire and motivate them. If the culture is such that open feedback
can be given and conflicts have a constructive character in the cooperation, the
team will be able to achieve synergy.

3.2 Performance

To perform well the team must function effective and efficient.

Figure 7. Teamstar by van Zwieten and Smit, 2019,

Effectivity and Efficiency

In order to function efficiently, all the necessary competencies must be

present. It is therefore imperative the team have a clear understanding of the
tasks, procedures and practices in order to know which expertise is required.
Contrastingly, as Belbin has shown, it is not just about the competencies related
to the primarily processes. It is also necessary to analyse on the basis of the
personalities whether the team has what is needed given the task on the long
run. Diversity and balance are often the most important factors. Good insight
into the procedures and working methods also ensures the efficient distribution
of tasks. A well-known phenomenon is the loss of focus on the things that
are most important. Therefore, thinking and working according to priorities
significantly improves results.
When one discusses the role of a team member, there are a number of
extra requirements. Effectiveness is therefore mainly about the interaction
between the group members. How do we work together? In what way do we
communicate? As Pentland has researched, active but efficient ‘live’ commu-
nication is essential for performance. A system of continuous evaluation,
feedback and communication regarding this ensures a lasting growth.
68 Jan van Zwieten

3.3 Sustainability

After a long period in which companies only focussed on short-term

(financial) results, there has been a change in thinking patterns. The first reason
was the publication of major fraud cases and later the banking crisis. This has
led to a call for ethical awareness and the control of excesses in rewards.
In addition, the mentality about quality of life is also different. The
increasing number of people with burnouts, structural stress, sleep problems
and poor health (obesity, diabetes), alongside the increasing ageing of people
accompanied by their necessary need for care, has made people realise that it is
not only about the sustainability of companies but also about the sustainability
of the people in them.
A third factor is the climate debate and the call for corporate social
responsibility. Under pressure of the younger generation and the studies
on problems in the (near) future that can no longer be denied, thinking in
sustainability and social accountability for companies has become a reality.
The final phase therefore forces a company to implement innovations
and changes to meet the requirements of our time. This implies adjusting the
way of doing business to meet the demands of sustainability and climate, as
well as better handling of the people in the organisation.

Figure 8. Teamstar by van Zwieten and Smit, 2019,

Development and Vitality

Working with Personal Development Plans (PDP) and Team Development

Plans (TDP) is not new, but has been given a different interpretation. It is not
primarily about the direct functioning and competences that are discussed
 Chapter 3. Ability to Cooperate in a Team 69

periodically, but is rather a continuous process of monitoring the objectives of

growth, development and vitality.
Speaking of vitality, the organisation is also expected to develop a
structural policy in this area. While many companies have done this many
years ago on safety, it is now also the new standard in terms of vitality. At its
core is that an employee is stimulated and motivated to let vitality guide the
entire lifestyle, the work-life balance. Elements that are considered in the block
of vitality are therefore in addition to the policy general energy management,
physical elements such as sleep, nutrition and movement and also stress and
the brain performance.
The three main elements of Teamstar cannot be seen as phases that a
team goes through, like with Tuckman’s development phases. It is a vision to
continuously monitor and evaluate a team in order to continue the growth.

Conclusions

If we want to create a dream team there are three major aspects:

• Team alignment; How to motivate people to work together and feel as
a cohesive team;
• Team performance; How to make the team work as efficient and
effective as possible;
• Team sustainability; How to make sure that the team, and its people,
will be successful on the long term.
70 Jan van Zwieten

Traditionally teamwork and concept of High performance team is seen

as important aspect in business world. In recent years Team work has become
important topic and top skill also for the education institutions and their
students. It is important to prepare young professionals who will be able to
work in teams and become good team leaders. And it’s applies not only for
Business education. No matter if we are preparing young engineers, scientists
or managers – most likely they all will be working in bigger or smaller teams.
They will need to cooperate with different professionals, different personalities
and specialists. And it is clear that success will be possible only in case if the team
will be able to cooperate and team members will have good team working skills.
Research done in ERASMUS+ Project Dsicom shows that students consider
team work as third most important soft skill necessary for their professional
life. Students know what soft skills are and they are convinced that those skills
will be necessary in their professional life. Also, survey showed that 54% of
the students think that in their study programmes they do not have enough
courses which develop their soft skills, including team work skills.11
This shows that nowadays it is very important to integrate team work
into the study process in order to improve students’ awareness about the
topic and also practically train their skills. It is necessary to revise and update
already existing courses and teaching techniques and to include more practical
studies in the teaching process – group works, practical exercises, role-plays,
simulations.

11
ERASMUS+ Strategic Partnership “Development of interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict
management” – DISCOM, Project number 2019-1-LV01-KA203-060423, Survey about soft skills, Report,
http://skills.turiba.lv/files/SOFT%20SKILLS%20SURVEY%20REPORT.pdf
CHAPTER 4

SETTING
THE GOALS
BY MEANS
OF COACHING
 SETTING PROFESSIONAL AND
ACADEMIC GOALS BY MEANS
OF MODERN COACHING: GETTING TO
KNOW COACHING TO GROW IN LIFE
By Dana Rone and Kristina Nesterova

Annotation: This article describes the concept of coaching, its main models
and techniques as well as the benefits of coaching for university students. The
aim of this article is to get university students acquainted with means and
instruments of modern coaching for setting professional and academic goals.
The introduction of the article briefly describes the history of coaching, its
connection with psychology, neuro-linguistic programming and other related
studies and disciplines. The main part of the article defines the concept of
coaching and relation with mentoring as well as the most popular models
and techniques of coaching and its advantages for university students. The
conclusions of the article emphasize the benefits and importance of coaching
integration into the study process in order to unleash students’ potential and
maximize their professional and academic performance.

Keywords: coaching, neuro-linguistic programming, goals, self-development,

vision

Summary: Introduction – 1. Concept of coaching and relation with mentoring. –

2. Coaching models and techniques. – 3. Coaching as a tool to work with university
students. – Conclusions.

Introduction

Coaching has become a popular instrument to open potential of humans in

any activity. In the beginning coaching was used to stimulate performance of
sportsmen (although opinions differ about beginnings of coaching)1. Over the
years reputation of coaching has grown so much, that representatives from other
areas became interested in the possibility of using coaching techniques in their

1
Fellman, D., & Simberg, S. (2017). Prevelance and Risk Factors for Voice Problems Among Soccer Coaches.
Journal of Voice, No. 31 (1), p. 121

75
76 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

sectors – commerce,2 psychology,3 health-care4 and education.5 Nowadays, the

vast majority of managers, entrepreneurs and employees are using coaching,
mentoring or other support methods to be more effective in their work.6 Most
of the existing reviews of coaching histories examine the ties to psychotherapy,
athletic development, education or management and leadership development.7
In fact, psychology has been one of the major influences on coaching. Coaches
use methods and techniques that are similar but nonetheless not equal to the
methods and techniques of psychologists, consultants and other field advisers.
Coaching uses a set of special skills to promote development of human powers.
One of the powerful skills for a coach to have is Neuro-Linguistic Programming
(NLP). NLP combines neuroscience with linguistics in understanding how what
people think and speak, and therefore act is influenced by their brain or the
larger mind intelligence.8 One of presuppositions of NLP is that people have all
the resources they need to succeed.9 Expectations of who we are and what we
are capable of actually influence our performance. Such an assumption, if healthy,
helps people to increase confidence and encourages them to achieve goals as well
as not to take external circumstances as a nuisance. If false, it means that objective
differences that exist between people in their individual circumstances are being
ignored. Coaches encourage and support their coachees in order to achieve their
personal, professional or academic goals, using a broad spectra of traditional
and creative coaching methods and techniques. As a concept, coaching is still in
development where new methods and tools are being introduced regularly.
Coaching is a flexible and modern instrument that is easy to apply in large-
spectrum cases. It is about empowering and helping people change in a way
they want to. As a matter of fact, we are being held hostages of our own habits
as it is approximately 90% of our everyday actions.10 This is a reason why many
people are repeating the same thing and expecting different results. Coaching
comes as a very helpful set of tools to guide a person through changes towards
2
Беспятова, В. (2016). Коучинг в предпрининимательцтве. Социологический аспект. Moscow, pp. 6–8;
Stambaugh, J., & Mitchell, R. (2018). The fight is the coach: Creating expertise during the fight to avoid
entrepreneurial failure. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 24(1), pp. 2–21
3
Чернецов, А. В. (2015). Коучинг как направление психологического консултирования. Гуманитарниэ
науки в ХХI веке, No. XXIX, c. 168–169
4
Cosgrove, F., & Corrie, S. (2020). Promoting wellbeing through the emerging specialism of health and wellness
coaching. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 35
5
Devine, M., Meyers, R., & Houssemand, C. (2013). How can coacing make a positive impact within educational
setting? 3rd World Conference on Learning, Teaching and Educational Leadership (WCLTA-2012). Procedia –
Social and Behavioral Sciences, No. 93, pp. 1382–1389
6
Stambaugh, J., & Mitchell, R. (2018). The fight is the coach: Creating expertise during the fight to avoid
entrepreneurial failure. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 24(1), pp. 2–21
7
Boysen-Rotelli, S. (2020). Executive coaching history: Growing out of organisational development. The
Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 33
8
Grimley, B. (2012). NLP a Promising Coaching Paradigm. The Coaching Psychologist, No. 2, pp. 26
9
Melbārde, I. (2008). Kad sapņi piepildās. Rīga: NPL, 24. lpp.
10
Heal, A. (2016). Are You Being Held Hostage By Your Habits? Published in: https://purposevisionfuture.com/
being-held-hostage-by-your-habits/
 Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 77

desired results. As regards the composition of the implementation of coaching,

it is used on an individual basis, where people separately ask assistance of
coaches to develop or improve their skills and talents, as well as collectively
by strengthening forces of larger groups, for instance – human resources
in enterprises11 or students in universities. Managers themselves also are
encouraged to coach their employees.12 Coaching as a flexible tool is suitable
for both cases. While one-on-one coaching is highly effective for working with
people who wish to transform their lives, it has its limitations. The approach
of group coaching is becoming increasingly popular in organizations where it
makes better use of employees’ time and cuts training overheads.13
For areas of coaching, there is no sector where coaching could not be
applied. Whatever the field and how professional a person works in it, in order
to achieve goals and growth a coach can help to find the necessary resources
within the person or to create a detailed plan to obtain them from the outside.
Similarly, knowledge and techniques of coaching are helpful on an individual
basis, so-called ‘self-coaching’ without supervision of a professional. A person
can grow independently towards his/her own purposes and achieve desired
results in a selected field.
This contribution overviews literature on history, methods and
techniques of modern coaching, with the scope to establish how coaching
can be used to set personal, professional and academic goals, especially for
university students. A growing number of researches show that coaching as
a soft skill is equally important with “hard skills”, the latter being included in
curriculum of universities. Life important skill of coaching can help a student
to become a more successful graduate and can help a teacher to encourage
students to use all potential of their students.

1. Concept of coaching and relation with mentoring

Since its first use, the meaning of the words coaching and mentoring changed.14
According to Greek mythology and the Homeric epic The Odyssey, Mentor
was the son of Alcimus, who at the old age was a close friend of Odysseus. The
11
Tak-yin Hui, R. & Sue-Chan, C. (2018). Variations in coaching style and their impact on subordinates’ work
outcome. Journal of Organizational Behavior, No. 39, p. 663
12
McCarthy, & Ahrens, j. (2011). Challenges of the coaching manager. 25th Annual Australia New Zealand
Academy of Management Conference (ANZAM 2011). Wellington, New Zealand
13
Sutton, J. (2021). What is the Group Coaching Model? Published in: https://positivepsychology.com/group-
coaching-model/
14
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), pp. 137–15
78 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

warrior and world traveller Odysseus placed Mentor in responsibility of his son
Telemachus, while the hero was away fighting at the Trojan War. When Athena
visited Telemachus, she took the disguise of Mentor and encouraged Telemachus
to go abroad to find out what happened to his father. Because of Mentor’s
relationship with Telemachus, and the disguised Athena’s encouragement and
practical plans for dealing with personal dilemmas the personal name Mentor
has been adopted in Latin, English and other languages, as a term meaning
someone who imparts wisdom to and shares knowledge with a less-experienced
person.15 The combination of Athena and Mentor represents the focus on the
instrumental male role of the mentor (Mentor) like counselling or guiding, on
the one hand, and the (emotional) female role (Athena) affective or emotional
quality on the other hand.16 The combination of male and female roles is known
as psychological androgyny.17 Since then a mentor was described as tutor or as
a person, who provides a variety of functions that support, guide, and counsel
the young adult.18 St-Jean, Radu-Lefebvre, and Mathieu describe the goal of
mentoring programs is to strengthen the mentees’self-efficacy.19
During the Renaissance, aristocrats and scientific communities used
mentoring practices to educate promising young people.20 The word “mentor”
became synonymous with wisdom, guidance, counselling and advising.21
In its turn coaching can be defined as the process of on-going, on-the-
job training carried out regularly by a person with the intent of developing
another person’s skills.22 Asking questions is one of the most typical coaching
techniques, first developed in the ancient Greece, where several philosophers,
including Aristotle and Plato followed the “Socratic Method” of asking questions
instead of presenting an argument.23 Socrates is regarded as one of the first

15
Roberts, A. (1999). The origins of the term mentor. History of Education Society Bulletin, No. 64, November,
pp. 313–329
16
Roberts, A. (1998). The androgynous mentor: Bringing gender stereotypes in mentoring. Mentoring &
Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 6(1–2), pp. 18–30
17
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
18
Kram, K. E. (1983). Phases of the mentor relationship. The Academy of Management Journal, 26(4), pp. 608–625
19
St-Jean, E. Radu-Lefebvre, M., & Mathieu, C. (2018). Can less be more? Mentoring functions, learning goal
orientation, and novice entrepreneurs’ self-efficacy. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior &
Research, 24(1), pp. 2–21
20
Wickman, C., & Sjodin, T. (1997). Mentoring: The most obvious yet overlooked key to achieving more in life than
you dreamed possible. A success guide for mentors, New York: McGraw-Hill
21
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
22
Ritter, M. L. (1994). Senior leader mentoring: Its role in leader development doctrine (Master’s theses). West
Point, USA: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College
23
Garvey, B., Stokes, P., & Megginson, D. (2009). Coaching and mentoring, theory and practice. London: Sage
 Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 79

coaches although the name “coach” emerged much later.24

In “The History or Pendennis” by Thackeray (1849), the term coaching
is used for the first time with personal support.25 In this story some students
are travelling in a coach while receiving tutor support. The students use the
same word for the vehicle and for being tutored, while travelling in that vehicle.
Lately coaching has shifted from instructing to more facilitating development.26
By the end of the 19th century, coaching was used to support sportsmen such
as in football with the establishment of paid coaching27 and in rowing where a
cyclist shouted advice to the rowers on the river. Coaching sportsmen was seen
by several people as an unsporting way of support because the sportsmen got
support from others.28
Both disciplines – mentoring and coaching – struggle with a lack of clear
understanding of their professions29, and they also struggle with each other.
Coaching and mentoring have developed side by side and both are engaged in
personal development with assistance of third person – coach in coaching or
mentor in mentoring. Following Parsloe arguing that coaching and mentoring
are similar,30 a debate started about definitions of coaching and mentoring.31
Also the original of coaching and mentoring was questioned as it was suggested
that the techniques were borrowed from other disciplines like counselling,
psychology, teaching and consulting.
Knowing benefits and possibilities of both instruments – coaching and
mentoring – the universities can use them to assist their students for better
performance. Although there are differences in origin or coaching and mentoring,
they are not competing, rather collaborative tools with the same goals, namely, to
help and support a person in development and acquiring new skills and education.

24
De Haan, E. (2007). Relationele coaching. Wegen naar meesterschap in helpende gesprekken. Assen, the
Netherlands: Van Gorcum
25
Koopman, R., Danskin, P., Ehgrenhard, M. L., & Groen, A. (2021). The Chronological Development of Coaching
and Mentoring: Side by Side Disciplines. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring,
Vol. 19(1), p. 139
26
Ibid., p. 138
27
Dixon, P., Garnham, N., & Jackson, A. (2004). Shareholders and shareholding: The case of football company in
late Victorian England. Business History, 46(4), pp. 503–524
28
Garvey, B. (2012). A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about coaching and mentoring.
London: Sage
29
Haggard, D. L., Dougherty, T. W., Turban, D. B., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2010). Who is a mentor? A review of evolving
definitions and implications for research. Journal of Management, 37(1), pp. 280–304
30
Parsloe, E. (1995). Coaching, mentoring and assessing: A practical guide to developing competence (revised
edn.). London: Kogan Page
31
Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M. K. (2007). Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique.
Administration & Society, 39(6), pp. 719–739
80 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

2. Coaching models and techniques

Modern coaching offers a wide range of models and techniques. Coaching
models are methods designed to guide an individual through a process of
transition from where they currently are to where they want to be. The purpose
of a coaching model is to create a framework for guiding another person through
the following steps:
1. establishing a desired goal,
2. understanding where they are,
3. exploring options for where they are headed,
4. determining what may be obstacles and
5. establishing a plan of action.

Some of the most popular coaching models to be used are GROW,32

SMART,33 CLEAR,34 SOLVE,35 FUEL,36 STEPPA,37 ACHIEVE38 and OSKAR39 models.
As seen, coaching models are typically comprised of the steps that are outlined
by an easy to remember acronym. Although every model is in some way
different, however they have some fundamental similarities. These models
mostly focus on trust, questioning and open communication. They aim to set
the coachee’s specific goals, to explore his/her options, and to develop a plan of
action in order to achieve those goals.
There are three theoretical foundations of coaching: 1) the sociocultural
foundation- regards ethics, societal and socially constructed self-identity
as central to its meaning – making frames,40 2) the learning foundation41 –
emphasis on experiential learning, scaffolding changes to result in new actions
known as proximal development,42 and 3) positive psychology43 – focused on
32
The acronyme stands for: Goal setting, Reality, Options, What Action is Next
33
The acronyme stands for: Specific, Measurable, Actionable/Achievable, Realistic, Time bound
34
The acronyme stands for: Contracting, Listening, Exploring, Action, Review
35
The acronyme stands for: State the problem, Observe the problem resolved, List the Exceptions, Verufy the
plan, Execute the plan
36
The acronyme stands for: Frame the conversation, Understand the current state, Explore the desired state,
Lay out a success
37
The acronyme stands for: Subject, Target, Emotion, Perception, Plan, Pace, Adapt or Act
38
The acronyme stands for: Assess the current situation, Creatively brainstorm alternatives, Hone goals, Initiate
options, Evaluate options, Validate an action program design, Encourage momentum
39
Outcome of coaching that is expected, Scaling the situation on a slide of 1 to 10, Know-how and resources
available, Affirm plan and take action, Review what worked
40
Law, H. (2019). Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step. The Coaching Psychologist,
Vol. 15, No. 2, December, p. 40
41
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiental learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
42
Also see Drake, D. (2018). Reating zones of proximal development in coaching: The power of working at
Thresholds. The Coaching Psychologist, 14(1), pp. 42–47
43
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist,
55(1), pp. 152–164
 Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 81

individuals and communities, emphasizing knowledge, skills, strengths, virtues,

aspirations, hopes, feeling of satisfaction44 and dreams rather than weaknesses
and despairs. Grounded on these foundations coaching is unique and special
activity, by application of which one can activate potential of a coachee.
Coaching is about conversation amongst peers where understanding
and knowledge of the issue are exchanged, transferred and learning takes
place.45 A coach guides a coachee towards coachee’s own solutions mostly by
asking right and so called powerful questions. A powerful question ignites the
imagination of a coachee, helping him or her to overcome boundaries. Good
coaching questions are able to provoke thought, invite creativity, generate
energy, touch deep meanings and stimulate reflective conversation.46 Usually,
powerful coaching questions are open-ended, solution-oriented, direct, and
lead to action47. Additionally, in order to get a better outcome and for a coaching
question to become powerful, it should contain positive assumption and be
asked at the right time.
According to 16 Forbes Coaches Council members48 these are some of the
most powerful questions to be asked to coachees:
• What’s standing in your way?
• Can you tell me more?
• What will happen in you don’t take this step?
• What does success look like?
• What are you most proud of?
• What do you want?
• What have you done to try to solve the problem?
• What are you doing to not achieve your goal?
• If your main obstacle didn’t exist, how would your life look like?
• What do you need most right now?
• What will things look like after you’ve been successful?
• What is the most important thing in the world to you, and why?
• So what?
• Why not?

44
Regarding feeling of professional satisfaction in academic work, see: Phillips, N. (2019). What is academic
success anyway? A rejoinder to “confronting the crisis of confidence in management studies”. Academy of
management learning and education, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 306
45
Law, H. (2019). Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step. The Coaching Psychologist,
Vol. 15, No. 2, December, p. 39
46
Miller, K. D. 73 powerful coaching questions to ask your clients, https://positivepsychology.com/coaching-
questions
47
Moore, C. (2021). 100 Most Powerful Life Coaching Questions, https://positivepsychology.com/life-coaching-
questions/
48
Forbes Coaches Council, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2018/06/21/16-powerful-
questions-coaches-ask-their-clients-to-help-achieve-their-goals/
82 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

A question, whether it is in a coaching or teaching context, is stronger

when it encourages the person to reflect and elaborate. For instance, asking,
“Do you like to study Insurance law?” has the potential to stop the conversation.
Instead an open-ended question, “What about studying Insurance law is
satisfying to you?” stimulates a person to think about this topic and engage in a
deeper meaning conversation.
The most basic coaching model, developed by Whitmore is so called
GROW model, which is usually taught to new coaches.49 Its strength lies in
enabling the coach to structure the conversation and reach a meaningful
result. It is the default, go to model for most coaches in supporting coachees to
bring about behavioural (and cognitive) change.50 For not working intuitively
a more successful coaching session is the one where certain sequence of key
stages exist. According to GROW model the letters is an abbreviation of goal,
reality, options and will. At the stage of “goal” a coach asks about goals of the
coaching sessions. Further at the stage of “reality” a coach asks about actual
situation, events, problems and efforts to settle. At the third stage of “options” a
coach questions about other possibilities to solve the situation, about different
approaches and possible solutions. Finally at the stage of “will” wraps up and
asks what, when and how the coachee is going to proceed in a very concrete way.
Another coaching model, which especially emphasis clear and defined
expected outcomes is so called SMART model. It means setting goals in specific,
measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound manner, where the first letter
of each word stands for SMART. Unclear goals are one of the biggest stumbling
blocks to effective goal setting and performance. On the contrary articulated
and measurable goals channel a person to focus on the efforts. For instance, a
goal “I want to be the best student in a faculty” is not a SMART goal, as it does
not confirm any of the SMART parameters. With an assistance of the coach this
semi-goal can be transferred into the SMART goal. The same goal can become:
1. S – specific if it says “I want to be the best student in the Civil Law subject”;
2. M – measurable if it says “I will pass an exam and get 10 points in the
final exam of Civil Law”;
3. A – achievable if it is added “I will pass the Civil Law exam and get 10
points, because I already have good grades, and I will study constantly
to know the Civil Law topics even better”;
4. R – relevant by saying “I will pass the Civil Law exam, as this subject is
included in curriculum for my year students”;
5. T – time bound “I will pass an exam of Civil Law and get 10 points by
the end of this semester in January 15”.
49
Whitmore, J. (2004). Coaching for performance. GROWing people, performance and purpose. Nicholas Brealey
Publishing
50
Panchal, S., & Riddell, P. (2020). The GROWS model: Extending the GROW coaching model to support
behavioural change. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 12
 Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 83

Now the goal is transformed in a more specific, measurable, achievable,

relevant and time bound way and meets SMART model requirements.
There are several most widespread coaching techniques used by successful
coaches in work with their clients. In fact, these techniques are not unique only
for coaching, but instead also applied in other areas and professions, where
work with people and personal development is at stake. Some of the commonly
used coaching techniques are the following eight:
1. Active listening – focusing of coachees thoughts, needs and concerns;
2. Asking open-ended questions – encouraging the coachee to tell more
and think wider about his or her story;
3. Collaboration – promoting a coachee to cooperate with the coach in
personal development process;
4. Making good use of time – respecting time allocated for coaching
session and using time efficiently;
5. Emotional intelligence – having ability to understand feelings of
coachee and properly reacting to emotions;
6. Communication – using ability to clearly and informatively voice an
opinion and observations;
7. Good judgment – expressing thoughts, hypothetical suggestions and
proposals for coachee;
8. Follow through – monitoring progress of coachees after completion of
coaching sessions, making sure the coachee keeps up with promised
goals and feels support and observation of the coach.

A topical coaching technique worth mentioning in this article is a narrative

coaching technique. It is based not only on a belief that storytelling has power
to transform life which is deep rooted since the dawn of human civilization,
but also because it has long established psychological foundation which the
discipline on coaching psychology is based – both in research and practice.51 A
Stelter (2012) defined, a narrative coaching is a developmental conversation
and dialogue, a co-creative process between coach and coachee with a purpose
of giving the coachee a space and an opportunity for immersing him/herself in
reflection on and understanding of: i) his/her own experiences in the specific
context; and ii) his or her interactions, relations and negotiations with others in
specific contexts and situations.52 A narrative coaching is a co-creative process –
a developmental conversation where the coach listens to the coachee’s stories

51
Panchal, S., & Riddell, P. (2020). The GROWS model: Extending the GROW coaching model to support
behavioural change. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 12
52
Stelter, R. (2012). A guide to third generation coaching: Narrative-collaborative theory and practice. Dordrecht
Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, p. 8
84 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

of lived experience and supports them to identify values, skills, meaning and
strengths in order to redevelop those stories and re-author them, which opens
new possibilities in the future.53 As noted by Thomson, if you listen to a client as
though he is from another planet, you learn a lot.54 A great way to start coaching
intervention is to ask the client to tell their life story. By listening and observing
the story a coach can have the first impression of a person, values, goals and
ways to work further with a particular person.
According to White the narrative approach may consist of the following
techniques: i) externalizing conversations, ii) remembering/re-authoring,
iii) outsider witness re-telling (in group) and iv) definitional ceremony
(community) – re-tellings of re-tellings.55 Going through step by step the
narrative coaching process a coach first of all invites a coachee to tell a story
about recent events and the personal experiences about them, focusing on
specific and unique outcomes, learning and problem-solving skills identified
in the story. A coach asks broad and also narrow questions to precise time,
place, environment and other aspects of the story. Further a coach encourages
a coachee to reflect and evaluate the impact of the story, and then asks to justify
coachee’s action and make judgments about the agreed action in relation to
dreams, hopes and values. The coachee is invited to think about what he or
she will do next. In the conclusion a coachee shall be encouraged to formulate
preferred commitments, desires, hopes and plan of action.
One of the newest coaching techniques is a coaching whilst walking.56
According to this technique a coach has coaching session in motion, having
a walk together with a client. Such technique departing from traditional
environment indoors is especially topical in the epoch of Covid-19, where
outdoors is even healthier place for conversation.
Thus it can be seen a wide diversity of coaching models and techniques
possible to be used by coaches during coaching sessions. Although coaching
models are conventionally applied between at least one coach and one coachee,
still these models and techniques can be used individually under condition that
a person, who wants to develop in some way, is ready to have a look at own
situation with eyes of neutral observer. All coaching models and techniques
have positive outcome if used correctly.

53
Law, H. (2019). Narrative coaching – Part 1: An introduction and the first step. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 15,
No. 2, December, p. 40
54
Thomson, C. (2009). Enneagram styles, coaching, and the use of metaphor. The Enneagram Journal, July, p. 140
55
White, M. (2007). Maps of narrative practice. New York: Norton
56
Cook, S., & van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2020). The experience of coaching whilst walking: A pilot study. The
Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 46
 Chapter 4. Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 85

3. Coaching as a tool to work with university students

A research of Lancer proves that one-on-one coaching can have profound

effects on university students and can also help them to maximize their time
at university.57 A coach can increase confidence of students, positively affect
career choices and relationship among peers and with academics. In her
research Lancer recommends universities to invest in one-on-one coaching
for all students to improve students’ experience and promote their personal
growth. Indeed, a coach in universities as a personal growth assistant can be
significant supporter of students. Lancer explains in a diagram that there are
eight tensions for university students:58
1. Narrowing down – Opening up
2. Treading water – Pushing forward
3. Owned action – Absorption in mass of ideas
4. Being you – Fitting in
5. Connection – Separation
6. Day to day – Thinking forward
7. Fixed plans – Fluidity of life
8. Doing enough – Going all in

Coaches can support students to navigate these typical tensions,

recognizing both ends of each polarity and understanding that being human
means to constantly live in these tensions – challenges and according to van
Deurzen so called “ordinary difficulties”.59
If teachers are in a role of coach, it requires them to adopt themselves
to a different kind of interaction with students. A role of teacher and a role of
coach differs in way that a coach is more coachee orienteered and neutral then
the teacher.
In the light of the above, the individuation of well-defined actions that
will conduce to a goal is useful for subsequent performance. This may also help
to strengthen determination and self-control, because following a plan means
consciously choosing to act according to the long-term outcome rather than
distracting oneself with less important tasks.

57
Lancer, N. (2020). “Yes Woman”: A career coach reflects on the experience of doing a PhD and its contribution
to coaching psychology. The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 10
58
Ibid., p. 9
59
Van Deurzen, E., & Arnold-Baker, C. (2018). Existential theraphy: Distinctive features. Oxford: Routledge, p. 185
86 Dana Rone, Kristina Nesterova

Conclusions

This contribution explains a concept of coaching as useful soft-skill to learn

and to apply by persons willing to develop personally or professionally in any
area. Coaching models and techniques are traditionally created to be applied by
neutral and separate coach – a person, who guides through coaching process
the client – a coachee. However a responsible and self-disciplined individual
with a basic knowledge of coaching can apply these models and techniques
without assistance of a professional coach.
Researches show that people often are not sufficiently precise in
formulating their goals, which endangers reaching positive outcomes. For this
reason, coaching encourages them to be more specific, realistic and time-bound
when setting their personal, professional or academic goals.
Study years in universities is significant period of time for every student,
where further life path is being chosen and established. Therefore it is especially
important to integrate coaching models and techniques into the study process
in order to improve students’ self-confidence and unlash their full potential for
academic and professional future. Other benefits of coaching are developing
such skills as organizational leadership as well as public speaking.
Universities should be encouraged to consider coaching as supporting
service to their students to help them to reach higher academic and professional
results. If during study process students could study basics of coaching, it could
help them to become more aware about benefits of such a soft skill and use it
for their personal development.
CHAPTER 5

MULTICULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
 MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION –
A SOUGHT-AFTER SOFT-SKILL
IN THE XXI CENTURY?
An introduction to the topic and an
overview of the multicultural
communication obstacles
By Agnieszka Góra and Jacek Czaja

Annotation: The article focuses on multicultural communicationskills and its

importance in today’s world. As it is becoming smaller, thecommunication
and cultural competencies are more and more sought-after andrecognized.
The main goal of the article is to provide an introduction to thevery broad
topic and to familiarize addressees with key concepts. However, thepaper
not only elaborates on the essence of concepts such as communication,
cultureand intercultural communication but also, provides a reader
with an overviewof obstacles followed by the presentation of effective
tools and techniquesinstrumental in overcoming such. The article is of
pragmatical nature and aimsat deliberating on such questions as: “What
are communication and culture?When does the communication process
occur? What role does culture play in thecommunication process? How do
communication and culture affect one another? Whatare the most common
obstacles in intercultural communication? How can weovercome such? What
to do when they occur?”

Keywords: communication, culture, intercultural communication, multicultural

communication, effective communication, communication across culture,
communication obstacles.

Summary: Introduction – 1. Communication – art or science? – 2. Culture and

communication, communication and culture. – 3. Do our cultural backgrounds
make it harder to communicate? – Overview of the cultural obstacles in the
communication process. – Conclusions.

91
92 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

Introduction

Multicultural communication skills are crucial. As the world is becoming a

smaller and smaller place, differences that occur on both our professional and
personal paths are increasingly bigger and more noticeable. While working
and living across nations and cultures, the comprehension and awareness
of the intercultural competency is the survival issue. Very much needed to
thrive. The importance of cultural competency is becoming more recognized
and materials helping to develop such are required.1 On many occasions, the
cultural communication skill is enumerated as one of most needed to become a
global leader, succeed in professional live or develop generally.
The main goal of the article is to provide an introduction to the very
broad topic and familiarize addressees with key concepts. As such, its character
is of the popular science. At the same time, the article is of the pragmatic
nature, striving to offer some practical guidelines and instruction. It is authors’
intention to balance presentation of basic theory needed to understand core
concepts of the topic with introduction of tools enhancing the effectiveness
of the intercultural communication that could be applied immediately after
reading the paper.
Having in mind the above explained nature and goals of the article, the
authors decided to implement the following structure of the article. In the
first two parts, the article focuses on the definitions, context, components and
intricacies of respectively the concepts of communication and culture. The
content includes the authors’ intakes on the essentials of the concepts and is
limited in scope by the mentioned character of the paper. Throughout these
parts the following questions as are addressed: “What are communication and
culture? When does the communication process occur? What role does culture
play in the communication process? How communication and culture affect one
another?” Part three, being the most extensive one, provides a brief introduction
to a concept of the intercultural communication obstacles. Such is followed by
a differentiation between linguistic and non-linguistic based obstacles (the
differentiation being artificial in nature is introduced simply for the purpose
of easier comprehension of the idea). In the final part, in order to enhance the
practical application of the paper, in each of above-mention categories of the
obstacles, the authors include a non-exhaustive list of the obstacles, followed
by the tools and techniques instrumental in overcoming such.

1
Good example of such recognition is a survey conducted for the purpose of the Project “Development of
Interdisciplinary skills for cooperation and conflict management”. To see the outcomes, of the survey go to:
http://skills.turiba.lv/files/SOFT%20SKILLS%20SURVEY%20REPORT.pdf
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 93

The article, while it contemplates theoretical concepts developed in

existing literature, is aimed at providing a frame of reference for individuals
and groups, students and professionals, with regard to any multi-cultural
situations they will participate in. It is for people who seek to understand and
to be understood others. Certainly, a deeper understanding of communication
process, culture, links between them and available communication tools help in
enhancing the effectiveness of multicultural communication.

1. Communication – art or science?

Communication is difficult. Most people make a mistake by assuming that since

we all communicate on a daily basis, almost constantly, we all have the skill
mastered. To quote business author Brian Tracy “Communication is a skill that
you can learn. It’s like riding a bicycle or typing. If you’re willing to work at it,
you can rapidly improve the quality of every part of your life.”2
Before the reader delves into various deliberations on an effective multi-
cultural communication, it is crucial to define what communication actually is.
There is more than a dozen definitions of communication focusing on various
elements of the phenomena3, as well as multiple communication theories created
for the purposes of categorization and easier comprehension of this complex
process.4 Irrelevant of whether particular definitions bring more focus to the
participants, the goal of communication or the mechanisms utilized to make the
communication process effective, the focal point is the fact that communication
is essentially a process of sending a message (conveying a meaning) from one

2
Gallo, C. (2016). Richard Branson: “Communication Is The Most Important Skill Any Leader Can Possess.” Forbes,
August 9, https://www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2015/07/07/richard-branson-communication-is-
the-most-important-skill-any-leader-can-possess/?sh=16695fe52e8a. Retrieved 26.11.2020.
3
To give an example of a few scholar definitions John Adair understood communication as ‘the ability of one
person to make contact with another and make himself or herself understood’. Whereas Allen Louis defined that
‘communication is the sum of all the things one person does; when he wants to create understanding in the mind
of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding’, when Peter
Little emphasized that ‘communication is a process by which information is transmitted between individuals
and/or organizations so that an understanding response results’ or William Newman and Charles Summer:
said that ‘Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts, opinions or emotions of two or more persons’. The above-
mentioned illustrate their various focus in the definition that is from the participants (interlocutors) to the goal
of communication or the mechanisms utilized to make the communication process more effective. Examples
of definitions can be found i.a.: R. (2020), May 29, What is Communication? Definition, Concept, Process,
& Types. ReadingJunction: https://readingjunction.com/communication-definition-concept-process-types/
Retrieved 19.09.2020.
4
Among noted theorists of such are: Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon, Weaver, McLuhan, MacLean, Rileys, Westley,
Gerbner, Rothstein, Schramn, Berlo, Osgood, Johnson or Cherry. To illustrate the manifold of theories and
models one can refer to a number of linear (e.g. Aristotle model of communication) and non-linear models of
communication (such as sadharanikaran model of communication).
94 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

entity to another to receive feedback.5 There is also no unanimity whatsoever in

enumerating elements of a process of communication.6 For the purposes of this
article the authors choose to indicate the following elements involved: a sender,
a message, a medium and a channel, a receiver, a response and a feedback.
Therefore, to simplify, the communication process consists of the following
actions: sender has an idea and intention to send a message, then encoding of
the message occurs, after that the message goes through channel process, and
next the receiver decodes the message and finally discerns, followed by their
response.7
Communication channels form the basis to differentiate between two
main types of communication: verbal and non-verbal. In a verbal communication
one uses language and words to pass the intended message. A non-verbal
communication is a process of sending information in wordless messages
such as gestures, body language, symbols and expressions. As long as in most
situations communication occurs simultaneously via both channels, research
confirms that majority of the communication is non-verbal.8
A successful communication is but merely limited to an exchange of
information. What is deemed to be an effective communication is about
understanding emotions and intentions behind the information. Understanding
such is necessary to gain the full meaning behind the messages received and
express fully those one sends. To communicate effectively one needs to be aware
of all the elements that influence the message they intend to convey (both verbal
and non-verbal). Therefore, summing up the recipe for good communication is:

5
The two-way traffic emphasized by receiving feedback tends to align more with the non-linear models of
communication – unidirectional in nature, with a focus on mutual understanding of both sender and receiver.
See also: Adhikary, N. M. (1970). The Sadharanikaran Model and Aristotle’s Model of Communication: A
Comparative Study. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(1), pp. 268–289, https://doi.org/10.3126/bodhi.
v2i1.2877.
6
Inter alia the previously mentioned Sadharanikaran model consists of nine elements, whereas the Aristotle
model of communication features five elements
7
For more information on the process of communication, coding and decoding messages see i.a.: Gruman, J.,
Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc
DOI: 10.4135/9781071800591
8
The authors, nonetheless, do not intend to indicate any numbers or proportion. Whether it be two thirds of all
communications as stated by some authors (see: Hogan, K.; Stubbs, R. (2003). Can’t Get Through: 8 Barriers to
Communication. Grenta, LA: Pelican Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1589800755, Burgoon, Judee K; Guerrero,
Laura k; Floyd, Kory (2016). Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Nonverbal communication. New York:
Routledge, pp. 1–26, ISBN 978-0205525003 and other.) or the frequently-quoted 7% Rule according to which
communication is only 7 percent verbal and 93 percent non-verbal, as referred to in a book published Albert
Mehrabian in which he elaborated on research on non-verbal communication (see: Mehrabian, A. (1981).
Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN
0-534-00910-7 and others). The explicit numbers are further argued with by i.a David Lapakk in: Lapakko,
D. (2007). Communication is 93% Nonverbal: An Urban Legend Proliferates. Communication and Theater
Association of Minnesota Journal, 34, pp. 7–19 or by Philip Yaffe in: Philip Yaffe. 2011. The 7% rule: fact,
fiction, or misunderstanding. Ubiquity 2011, October, Article 1 (October 2011), 5 pages. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1145/2043155.2043156. Despite disagreement about the exact numbers, researchers are unanimous
in stating that communication is in majority a non-verbal process
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 95

common communication environment, the sender’s and the receiver’s mutual

cooperation, selection of an appropriate channel, encoding and decoding of the
message in a correct way (effective overcoming of communication obstacles),
as well as a receipt of the desired response and feedback.
While the authors will not in detail describe the enumerated components
of the communication process, it is in their opinion that communication in
its’ nature is simply a process of an intentional interaction between at least
two people happening in a particular reality – context and culture – aimed at
passing the message from one person to the other to elicit the response.
The intercultural communication, as name indicates, emphasizes
communication and culture. Having understood what communication is, the
next natural step is to cast some light on the concept of culture and its links
with communication.

2. Culture and communication, communication and culture

There is no one unanimously agreed definition of the word (and more

importantly the concept) of ‘culture’. Some authors do not even believe that it is
possible or useful to achieve such. Best example would be A. Lang’s conclusion
‘‘that attempts at defining culture in a definite way are futile’’.9 The authors of
this article share the view that the technical definition of the concept is not the
most important and siding with one definitely does not fall within the scope of
this paper.
Having said that, there are some things we can definitely say about culture.
Firstly, it came a long way from its origins stemming from ‘to cultivate’ and
its connection to agriculture, as well as its first known usage in connection to
philosophy (Cicero’s cultural mentis).10 Secondly, nowadays it is a polysemous.11
Lastly, it plays an important role in a way we see the world around us.
Each of us is a part of different cultures (maybe to some extent we could
even dare to state that one is a combination of multiple cultures) and at the
same time no one is a perfect representation of any culture. Culture is something
learnt and acquired. Transmitted from generation to generation. No one is
9
Lang, A. (1997). Thinking Rich as Well as Simple: Boesch’s Cultural Psychology in Semiotic Perspective.
Culture & Psychology, 3(3), pp. 383–394, 387, https://doi.org/10.1177/1354067x9733009
10
Bagby, P. (2021). Cicero, Tusculanae disputations 2, 5, 13. Culture and History (Underlining ed.). University of
California, p. 114
11
An interesting overview of the definition and evolution of the concept is provided in Jahoda, G. (2012). Critical
reflections on some recent definitions of ‘‘culture’’. Culture & Psychology, 3(3), pp. 289–303, https://doi.org/
10.1177/1354067X12446229. Retrieved: 18.10.2020.
96 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

born ‘with’ a culture and yet, everyone is born ‘into’ so many of them. Cultural
groups can be based on numerous identities, such as: gender, race, nationality,
religion, sex orientation, geography, social status, age – to name just a few. Such
groups create their own specific systems of believes, values, customs, lifestyles,
behaviours and perceptions.
What is important to be acknowledged for the purpose of this paper is
that culture has (or should we rather say cultures have) a profound influence
on the way we experience and perceive the world and people around us, as
well as on how we express ourselves. One illustration of such was given by
Debra Chopp “Our choice of words, our tone of voice, our proximity to another
person when we speak to them are all influenced by the cultures in which
we were raised. Culture also affects the attributions we make about others. If
we experience someone as rude, it is (in part) because we have a culturally
contingent understating of what it means to be polite.”12
What cannot be overemphasized is how complex the concept of culture
is and typically, how much we are only “scratching the surface” of it. The
perfect illustration of such is a very well-known metaphor of the “culture as an
iceberg”.13

Figure 1. Culture as an iceberg

12
Chopp, D. (2017). Addressing Cultural Bias in the Legal Profession. NYU Rev. of L. and Soc. Change 41, No. 3,
pp. 367–406, https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/1874/ Retrieved: 20.10.2020.
13
For more on the concept of culture as an iceberg which states that there is more than what we see on a first
glance – which is merely a visible culture – and describes unseen culture and deep culture concepts go to e.g.:
Hall, E. T. (1997). Beyond Culture by Edward T. Hall (1977-01-07), Anchor Books
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 97

On the other hand (what might be not that obvious), since communication
(inter alia) is a process during which believes, views and values are discussed
and shared between different members of the community, the communication
is a prerequisite for shaping cultures (or, from a different perspective, one of
the processes through which cultures are created and shared).14 To sum up,
there is no culture without communication.
To quote Victor “Communication and culture are inextricably intertwined.
Indeed, culture itself is one form of communication…. Consequently, the study
of cultural differences and similarities so essential to international business
success is largely inseparable from the study of international business
communication.”15
World is shrinking into a smaller place. More diversified and more global
every day. Due to such factors as: migrations, internalization, global economy,
world-wide media, social media and spreading internet accessibility, tourism,
increasing role of huge, multi-billion-worth companies, having offices all over
the world, both in our private and professional lives, we are offered a chance
to (and/or are forced to) meet and deal with people coming from different
backgrounds. We all have been communicating with people different from us our
all life (after all, there are no two identical people). Those differences, however,
are getting bigger, appear more often and become more apparent. Therefore, not
only communication skills but also cultural competency is becoming increasingly
crucial and useful – necessary to achieve our goals, become successful, but most
importantly, desperately needed to better understand the reality we live in and
people surrounding us. To see the bigger picture, if you will.

3. Do our cultural backgrounds make it harder to

communicate? – Overview of the cultural obstacles
in the communication process

3.1. Overview

Knowing what both communication and culture are, as well how they are
inherently intertwined, this article of the paper aims at providing the overview
of the obstacles that typically occur when dealing with communication in

14
Knutson, K. (2014). June 11, Definition of Culture [Video]. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=CyrC9iLQF0s
15
Victor, D. A. (1992). International Business Communication (1st ed.). Harpercollins College Div
98 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

a multicultural context. Before doing so, it should be stressed that almost

every conversation, discussion and other form of human interaction happens
in an intercultural context. However, typically what is understood by the
intercultural context is an interaction by individuals coming from significantly
different backgrounds (regardless of whether it is due to their geographical
origin, gender, system of beliefs, social status etc.). Of course, in general, the
bigger the difference of the said backgrounds, the more influence culture has
on the effectiveness of the communication process.
Moreover, the overview provided below is not a comprehensive list of
the obstacles that may occur, but rather aims to bring awareness to some key
impediments one can trip over while performing a multicultural ‘dance’. The
paper is also strongly influenced but the personal experience of its authors
gathered in the course of their careers16 as well as pragmatical aspirations of
the paper being a brief introduction to a widely broad topic.

3.2. Intercultural language competency

Language as an obstacle in intercultural communication

In this part, the authors focuses solely on one category of obstacles out of
many. Namely, the obstacles occurring on a linguistic level.
Language is arguably the most essential and commonly used way of
expression of humans. Whether in a context of a face-to-face conversation,
emails exchange or phone conference, at the heart of communication in most
scenarios lies the usage of some sort of language.
The number of languages present in the world is growing steadily. Just
to give some example, the 1911 (11th) edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica,17
implies a figure somewhere around 1,000 languages existing worldwide,
whereas currently Ethnologue (published by SIL International, being one of the
generally authoritative lists) presents that right now there are more than 7000
languages spoken. What is worth mentioning, “meanwhile, just 23 languages
account for more than half the world’s population.”18
With such a heterogenous world one can simply not expect to deal
only with native speakers of their own language, having same accent, dialect,

16
The authors professionally teach negotiation and communication. Due to that, they have worked with people
coming from several dozens of nationalities, also oversaw projects and negotiations processes between many
nationals having place in almost all parts of the world
17
Anderson, S. R. (2010). How many languages are there in the world? Linguistic Society of America. Linguistic
Society of America, https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/how-many-languages-are-there-world
18
How many languages are there in the world? (2021, February 23). Ethnologue, https://www.ethnologue.
com/guides/how-many-languages
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 99

vocabulary choice, using same proverbs and metaphors, structure and style of
communication. And although those remarks seem trivial in nature, speaking
from experience, as non-native English speakers, in most intercultural
scenarios, their role is prominent and understanding such is the first crucial
barrier to overcome on the road to effective multicultural communication.
When discussing language as a potential barrier in a communication
process it is important to acknowledge that is not only about simple knowledge
of vocabulary and grammar individuals involved in the communication
possess. It is also about the pace, volume and accent. Our day-to-day language
is filled with ambiguous words and phrases, professional jargon, abbreviations,
colloquialism, references to current events, famous quotes, metaphors,
phrasal verbs etc. Difficulties in effective communication occur primarily
between individuals who are native-speakers of different languages, yet are
not uncommon also between two parties originating from the same language
region. There is no doubt ‘language competency’ in intercultural context
is crucial for successful communication. At the same time in such a context,
language competency should not be understood as simply a comprehensive
knowledge and fluency in the language, but rather a competency to adjust
usage of a language depending on a person one is communicating with. In most
scenarios that might even be more difficult, as it is something one has to learn
independently from simply learning the language.
To give some kind of illustration. Imagine a professional ballroom dancer.
It is one thing to know all the steps and know how to dance their part. Completely
another thing is to be able, depending on the level of skills the person they are
paired with possesses, to adjust their choreography, not to start too advanced
sequences, to lead in a distinctive and unequivocal way and not to use gestures
and signals only they and their previous partner understand.

Overcoming language-based obstacles

Then, what can be done to increase chances that the above-mentioned
dance performance will go smoothly? To increase ‘intercultural language
competency’ so to speak. Below, the authors present their intake on most
important tips.
First and foremost, one should internalize that in order to make sure
misunderstanding, misinterpretation, misevaluation are avoided, it is needed to
‘take the burden’ of the communication on their shoulders. It is better to assume
nothing is understandable unless proven otherwise (opposite to common
assumption being that everything is understood until proven otherwise).
Never equate poor foreign language competency with lack of knowledge or
professional expertise in a field.
100 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

We would suggest starting with assessing the other person’s competency

of the language used in a communication process and then keeping verifying
the evaluation on such throughout the entire process of communication.
Accordingly, adjustments to the way intended message is being sent – should
be made. What may be considered is to:
• slow down the pace of speaking, increase enunciation of the words,
simplify the structure and vocabulary (i.e. avoid inversion, passive
verbs, eloquent vocabulary or archaisms, compound sentences);
• not use colloquial language or very professional jargon, abbreviations,
phrasal verbs, elaborate metaphors or any other words or expressions
having ambiguous or figurative meaning;
• whenever using expression requiring the frame of reference, providing
such a frame (it is fine if the other person stops the sender while
explaining it due to the fact that such context is familiar to them);
• keep verifying if what is being said is understood properly and
comprehensively – summarize, invite paraphrasing, ask questions if
particular statement is received without any problems, use repetition
when needed, encourage clarifying questions and interruptions when
elaboration and more clarity is required;
• get comfortable with silence – do not feel a need to jump and fill it in
as soon as the other person takes a bit of a break; also, considering
taking more breaks as normally just to give some more time to gather
thoughts; plan and schedule more time for the meeting;
• encourage speaking by the other person, be very careful not to
embarrass them (i.e. do not excessively (if ever) correct their grammar
if it is not needed for the sake of clarity);
• use visualizations, gestures (as long as they have similar meaning
in their’ culture), graphs, presentations, as well as tools introducing
structure and enhancing clarity (such as: agenda, usage of the board,
modules);
• send summary, minutes or notes after the meeting and seek
confirmation.19

Equally important as making sure one is being understood properly

is to ensure one’s reception of the other person’s message is undisturbed.
Respectively, it is crucial to deploy the above-mentioned suggestions to the

19
For the more detailed description of some of the listed recommendations go to: Nancy J. Adler & Moses
N. Kiggundu Awareness at the Crossroad: Designing Translator-Based Training Programs in D. Landis and
R. Brislin, Handbook of Intercultural Training: Issues in Training Mythology, Vol. II. New York: Pergamin Press,
(1983), pp. 124–150
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 101

process of listening, as well as to introduce active listening techniques. The

tools and exercises instrumental in developing such are provided in the article
by Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl “Conflict Diagnosis: How to deal
with a conflict”20 as well as in study materials available in project webpage
http://skills.turiba.lv.

3.3. Beyond language – meeting of diverse worlds. Non-language-

based approach

Introduction to non-linguistic approach

It is essential to note that each individual uses and understands language
in their own unique way. Unlike with coding languages where multiple ‘0’ and
‘1’ create clear-cut commands, humans do not operate in a binary system. That
means that communication does not rely only on purely linguistic meaning of
words. Form of communication, environment in which communication takes
place as well as other non-linguistic elements are necessary for a person to
hear and to be heard.
Communication – even more so when performed in an intercultural setting –
besides the exchange of words, is a process of sharing beliefs, values and worldviews.
Forbes contributor Carol Kinsey Goman once said: “Every culture has rules that its
members take for granted. Few of us are aware of our own biases because cultural
imprinting is begun at a very early age. And while some of culture’s knowledge,
rules, beliefs, values, phobias and anxieties are taught explicitly, most is absorbed
subconsciously.”21 Hence, the awareness of the hole message which is sent by the
communicating person to the receiver using both language and via all the non-
verbal interaction, as well as proper decoding of the message and understanding
of what one’s culture brings to a conversation (how it influences their way of
communicating intentions, emotions and feelings) are absolutely essential for an
effective intercultural communication.

Non-linguistic obstacles – non-exhaustive overview

Whether a particular behaviour is perceived to be ‘right‘ or ‘normal‘
rather than ‘strange‘ or ‘inadequate‘ derives from cultural upbringing and
values. It may be challenging to recognize and respond to culturally-dependent
obstacles in a communication process.

20
See: Sonnleitner, K., & Gschweitl, V. (2021). Chapter 6. Conflict management. Conflict Diagnosis: How to deal
with a conflict?
21
Goman, C. K. (2011). How Culture Controls Communication. Forbes, November 28, https://www.forbes.com/
sites/carolkinseygoman/2011/11/28/how-culture-controls-communication/?sh=4d9630ec263b
102 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

The first intrinsic element in dealing with potential hurdle of that kind is
to notice when communicating parties use culturally different frameworks and
mechanisms that may hinder full mutual understanding. Below, the authors
present the non-exhaustive list of non-linguistic and other internal barriers to
an effective communication.
Different dependence on context. Non-verbal communication includes
facial expressions and gestures; but also room and seating arrangements,
personal distance, sense of time or the level of assertiveness in communicating.
The importance of non-verbal aspects in communication vary across cultures.
Messages are coded in a physical context or in a non-verbal way, with few explicit
words. Dependent on the importance and scope of context coded messages,
scientists identify two types of cultures: high and low context cultures, where
high-context cultures rely to a greater extent on more ambiguous methods of
communication, with a lot of meaning assigned to a non-verbal communication,
symbolism, customs and tradition. Stereotypically, some examples of high-
context cultures would be Japan, Saudi Arabia or Spain, whereas among low-
context cultures are typically Canada or USA.22
Bypassing – as it was indicated on the linguistic level (see the previous
part above) and defined as when the symbolic meaning of words is not read
correctly by communicators and the receiver gets the wrong meaning to what
the sender intended, the same applies to non-verbal communication: tones,
pitch of voice, other vocal cues.
In authors view, the perfect example of such bypassing would be a usage
of a dot (‘.’) at the end of a one-word-long text message. To illustrate, the authors
encourage the readers to think of a possible reaction to a text: ‘Fine.’ received
from an elderly professor or a teenage Snapchat user. Would the meaning and
emotions associated differ when the same text comes from different people?
Bias – is a phenomenon of misinterpretation and misjudgement of a
message by applying tests and standards inherent and unique to one’s own
culture. Ethnocentrism is the example of a more extreme cultural bias which
takes place when someone deems their particular culture to be the only lens to
look through at other cultures with an implied belief that their approach and
culture are better than the other, leading to a negative opinion of behaviours

22
Research shows, however, that the extent to which high or low-context is used in communication is also
dependent on whether a conversation is happening in a work or non-work contexts, with some interesting
changes, that are not typically in line with the general exemplification of high- or low-context cultures based
on nationalities or countries. For the mentioned research see: Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R.,
Zhao, S., & Koo, J. (2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork
contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), pp. 363–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
3514.85.2.363.
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 103

different to the one-and-only right vision one presents.23 To exemplify bias,

imagine what would be the reaction one might have while hearing that someone
ate a dog compared to eating snails, shrimps, octopuses or pigs, cows, horses. Is it
really that different?
Stereotyping – is simply an overestimation of the degree of a link
between group membership and psychological attributes. Even though,
undoubtedly there is a link between group membership and particular traits or
characteristics of its members, it is a mistake to depend and derive on it about
individuals to the extent when one relies on oversimplified clichés. The authors
knowingly will not present any particular example of a stereotype, but rather
will ask the addressee to think about the remark about their own nation/society
which they deem impolite and/or hurtful.
Conflicting values and communication styles24 – behaviours are
conditioned by culture. Above, in the paragraph about culture, the authors
referred to the concept of culture as an iceberg – where values are ‘underwater’,
and behaviours are the visible after effects thereof. Cultural misunderstandings
may occur also when someone’s behaviours are conflicting with the other
person’s values. Since cultural norms presented by individuals are not identical,
therefore the intention and goal of behaviours is often confused and misjudged.
What one struggles to understand will be often opposed or rendered wrong.
Values we share strongly affect the way we communicate. Dependent on
the system of values most common in particular culture, preferences as to
communication styles and the way people express themselves are being
shaped. Some common values/culture conditioned communication norms
may be listed as follows: direct vs. indirect communication,25 informality vs.
formality, open vs. subtle disagreement, egalitarian vs. hierarchical. Operating
in other systems could cause frustration, out-of-depth feeling or even feeling of
being disrespected.
One example, from authors experience would be when they – back while
being first-time-visitors in India – were confused on whether a cab driver is just
acknowledging they heard an inquiry about a possible ride or accepting the

23
Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R., Zhao, S., & Koo, J. (2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West
communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2),
pp. 363–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.363
24
Compoint, T. (2018). July 9, Six barriers to cross-cultural communications (Part 2 of 3). Déclic International,
https://declicinternational.com/6-barriers-to-cross-cultural-communications/
25
Indirectness occurs when there is a discrepancy between sentence meaning and speaker meaning. Sentence
meaning refers to the literal or semantic meaning of an utterance, and speaker meaning refers to what the
speaker intends to accomplish with the remark. Sanchez-Burks, J., Lee, F., Choi, I., Nisbett, R., Zhao, S., & Koo, J.
(2003). Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), pp. 63–372, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.363
104 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

request for a lift by responding ‘Oki-fine.’26

Last, but not least – Physical noise27 – subtly, yet greatly influences
communication. Communication can be hindered not only by lack of under-
standing while the process takes place, but also by wrongly-adjusted conditions
for such. Wrong scheduling of a meeting, lack of coordination between time-zones,
lack of mitigation of any negative effects the distance between communicating
parties has on the process, a bad physical disposition of an individual (including
the so called ‘Zoom fatigue’ or other)28 and not-optimal physical condition
of the other party – are all potential factors that can interfere with effective
communication. While according to Alistair Cockburn the most effective form
of communication is a direct conversation between two people with the use
of visual aids such as a whiteboard,29 nowadays the significance of physical
noises of all kinds is growing. The bigger the distance between interlocutors
and the more technical channels are used as mediums (especially, in an era
of quarantines, frequent home offices and limited travel opportunities) this
category of obstacles simply cannot be overlooked.

Dealing with non-linguistic obstacles

To deal with the above-mentioned obstacles to an effective communication,
it is crucial to present intercultural traits, develop intercultural mind-set and
master international capabilities.
Vital traits while communicating in a multi-cultural setting are such
as open-mindedness, tolerance of ambiguity, patience and flexibility. For a
successful communication it is necessary to identify how many and what types
of cultures play a role in every particular conversation, video-call or even an
e-mail exchange. Respect and deep understanding of cultural differences are
key to successful cross-cultural communication.
Ethnocentrism or simplistic attitudes are bound to lead to miscommu-
nication. On the contrary – sophisticated worldviews embracing diversity
among people, their various backgrounds, cultural differences and similarities

26
Another example would be the use of irony and sarcasm in Japanese culture, as one might argue that the use
thereof is not typical in that culture. It is reasonable to learn beforehand about the culture of someone so as not
to be deemed offensive or unserious, especially in an effort of having a sensitive conversation with someone
whose origins are in Japanese culture. E. (2019). September 23, The Role of Communication in Conflict. Penn
State. Cultural Leadership Blog, https://sites.psu.edu/global/2019/09/23/the-role-of-communication-in-
conflict/
27
By definition a physical noise is any factor – external or environmental- distracting from receiving the
intended message sent by a communicator. Rothwell, D. J. (2017). In the Company of Others: An Introduction to
Communication (Illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press, USA
28
How to Combat Zoom Fatigue (2021). Harvard Business Review, February 2, https://hbr.org/2020/04/how-
to-combat-zoom-fatigue%20or%20https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/coronavirus-
zoom-fatigue-is-taxing-the-brain-here-is-why-that-happens/
29
Cockburn, A. (2001). Agile Software Development. Addison-Wesley
 Chapter 5. Multicultural Communication 105

foster the sense of a friendly, good-faith communication environment. Curiosity

and ultimate capability to distinguish statements and facts from opinions,
contexts and values are critical.
Below the authors list some guidelines to apply with the aim to avoid
potential miscommunications and obtain more productive cross-cultural
interaction. It is crucial to:
• never forget to do the homework – learning and showing knowledge of
other countries and cultures; becoming aware of customs in relevant
regions, while guarding against stereotypes as it is not possible to
predict a person’s behaviour based solely on their nationality or
origin. Each individual is unique and should be deemed as such;
• show respect – to an individual as a person, to their community and
their background; it may help to explicitly mention in a conversation
that different cultures meet and merge all in order to set the right
tone of a conversation and foster the atmosphere of good faith and
openness;
• stay flexible in social interactions – it is essential to be ready to
flex one’s own style by adjusting the directness of communication,
gestures, posture and more; an effective communicator should stay
alert to what is new or against their natural preferences and should
try to determine if it is a cultural difference, so as to consciously
tune in or address it without harmful disruption in a communication
process;
• never assume full understanding of a message and it’s meaning,
(neither that messages sent were received without any disturbance
by the listener nor that they grasped fully those of whomever they
communicated with); to deal with mishaps in that regard, one could
resort to labelling as it allows communicating parties to identify
correctly the dynamics, emotions or circumstances implied from the
other party’s words, actions or demeanor; moreover, it transpires
to be helpful to put a positive label on what is heard or seen from
the other side; just as important as being forthcoming and labelling
actions, it is to explain words or manner in order to convey the full
meaning and help the receiver correctly decode messages. It is crucial
to remember that the owner of the message owns the results, so once
again it is good to ‘take the burden’ of the communication.
• normalize – communicating across cultures is often a foreign
territory where it is easy to be taken aback by the other sides’ words
or behaviours that are particular to other cultures and uncommon
106 Agnieszka Góra, Jacek Czaja

to ours; firstly, each individual should make an effort to become

comfortable with the fact that surprises or astonishment are more
than certain to occur; in no situation should they be allowed to hinder
communication. Simple inquiries, questions and seeking clarifications
could be used as normalizing tools. Shock or other such feelings are –
most likely – equally true to the other side as well, so it is essential
never to forget to explain in a more explicit way intentions behind
the sent messages, always highlight the goal of the undertaken action
and the words said. Also, in an effort to normalize – one can ask for
feedback.

Good communication comes as a result of knowing and understanding

who the other party is and what is the environment of communication, as well
as properly preparing for the process of intercultural communication.

Conclusions

Ultimately, multicultural communication competency can and should be learnt

as it is considered crucial for a successful professional and personal life. Due
to the fact that each person is an individual who was born and raised into
many cultures, people do not communicate in void and culture plays a crucial
role in communication. Therefore, culture needs to be acknowledged as one
of the factors influencing the result of communication and whether speakers
will understand each other and their messages to the fullest extent possible.
In view of the above, a similar attention one gives to mastering language skills
and careful choice of words, should be directed to intercultural awareness as
it a fundamental puzzle in each and every conversation, e-mail exchange or
any other cross-cultural interaction. Different cultures have different standards
and rules. A deep understanding of conscious and unconscious effects that
language-based and non-linguistic cultural elements have on the process of
communication, helps in adjusting communication style to ensure it is effective.
Individuals, however, while shaped by their cultural background, are not limited
by it. To succeed in multicultural communication, it is important to recognize
any present obstacles of cultural origin and make necessary efforts to mitigate
any negative effect they may have. It is crucial to acknowledge that no one is
born proficient in multicultural communication. It is a skill and the authors of
the article are certain, it can be acquired, mastered and applied in the future.
CHAPTER 6

CONFLICT
DIAGNOSIS
AND
MANAGEMENT
 CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS:
HOW TO DEAL WITH A CONFLICT?
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl

Annotation: The following article describes the importance of the recognition

of conflicts and their dynamics. Therefore, it provides helpful approaches for
dealing with conflicts. These approaches include exploring the cause and
circumstances of conflicts through communication techniques and defining
the type of a certain conflict. Furthermore, the diagnostic tool of the nine
escalation levels by Glasl is described.
Even though conflicts are necessary for the evolvement of society, they can be
very challenging. However, by looking at them analytically, they can in some
cases be transformed in a way which can be useful – to the as equal as possible
extend – for all parties. The article aims to generate an awareness for an
analytical approach and gives examples how conflict diagnosis can be taught.

Keywords: conflict diagnosis, type of conflict, classifying the stage of conflict,

appropriate dispute resolution tool, practical examples

Summary: Introduction. – 1. Exploring the exterior cause of the conflict

(circumstances of the case). – 2. Defining the type of conflict. – 3. Classifying
the stage of conflict. – 4. Finding an appropriate dispute resolution tool.
– Conclusions.

Introduction
Conflicts are inevitable, they can arise whenever and wherever people meet (may
it be at the workplace, at the place of study/vocational training, within families,
with friends, etc.). Despite being often considered to have negative – sometimes
even destructive – effects, conflicts bear potential for growth and development, if
those, who are involved, want to change old attitudes.1 Without conflicts, society
would not evolve. If they are treated in a constructive way, however, progress
is initiated. Therefore, it is necessary to work on conflicts with a systematic
approach. In this regard, scientists are examining the different facets of conflicts
and developing models and tools for conflict analysis and diagnosis.
1
Solarte-Vásquez, M. C. The Wider Context: An Introduction to Conflict Management and Dispute Resolution.
Mediation in Civil and Criminal Cases to Foster European Wide Settlement of Disputes (e-Book). Retrieved
01.03.2021. from https://mediation.turiba.lv/index.php?id=42

111
112 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

The ability to deal with conflicts includes the competence to approach

conflicts self-confidently, analytically and in a solution-oriented manner in
order to successfully resolve them.2 Productive tensions and challenges lead
to an increase in competence in the form of an increased ability to resolve
conflicts.3 Diagnosing conflicts is an essential part of this ability and can roughly
be divided into the following elements:
• exploring the exterior cause of the conflict (circumstances of the case);
• defining the type of conflict;
• classifying the level of escalation;
• finding an appropriate dispute resolution tool.4

These elements are of importance, since in order to react adequately

and/or give good advice it is necessary to understand the dynamics behind the
problem, to find out who is involved, what are their interests and goals as well
as how the conflict has progressed.5 Otherwise the dispute may not be solved
at all, personal or business relationships may be damaged and/or the parties
to the conflict may find themselves unsatisfied with the outcome, because an
inappropriate dispute resolution strategy was chosen.6
This article provides different approaches to the above-mentioned
aspects. It shall introduce students as well as teachers to some basic techniques,
models and tools that can be applied either to one’s own conflicts or to the
conflicts of others from the position of a third neutral party.

1. Exploring the exterior cause of the conflict

(circumstances of the case)

The first step when dealing with a conflict is to identify its exterior cause, which,
according to Hagen7, corresponds to the cause of action in a lawsuit (e.g. breach
of contract). In this regard one must clarify which persons are involved and what
roles they have. Further in the process, the different positions and interests of
these persons are explored to path the way for a potential consensus. In order

2
Böttcher, W., & Lindart, M. (2009). Schlüsselqualifiziert. Weinheim: Beltz Verlag, p. 112
3
Heyse, V., & Erpenbeck, J. (2004). Kompetenztraining: 64 Informations- und Trainingsprogramme. Stuttgart:
Schäffer-Poeschel Verlag für Wirtschaft, p. 329
4
Based on Hagen, J. J., & Lenz C. (2008). Wirtschaftsmediation. Wien: Manz Verlag, p. 33
5
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, pp. 3–8
6
Glasl, F. (2017). Konfliktdiagnose. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D., Lenz C.,
Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 157; Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, p. 3 f.
7
Hagen, J. J., & Lenz, C. (2008). Wirtschaftsmediation. Wien: Manz Verlag, p. 33
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 113

to gather all necessary information and to fully comprehend the situation,

it is important to master some basic communication techniques, which are
presented in the following.

1.1. Asking questions

Asking questions is one of the two core competences in conflict diagnosis

and management. Although it may sound simple, asking the right question(s)
at the right time can pose its challenges. Kessen8 identifies three attributes
useful questions have in common: 1. They are understandable, which means
the person asking has to adopt her/his language to the person asked. 2. They
are open (as opposed to closed, which means that closed questions can only be
answered with “yes” or “no”). 3. They arouse interest, i.e. they address cognitive
and affective needs. Open questions are suitable for gathering information,
getting a different picture and supporting the conflict parties in opening up.
Especially helpful are the so-called “W-questions” (What? How? Who? Where?
When? Which? etc.). However, closed questions might also be useful to come
to decisions or for clarification (e.g. “Do you accept this proposal?”, “Have you
already spoken about the problem?”).
Apart from the distinction between open and closed questions there exist
a variety of other question types like circular questions (“How would your
friend describe the situation?”), paradox questions (“What could be done to
make the situation worse?”) or concretizing questions (“How exactly did your
meeting go?”)9 that are beyond the scope of this article. The most important
recommendation to keep in mind, however, is to maintain an open, curious,
respectful and appreciative attitude.10

1.2. Active Listening

The second core competence – active listening – can be described as

‘classical’ method.11 It means listening on an emotional level from an empathetic

8
Kessen, S. (2017). Die Kunst des Fragens. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D.,
Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 324–325
9
Geier, F. (2017). Kommunikation in der Mediation. Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T.,
Berning D., Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 321
10
Kessen, S. (2017). Die Kunst des Fragens, Mediation und Konfliktmanagement (2nd ed.). Trenczek T., Berning D.,
Lenz C., Will H.-D. (edt.). Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 324 f.
11
Thomann, C., & Schulz von Thun, F. (2017). Klärungshilfe 1, Handbuch für Therapeuten, Gesprächshelfer und
Moderatoren in schwierigen Gesprächen. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, pp. 92 f.
114 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

position. The person listening devotes their full attention to the person talking,
signaling the reception of their message on a non-verbal and verbal level
(nodding their head, saying “yes”, “okay” etc.). Often the mistake is made to
immediately give advice or to talk about similar experiences made by oneself,
but the intention should be to completely understand the other person’s story,
the facts and circumstances as well as the underlying needs and feelings.12
Part of active listening is to ask questions and to paraphrase what was
said. The latter means to summarize/repeat the story in one’s own words
neutrally and without any judgment. It helps to reassure oneself that what was
heard was also understood correctly.13 Moreover, one should try to include the
“sub-text” (the actual meaning, the feelings and interests) in the paraphrase.
This way the person speaking feels understood, is supported in reflecting
her/his own situation and feelings and is invited to open up even more. These
communication techniques are not only useful in the first stage of conflict
diagnosis, but also during all steps. Furthermore, showing empathy helps to
build rapport and to prevent conflicts from escalating.14

2. Defining the type of conflict

A distinction of the type of conflicts must be made regarding the conflict parties
(internal and interpersonal conflicts), the different forms of the conflict’s
appearance (hot vs cold conflicts and latent vs manifest conflicts) as well as
the matter of dispute (conflicts of interest, value and relationship conflicts).
To provide an example: Two co-workers are having a dispute that seems like a
personal conflict between them, while the real cause of the problem lies within
the structure of the organization. It could be the case that the roles of the
employees are organized in a way that they inevitably constrain each other when
fulfilling their tasks.15 Trying to find a consensus on a personal level without
considering the structural problem will not be successful in this situation. By
defining the type of conflict, the root cause can be found and treated, which will
give the parties the best chance to find sustainable solutions.

12
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, pp. 61–62
13
Deutsch, M. (2014). Cooperation, Competition, and Conflict. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution (3rd ed.).
Coleman, P., Deutsch, M. & Marcus, E. (edt.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 15.
14
Kraus, R., Morsella, E. (2014). Communication and Conflict. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution (3rd ed.).
Coleman, P., Deutsch, M. & Marcus, E. (edt.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 174–178
15
Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham: Springer, p. 6
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 115

2.1. Difference according to the conflict parties

Internal conflicts (intrapersonal)

Internal conflicts are the conflicts we fight with ourselves. Tensions arise
within a person resulting from contradicting needs.16 Mostly we have to make
different decisions in our daily life, and reflect if it was really the right decision.
On the other side you have to live with the feeling that the decision could
possibly turn out to be wrong. The following variants can be distinguished:

Figure 1. Internal conflicts17

An unresolved internal conflict is characterized by the fact that you

want or need two things at the same time, but they contradict each other. This
internal conflict is particularly relevant in psychology.

Social conflicts (interpersonal)

All interpersonal conflicts, in which two people or small groups are
involved, are called social conflicts. Feelings, needs, our role behavior
and basic attitude towards other people are relevant for our behavior. A
distinction can be made between conflicts of needs and conflicts of value.
When there is a conflict of needs, one feels directly disturbed by the behavior
of another or hindered in fulfilling their own needs.
16
Röhl, K. R. (1987). Rechtssoziologie. Ein Lehrbuch. Köln: Carl Heymanns Verlag, p. 483
17
Glasl, F., & Weeks, D. (2008). Die Kernkompetenzen für Mediation und Konfliktmanagement. Stuttgart:
Concadora-Verlag, pp. 96 f.
116 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

For example, you want to go home quickly after work, but you have
to finish an urgent job for your boss. Conversely, conflicts of value have
no direct impact on you personally, but you would like another person to
change his/her behavior. For example, parents do not want their children to
be pierced or tattooed.
According to Glasl, a social conflict is an interaction (a related com-
munication or action) between actors (individuals, groups, organizations
etc.), whereby at least one actor has incompatibilities in his/her thinking/
imagining/perceiving and/or feeling with the other actor (other actors),
experienced in such a way that an impairment by another actor or other
actors occurs in trying a realization.18
The following types of conflict also belong to the interpersonal level.
Conflicts of goals occur when two people pursue two goals that are difficult
or incompatible. In a team there could be a disagreement about the goals
and the expected outcome. For example, the boss expects his assistant to
complete all tasks quickly and spontaneously. For the assistant, this means
that other work remains unfinished, which in turn often leads to unpaid
overtime. The secretary feels overwhelmed and sometimes not respected.
Often a lack of agreements and coordination are the cause of a conflict of
goals. A distributional conflict arises as a result of a dispute over a scarce
good. If someone does not get what he/she thinks he/she is entitled to (e.g.
salary, further education), we speak about a distribution conflict. A lack of
resources can be the cause of a distributional conflict. In a solution conflict
there are different ideas about how to solve a task in a group. In a relationship
conflict the parties experience disruptive interpersonal tensions while
working or living together. Relationship conflicts occur when the “chemistry”
is not right anymore. These two factors can exacerbate a conflict.19 The last
type of conflict also belongs to the category “difference according to the
subject of dispute” which will be described in the next chapter.

2.2. Difference according to the subject of dispute

For Glasl, the subject of the dispute is one of the main aspects of the
conflict division. Possible subjects of the dispute are different relationships,
interests, needs, values, beliefs, etc.

18
Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und Mediation (12th ed.). Bern –
Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 17 f.
19
Rüttinger, B., & Sauer, J. (2016). Konflikt und Konfliktlösen. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler, p. 90
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 117

Figure 2: Difference according to the subject of dispute.20

2.3. Difference according to the appearance

This differentiation/distinction of conflicts focuses on the interaction of

the conflict parties. In hot conflicts the atmosphere is characterized by over-
sensitivity and over-activity. The conflicts are fought out loud and there is often
a focus on one opinion leader. The own motives are not up for discussion and
attempts are made to convince the opponent. In cold conflicts the climate is
determined by disappointment and frustration. Communication comes to a
complete standstill and the mutual attacks are also designed calculative. Self-
esteem drops and the parties avoid each other more and more. These conflicts
are difficult to recognize and in order to be able to deal with them at all, you sually
have to “warm them up”.21 A latent conflict means that the conflict already exists
and can also be perceived, but has not yet been openly discussed. A manifest
conflict is an open conflict, which is expressed in the conflict behavior.22
20
Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und Mediation (12th ed.). Bern –
Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 55 ff.
21
Höher, P., & Höher, F. (2004). Konfliktmanagement – Konflikte kompetent erkennen und lösen. Bergisch
Gladbach: EHP-Verlag, p. 50; Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und
Mediation (12th ed.). Bern – Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 78 ff.
22
Dahrendorf, R. (1996). Zu einer Theorie des sozialen Konflikts. Konflikttheorien. Bonacker, T. (edt.). Wiesbaden:
Springer Fachmedien, pp. 279–295; Pondy, L. R. (1967). Organizational conflicts: concepts and methods.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 12, pp. 296–320
118 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

3. Classifying the stage of conflict

After reflecting with what type of conflict you are dealing with, the model of
Glasl23 can be used so that the conflict parties know which of the nine levels of
escalation the conflict has reached. It is therefore a very useful diagnostic tool
for the conflict facilitator and sensitizes people to the mechanisms of conflict
escalation. Such sensitizing may lead to a greater awareness of the steps one
should take care to avoid if one wants to prevent a conflict from escalating out
of control.
The first stage of conflict escalation develops when there is a disagreement
about some issue or frustration in a relationship. It is called tension. The
problem remains and leads to irritation. Interests and opinions crystallize into
standpoints, i.e. fixed positions about a certain issue. In the perception of the
conflict parties, these standpoints tend to become mutually incompatible. The
positions attract adherents, which means groups start to form around certain
standpoints, and for or against a certain standpoint. Interactions with the other
side are disappointing, and are perceived as a waste of time and energy. The
communication between the parties is still based on mutuality. In stage 2,
the debate, the discussions lead to verbal confrontations. The parties look for
more forceful ways of pushing through their standpoints and want to appear
successful, strong and skillful rather than compliant, insecure and incompetent.
Debates are no longer only focused on which standpoint has more merits, but
also on who is most successful in promoting the standpoints. The behavior
introduces mistrust in the relationship. Discussions turn into debates, where
inflexible standpoints collide with each other. The growing mistrust creates
a sense of insecurity and loss of control. At stage 3, actions not words, the
parties no longer believe that further talks will resolve anything, and they shift
their attention to actions. The most important goal at this stage is to block the
counterpart from reaching their goal, and to push through one’s own interests.
Actions and non-verbal communication dominate the course of events, which
tends to speed up the escalation process. Fantasies about possible motives
and hidden strategies can develop unchecked. The feeling of being blocked is
further increased by the limited possibility of genuine verbal communication.

23
Glasl, F. (2020). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führung, Beratung und Mediation (12th ed.). Bern –
Haupt – Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistleben, pp. 243 ff; Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Cham:
Springer, pp. 7 f.
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 119

Figure 3. Stages of conflict

At stage 4, which is called images and coalitions, the conflict is no

longer about concrete issues, but about victory or defeat. Defending one’s
reputation is a major concern. The images are now stereotypical, highly fixed
and very resilient to change. The conflict parties start to attribute collective
characteristics, both to members of the other side and to ingroup members.
The negative images are now screens that occupy the field of vision whenever
the parties meet each other. These screens prevent the parties from seeing each
other’s true complexity and individuality. During this stage, the parties actively
try to enlist support from bystanders and the conflict activities are now focused
on affecting the counterpart.
The transition to stage 5 is dramatic. Loss of face means that the conflict
parties feel that they have seen through the mask of the other party and
discovered an immoral, insane or criminal inside. The whole conflict history
is reinterpreted: one feels that the other side has followed a consequent and
immoral strategy. They think that there are angels and devils involved in the
conflict, representing two sides. One’s own side is a representation of the good
forces in the world, the other side represents the destructive and bestial forces.
Loss of face and pursuing retaliatory acts often isolate the conflict parties from
bystanders. The conflict parties develop threat strategies at stage 6 and
lose control over the course of events. They create pressure and act rapidly
and radically. There is a serious risk that stress and complexity result in the
disintegration of the parties.
120 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

Stage 7 leads to limited destruction. Threats turn into real attacks and
the damage grows bigger. The parties are only able to reach lose-lose solutions,
because the goal is to hurt the opponent. There is no chance to communicate
anymore and no possibility to win the conflict. During stage 8, which is
called disintegration, the attacks intensify and have the aim to destroy the
counterpart. Only one’s own survival is important. This survival instinct
changes at stage 9. Together into the abyss is the central interest, because
there is no returning back to a normal respectful relationship. Instead of having
a conflict, the parties fight against each other like they are in war, without
scruples, remorse and ethics.

4. Finding an appropriate dispute resolution tool

As long as the dispute is still on level 1 to 3 the parties can either solve their
conflict on their own or use moderation as an appropriate method. Conflicts in
phases 3 to 5 have the chance to be solved with the help of a process conciliator
(process or sociotherapeutic process consultation). A conflict that is in phases
5 to 7 can be dealt with mediation. If the conflict intensifies, the conflicting
parties increasingly lose the ability to settle the conflict without outside
intervention. At phase 6 of the escalation model, the parties are no longer able
to resolve the dispute without outside help. However, the neutral “mediator
role” without decision-making power is sufficient. From phase 6 onwards,
the conflicting parties should generally think about “delegating” the decision
to a third party. In phases 8 and 9 the dispute will have to be decided by the
ordinary courts or an arbitration tribunal. These disputes can also be dealt
with the decision of an intervening power. With regard to the choice of conflict
resolution options, preference should generally be given to those that aim at a
consensus. It is essential to note that the conflicting parties can be in different
phases. This means, it is possible that A is already thinking of filing a lawsuit
(phase 7), while B perceives the conflict as less escalating (phase 5).24
Alberstötter25 created a similar model, especially for conflicts between
parents, summing up the escalation process to 3 levels. During the first stage
24
Glasl, F. (1982). The process of conflict escalation and roles of third parties. Conflict Management and Industrial
Relations. Bomers, G., Peterson, R. (edt.). Dordrecht: Springer-Science + Business Media, pp. 132 ff; Glasl, F.
(2015). Selbsthilfe in Konflikten. Konzepte – Übungen – Praktische Methoden (7th ed.). Bern: Haupt Verlag,
pp. 137 ff.
25
Alberstötter, U. (2006). Wenn Eltern Krieg gegen einander führen. Eskalierte Elternkonflikte. Beratungsarbeit
im Interesse des Kindes bei hoch strittigen Scheidungen. Weber M., Schilling H. (edt.). Weinheim and Munich:
Juventa, p. 36
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 121

of the model it comes to a hardening between those involved in the conflict

(level 1: sporadic words and actions against one another). As a next step, the
field of conflict is expanded (level 2: hurtful actions and expansion of the field
of conflict), until one can speak of a relationship war (level 3: relationship
war – fight at any price), in which revenge and active destruction dominate. This
information helps in the following with the decision on the most appropriate
and promising conflict resolution strategy.

Conclusions

When people live together, conflicts and contradictions are indispensable.

At the same time, conflicts can have positive effects. If people are sensitized
to the possible causes and types of conflicts, the escalation dynamics as well
as different resolution methods, they are more likely to find sustainable
solutions.26 By using the above described techniques, tools and models, it is
possible to approach conflicts from an analytical angle. This helps to take a
step back, to reflect and to make choices about the most appropriate dispute
resolution method. The model of Glasl on the escalation phases27 can provide
especially useful guidance in the process. It shows that at the beginning of
the resentment phase (1–3) self-help is possible to find a win-win outcome.28
Towards the end of this phase and during the next phases (4–6) a neutral third
party (a mediator) is necessary to settle the conflict. Once the destruction, the
lose-lose phase, is reached (7–9), only a powerful intervention that forcibly
separates the conflict parties can help.
It is, for example, not advisable to file a lawsuit if the conflict has only
reached stage 4, since it might be solved with less invasive methods that
preserve the decision-making autonomy of the parties. On the other hand, a lot
of effort and resources can be saved if the parties do not try to solve their highly
escalated conflict by using mediation (stage 8). Moreover, a respectful, open
and curious way of communicating helps to gather the necessary information
needed for conflict analysis, prevent the conflict from escalating and most
importantly, brings the solution one step closer.

26
Schwarz, G. (2014). Konfliktmanagement. Konflikte erkennen, analysieren, lösen (9th ed.). Wiesbaden: Springer
pp. 39 ff.
27
See chapter 4
28
Love, L., & Stulberg, J. (2019). Using Mediation for Advantage. Negotiation Essentials for Lawyers. Kupfer
Schneider, A., Honeymann, Ch. (edt.). Chicago: American Bar Association, p. 299
122 Karin Sonnleitner, Verena Gschweitl

In summary, as described, refraining from conflict diagnosis can lead

to various difficulties, including not solving the conflict at all. Therefore, the
ability to diagnose conflicts is an asset for anyone who wants to succeed in the
personal, academic and/or professional life.
 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT:
WHAT IS IMPORTANT TO LEARN,
AND HOW TO IMPROVE?
By Daiva Račelytė and Agnė Tvaronavičienė

Annotation: This article highlights the importance of conflict management

skills for successful interpersonal communication. The aim of this small
volume study is to encourage students for their conflict management skills
development and serves for their communication skills improvement using
ability to move from the position towards the interests and real needs
of the people. The article starts with an introduction to main conflicts
styles, continues with discussion on individual factors of effective conflict
management and ends with suggestions for more collaborative approach
towards conflict resolution and concrete techniques to achieve it. This small
volume study was carried on using the scientific literature analyses and
professional experience of the authors. Conclusions of the article emphasize
the inevitable importance of individual characteristics of a person in conflict
management, as first of all every individual should know well himself and be
able to evaluate its own conflict intelligence. The role of educators, university
staff and practitioners is named as crucial in students’ motivation and
encouragement to gain more knowledge and skills in conflict management.

Keywords: conflict management, interests, needs, conflict styles, conflict

intelligence

Summary: Introduction. – 1. Conflict styles as a frame for conflict manage-

ment skills improvement. – 2. Integrated individual factors of effective
conflict management and model for conflict management competences.
– 3. Building more collaborative approach towards conflict resolution by
moving the conflict resolution from position to the interests of the people. –
Conclusions.

Introduction

Conflicts are necessary element of human interaction and unavoidable part

of social relationships. Unmanaged or unsuccessfully managed conflicts can
destroy relationship, produce the experience of more stress and reduced well-

123
124 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

being, increase dissatisfaction, turnover and absenteeism.1 Contrary, effective

conflict resolution skills and the successful interpersonal relationships are
related to psychologically safe environment, innovative top management
decisions, and effective organizational leadership.2 Conflicts have an
important role for university students in many ways. It can be harmful as the
destructive consequences of interpersonal conflicts may include internal loss
such as self-worth, control, and confidence, as well as external loss such as
funding, mentoring support, research opportunities, or even missed career.3
Conversely, constructive conflict management can help to clarify values,
social status, individual and group identity, promote personal growth, and
generate interpersonal insights.4 In many cases, conflict management is more
productive to compare with attempts to eliminate conflict. Constant dynamics
of interpersonal relations, experience of multiple and intense pressures,
growing complexity of relations and organizations nowadays create great
challenges to conflict management practice. In a university, constructive conflict
is necessary for intellectual debate, new ideas, creative solutions. The academic
community should be encouraged to engage in conflict at an appropriate level.5
Managing conflicts in a constructive manner is one of the most important
competencies that university students need to develop. However, the current
curricula of many Universities do not reflect student’s need for effective conflict
management skills.6 Conflicts need to be managed for changing their process
and consequences from destructive to constructive and encourage a peaceful
coexistence of people sharing different views and values. The aim of this article
is to reveal the main conflict management variables and skills, which are
1
De Wit, F. R. C., Greer, L. L., & Jehn, K. A. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: a meta-analysis. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 97(2), pp. 360–390; O’Neill, T. A., Allen, N. J. & Hastings, S. E. (2013). Examining the
“Pros” and “Cons” of Team Conflict: A Team-Level Meta-Analysis of Task, Relationship, and Process Conflict.
Human Performance, 26(3), pp. 236–260, DOI: 10.1080/08959285.2013.795573; De Dreu, C. K. W., & Beersma,
B. (2005). Conflict in organizations: Beyond effectiveness and performance. European Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 14 (2), pp. 105–117, DOI: 10.1080/13594320444000227
2
Seitchik, M. (2019). The goldilocks approach to team conflict: how leaders can maximize innovation and
revenue growth. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 22(1), pp. 37–45, DOI: 10.1037/mgr0000082; Vollmer, A.
(2015). Conflicts in innovation and how to approach the “last mile’ on conflict management research – a
literature review. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 26 (2), pp. 192–213, DOI: 10.1108/
IJCMA-09-2012-0062
3
Brockman, J. L., Nunez, A. A., & Basu, A. (2010). Effectiveness of a Conflict Resolution Training Program in
Changing Graduate Students Style of Managing Conflict with their Faculty Advisors. Innovation in Higher
Education, 35, p. 278, DOI: 10.1007/s10755-010-9142-z
4
Brockman, J. L., Nunez, A. A., & Basu, A. (2010). Effectiveness of a Conflict Resolution Training Program in
Changing Graduate Students Style of Managing Conflict with their Faculty Advisors. Innovation in Higher
Education, 35, pp. 277–293, DOI: 10.1007/s10755-010-9142-z; Waithaka, A. G. (2014). Conflict handling
styles among college students: the influence of conflict training, personality, and family conflict resolution.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Liberty University, UMI 3632486 Published by ProQuest LLC
5
Jacobson, R. A. (2012). Managing conflicts and resolving disputes involving students on university campuses:
the present and the future. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. York University, Toronto, Ontario, p. 86
6
Lang, M. (2009). Conflict Management: A Gap in Business Education Curricula. Journal of Education for
Business. March/April, pp. 240–245
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 125

necessary for students. Thus, it is so important to identify individual factors

that influence success in conflict management, to define the most effective
ways to improve them, to apply appropriate model for conflict management
competences. The article focuses on the encouragements of students to adopt
the most suitable approach towards complicated conflicts and serves for their
communication skills improvement using ability to move from the position
towards the interests and real needs of the people. The article starts with an
introduction to main conflicts styles, continues with discussion on individual
factors of effective conflict management and ends with suggestions for more
collaborative approach towards conflict resolutions and concrete techniques to
achieve it. This small volume study was carried on using the scientific literature
analyses and professional experience of the authors.

1. Conflict styles as a frame for conflict management

skills improvement

For many years, the dominant approach to studying how people response to
conflict has been conflict styles approach, or “dual-concerns” model.7 This
approach defines that five styles responding to conflict (cooperative (also
problem solving, integrating), competitive (also dominating, contending,
confronting or forcing), avoiding, accommodating (also yielding or obliging)
and compromising) are based on two main dimensions: concern for one’s own
goals, and concern for the other person’s goals. Accommodating style reflects a
high concern for others with low concern for self, whereas competing styles can
be illustrated by a high concern for self with low concern for others; avoidance
means a low concern for both self and others, whereas collaboration style
reflects a high concern for both self and others.
People use different behaviors to manage various conflicts. Which style
is most effective in specific situation for particular participants? Specifically,
effectiveness can be defined in two approaches. Relational outcomes are
bound up in relationship quality (e.g., interpersonal trust in parties), value
of relationship, likelihood of future relationships. Substantive outcomes are
more based upon specific goals and acceptable solutions being reached or
not reached. Various factors of the conflict context have a big impact on the
selection and usage of conflict style. It can be listed: complexity of the conflict

7
Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (2010). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument, http://www.mrema.org/
wp-content/uploads/2018/05/THOMAS-KILMANN-CONFLICT-MODE-INSTRUMENT5.6.16.pdf
126 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

issue, time, which party are able to allocated for the resolution, importance
of conflict issue to parties involved, power of parties, their relationship value,
and resources, which are available for parties.8 Person will reach higher levels
of conflict management effectiveness if she/he is more aware of contextual
features and possess an ability to use diverse styles of conflict management. It
is proved, that using a diversity of conflict handling styles results in enhanced
conflict handling effectiveness only when both the contextual factors inherent
in conflict are considered and the individual differences profile necessary
to navigate conflict is possessed.9 This means that if person applies conflict
style frame dealing with conflict, conflict management process needs a good
preparation, gained knowledge and skills, which let a person to identify
important contextual factors and choose the most appropriate strategy for the
resolution of the conflict.
The results of many studies provide a strong support for a conceptual
fit between personality traits and conflict management styles, and more
specifically, establish agreeableness as a key predictor of various conflict
management styles.10 Even different facets of agreeableness can explain
significant variance in each of the five conflict management styles. For example,
low scores on straightforwardness, compliance and modesty predict dominant
style, implying that more Machiavellian or deceitful individuals preferred to
dominate those with whom they disagreed. Compliant individuals tend to be
obliging and sacrifice their needs for others, they also may be less trusting of
others and choose to be passive and to avoid conflict. Altruistic individuals
are most likely to be self-sacrificing and willing to compromise in finding
an integrative solution.11 Extraverts are more likely than introverts to use
integrating, obliging, compromising and avoiding styles. Emotional stability
predicts integrating style, while neuroticism predicts dominating style.12
Personality traits stay relatively stable across the lifespan. The personality
traits should, therefore, be understood and considered for conflict experience,
conflict management and performance. Every person should first know himself
and be aware that his /her personal traits may have influence on conflict
management strategy preferences and choices.
8
Rahim, M. A. (2002). Toward theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict
Management, 13, pp. 206–235
9
Lamia, J. F. (2011). A theory of conflict handling: integration of individual differences and contextual factors.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Saint Louis University, p. 52, UMI 3440158 Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Thesis database
10
Komarraju, M., Dollinger, S. J., & Lovell, J. (2012). Agreeableness and Conflict Management Styles: A Cross-
Validated Extension. Journal of Organizational Psychology, 12(1), pp. 19–31
11
Ibid.
12
Ayub, N., AlQurashi, S. M., Al-Yafi, W. A., & Jehn, K. (2017). Personality traits and conflict management styles in
predicting job performance and conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 28 (5), p. 685, https://
doi.org/10.1108/IJCMA-12-2016-0105
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 127

Conflict researchers find other important individual variables. For

example, cooperating was clearly named as the highest preferred conflict style
for participants who were assessed with a high level of Emotional Intelligence
(EQ), and directing was a preferred conflict style for participants who were
assessed with a lower level of EQ.13 Forcing related positively and problem
solving related negatively to being a perpetrator at bullying.14 Achievement
motivation is positively related to an integrative approach. Thus, creating
conditions that motivates people to succeed may enhance the use of an
integrative approach. The results indicate that individual characteristics can be
a potent cause to integration. Regardless of situation, integrative approach was
associated with high quality outcomes in terms of decision quality, fairness,
satisfaction, and trust.15 Empathy and knowledge of context are related to
number of conflict styles used to conflict handling effectiveness.16 Individual
characteristics (empathy, political skill, and need for cognition) together with
situational (contextual factors) mediate the effect of number of conflict styles
used on effective conflict handling.17 One of important findings of such studies
is that the direct and indirect effects of individual differences on conflict
handling effectiveness are unstable when viewed as individual components.
However, when these individual differences are aggregated and viewed as a
system through which individuals channel their efforts during conflict direct
and indirect effects on conflict handling effectiveness become apparent.18
Therefore, conflict is a complex process that requires a mastery of both
individual and contextual factors.
Learning how to manage conflicts appropriately is an important task
for every person. The main context for children and adolescents to learn and
practice conflict management skills is the family, and, for adults, work and
study environment becomes more important. Practitioners suggest various
forms for group training or individual learning: exercises, reflections, case
studies to improve conflict style awareness and effectiveness. For example,
case studies in form of vignettes are useful to comprehend and consider a

13
Ellis, A. C. (2010). Exploring the Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Styles.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, UMI 3434138 Copyright
2011 by ProQuest LLC
14
Baillien, E., Bollen, K., Euwema, M., & De Witte, H. (2013). Conflicts and conflict management styles as
precursors of workplace bullying: A two-wave longitudinal study. European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2012.752899
15
Rognes, J. K., & Schei, V. (2010). Understanding the integrative approach to conflict management. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 25 (1), pp. 82–97, DOI: 10.1108/02683941011013885
16
Lamia, J. F. (2011). A theory of conflict handling: integration of individual differences and contextual factors.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Saint Louis University, p. 44, UMI 3440158 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest
LLC
17
Ibid, p. 50
18
Ibid.
128 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

variety of possible process designs based on the situation presented in a case19.

Reflecting on personal conflict management styles and adopting a positive
attitude to personal and professional development is also one of the tools
that are most helpful in managing conflict.20 One of very important tools is
simulation that can be based on real life cases or using pseudo-reality approach.
The core principles to be included in training through simulations are: focus
on preparation with stakeholder analysis to deepen understanding of self,
other party, and context or situation; apply and model a collaborative process
throughout the simulation.21 Conflict coaching also seems to be one of useful
tools to increase constructive behavior skills and to improve conflict style.22
The variety of possible tasks for improvement of conflict management skills
proves, that these skills may be developed by trainings and self-education.
It may be concluded that all five conflict styles serves well in different
situations, for different persons and relationships, as there is no “one fits all”
style. People have relatively stable individual characteristics (for example,
personality traits) that influence conflict management style preferences,
flexibility in conflict management style changes, or number of conflict styles
used to effective conflict management. Other individual variables (as empathy,
emotional intelligence, need for cognition) that are important for effective
conflict management style, can be developed through various forms of self-
learning and conflict management style training.

2. Integrated individual factors of effective conflict

management and model for conflict management
competences

Every person enjoys a set of individual characteristics, which make him unique.
This diversity in society is a big value because it enables us to reach the synergy
effect by combining different traits in fulfilling certain tasks or finding solutions
for some problems. The scientific research literature describes different

19
Johnson, K. E., & Hall, A. (2018). Validity of self-reported conflict handling preferences and the role of
self-enhancement. International Journal of Conflict Management, 29 (4), pp. 43–563, DOI: org/10.1108/
IJCMA-03-2018-0039
20
Siew, N. M., & Jones, S. (2018). Training approaches for improving school managers’ conflict resolution skills:
A case study. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 76(5), pp. 720–735
21
Fisher, J., & Fisher-Yoshida, B. (2017). Educating Negotiators: Using Theory, Practice, Case Studies, and
Simulations in an Integrated Learning Experience. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 10 (4),
p. 298, DOI: 10.1111/ncmr.12104
22
Bubbers, T. A. (2015). Intensive conflict management training for managers in a health care facility. University
of Phoenix. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. ProQuest LLC (2016)
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 129

individual and organizational factors of effective conflict management. Oore,

Leiter, LeBlanc (2015)23 integrated psychological research literature across
social, personality, family and negotiation fields and identified four broad
individual factors that allow to be successful in conflict:
Cognitive flexibility. Cognitive ability to move flexibly through various
perspectives on the conflict situation, cognitive perspective taking, thinking of
a conflict in increasingly abstract or distant terms facilitates generation out-
of-the-box solutions. Perspective-takers use more collaborative and problem-
solving approaches and seem to reduce the dyadic level of retaliation in the
interpersonal interaction.
A balance of self and other focus. Jointly high self-interest and other-
interest motivates a collaborative or integrative approach and lets do not miss
joint opportunities for mutual benefit with other party. Satisfying self-interests
and meeting one’s own needs with concern for one’s partner’s needs let to
maintain positive relationships.
Emotional regulation. Emotion regulation means exercising cognitive
control to manage or redirect the impact of distractive emotions (such as
escalated anger, hatred), and includes such tactics as attention deployment
(distracting oneself away from emotions), reappraisal (reinterpretation or
modification of emotion), suppression (inhibiting or tamping down feelings).
A fit of person and their conflict approach to the context (person-
conflict compatibility). The ability to either choose to react in situations that
have a good fit between one’s habitual conflict handling tendencies and the
environment, or to flexibly adapt one’s behavioral approach to best match the
other person or specific conflict situation, to make wise choices about when to
apply which conflict management strategy.
These factors (perspective-taking, focusing on both one’s own and other
party’s interests and needs, mastery to choose appropriate conflict style that
fit to the conflict situation, and emotion regulation) can be improved through
conflict management training. This can be reached through special training
course, workshops, and individual learning.
One of recent models for conflict management competences and skills is
proposed by Peter T. Coleman.24 This framework describes Conflict Intelligence
and Systemic Wisdom as meta-competences for engaging conflict. Conflict
intelligence is the set of competences and skills used to manage different
types of normative conflicts in diverse or changing situations effectively and

23
Oore, D. G., Leiter, M. P., & LeBlanc, D. E. (2015). Individual and organizational factors promoting successful
responses to workplace conflict. Canadian Psychology, 56(3), pp. 301–310, DOI: 10.1037/cap0000032
24
Coleman, P. T. (2018). Conflict Intelligence and Systemic Wisdom: Meta-Competences for Engaging Conflict in
a Complex, Dynamic World. Negotiation Journal, 34 (1), pp. 7–35, DOI :10.1111/nejo.12211
130 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

constructively. The author states that “…the meta-competency of conflict

intelligence can be particularly useful for addressing the vast majority of more
straightforward, negotiable, or manageable interpersonal and intergroup
conflict dynamics we face in our normal daily lives”.25
According to Coleman, core competences of conflict intelligence are:
Self-knowledge and regulation. Knowing and managing your-self
in conflict. This can include awareness of cognitive, motivational, moral and
action orientations to conflict situations that guide one’s conflict behaviors and
responses. Conflict intelligence requires adequate self-regulation in conflict,
or the ability to inhibit impulsive, automatic, or “hot” emotional responses to
conflict.
Constructive conflict resolution. Understanding the constructive and
destructive potential of conflict and developing the knowledge, attitudes, and
skills for constructive resolution. Constructive conflict resolution requires
understanding the constructive and destructive potential of conflict, its dynamic
nature, and one’s own preferences and tendencies for conflict resolution. The
basic skills include effective listening, perspective taking, probing for needs and
interests, establishing rapport, focusing on similarities and common ground,
reframing issues at a needs level, and generating creative and integrative
solutions.
Conflict optimality. The capacity to navigate between different or
competing motives, and emotions, and combine different approaches to conflict
to achieve desired outcomes.
Conflict adaptivity. The capacity to employ distinct strategies in different
types of conflict situations in a manner that achieves goals and is fitting with
demands of the situation.
To sum up, individual traits of a person are inevitably important for the
effective conflict management. Every individual should know well himself and in
the process of self-knowledge he or she need to assess his/her behavioral reaction,
cognitive flexibility, balance of self and others focus, emotional regulation and
ability to adapt to the context of the conflict. In fact, these factors are reflected in
one of the latest model of conflict management competences, known as conflict
intelligence, as core basic competences Self-knowledge and regulation, and
Constructive conflict resolution. For effective conflict management, students
need not only be aware of individual factors promoting successful responses to
conflict, but also to develop cognitive flexibility as well as flexibility in behavioral
reaction to conflict, and improve emotional regulation.

25
Coleman, P. T. (2018). Conflict Intelligence and Systemic Wisdom: Meta-Competences for Engaging Conflict in
a Complex, Dynamic World. Negotiation Journal, 34 (1), pp. 7–35, DOI :10.1111/nejo.12211
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 131

3. Building more collaborative approach towards conflict

resolution by moving the conflict resolution from position
to the interests of the people

Collaborative style of conflict management presents a win-win perspective,

which means the highest satisfaction of interests of both parties. This style, as
it was mentioned before, reflects best a high concern for both self and others.
One of the most effective tools, which may be adopted for the collaborative
conflict management style, is finding out the interests of the parties to a conflict
instead of dealing with their positions. This classical idea leads students to
understanding that certain positions often reflect only one of the possible ways
to satisfy the interests of the parties. On contrary, managing the conflict in the
level of position, means minimum the necessity to compromise, which in some
situations may not satisfy parties, as they are not allowed to full satisfaction of
their interests.
Positions a widely understood as a proposal or point of view that is
adapted, or a demand, what is brought by one party to the other in a conflict. It
might be, for example, demand to change a supervisor, as previously he or she
did not provide sufficient help in preparing final thesis. Interest is something
for which one feels concern or in which one has a stake. In conflicts, interests are
those real or perceived personal or corporate requirements from which goals
and objectives are derived.26 Interests may be described as a goal of a person,
which he/she is willing to achieve in a conflict. Interests are the most easily
accessible or observable type of need and lie to the heart of most negotiations.27
Interest reflects the answer to the question why conflict party needs such an
outcome as it was stated. In case of our example, the answer may vary from
wish to have more effective communication with a supervisor to the need to
rely on professional expertise, competence or knowledge of the supervisor.
Every answer predicts new different possible solutions to this problem.
According Roger Fisher and William Ury, reconciling interests rather
than positions works for several reasons. For every interest there usually exist
several possible positions that could satisfy it.28 Going back to the example
of the necessity to change the scientific supervisor, it is predictable, that the
interest of the student is to get help in writing his thesis. It might be achieved
not only by changing supervisor, but as well as changing the communication

26
Yarn, D. H. (1999). Dictionary of Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers, p. 228
27
Mayer, B. (2012). The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and Intervention (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass, p. 22
28
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to Yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 24
132 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

with current supervisor or appointing an additional consultant in the process.

All these three solutions are oriented towards the satisfying the interest of
students, but enjoying such variety instead of one primary position opens
widely the gates for solution which would serve best for student, supervisor
and the university management. It should be agreed, that reconciling interests
rather than compromising between positions also works because behind
opposed positions lie many more interests than conflicting ones.29 As positions
presents a narrow and one person’s interests-oriented solution it takes the
parties to an impasse, which is often is difficult to overcome. Looking behind
the positions broadens our perpective and enables people to see other options,
which may be better solutions taking into consideration the need to find a
balance between the interests of both parties to a conflict. It should be denied
that opposite position always means opposite interests. Members of certain
society, or in our case of university community, often share the same interests
and values, especially in universities as it come to the quality and environment
of the studies.
Conflict parties often experience conflict at different levels. A challenge
practitioners face in the particular conflict is to determine what level of interests
and needs best explains a conflict. It is worth to remind that not necessarily
people are ready to talk about their interests in the concrete situation. As
positions reflects the most common means of fixing the problems in certain
environment, bringing people to their interest may require additional efforts and
their motivation. Roger Fisher and William Ury admit that as position is likely
to be concrete and explicit; the interests underlying it may well be unexpressed,
intangible, and perhaps inconsistent. These legendary negotiations experts
suggest using questions “why” and “why not” for the clarification of the
interests.30 The question “Why” is helpful for getting information on the desired
result of both of the parties. The answers to the question “Why not” may lead
us to the better understanding, why our suggested decision is not suitable for
other. If we fail to look at the deeper level of interests, we are likely to end up
working on the wrong issues and overlooking some important areas of mutual
concern.31 Knowing this information and being able to see the underlying
interests of the parties is a key to the setting up the criterions of the win-win
solution, which may be achieved in the further process of conflict management.
In an ideal world, collaborative approach results in an outcome that
satisfies both parties’ needs. In reality, different constraints, opposing values

29
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to Yes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 24
30
Ibid., p. 25
31
Mayer, B. (2012). The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and Intervention (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass, p. 23
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 133

often make a pure collaborative approach to conflict management unrealistic, or

inappropriate. While interplay of cooperation and competition is always present
in interpersonal interactions, how we engage in this process and the strategies
we use to respond to them are more complex, varied, and inconsistent than
choosing a cooperative or competitive response.32 Anyway, ability to identify
interests and needs of opponent as well as one’s own needs helps to find more
constructive way in complex conflict situations. People face in addressing the
cooperative and competitive elements of all contextual interactions, and it is so
important to be aware of it, and be nuanced, realistic and effective in various
interpersonal communication during conflict management.

Conclusions

Classical model of conflict management styles (competing, collaborating,

compromising, avoiding, and accommodating) remains a suitable tool for the
better self-knowledge and improvement in conflict management. All these
styles serve well in different situations, as there is no “one fits all” style. Still
in academic community interpersonal relationship conflicts are complex and
require finding a balance between different interests, what in many cases can
be most effectively done by collaboration of the parties to a conflict.
It should be admitted that individual characteristics of a person are
inevitably important for the effective conflict management. Every individual
should know well himself/herself and be able to understand his/her individual
tendencies that guide one’s conflict behaviors, and cognitive, motivational,
action orientation to conflict situations. Development of conflict intelligence as
the set of competences and skills used to manage different types of conflicts in
diverse or changing situations is one of the most constructive ways to improve
soft skills of students. For students, it is especially important to develop
advanced core competencies of conflict intelligence: the ability to respond
optimally in conflict by combining different approaches to conflict to achieve
the most appropriate outcomes, and conflict adaptivity, that means capacity to
use a variety of conflict management strategies, and the ability to assess fit of
conflict strategy to conflict situation.
One of the popular tools for improving the conflict management skills
and building more collaboration-oriented style of conflict management is a

32
Mayer, B. (2015). The Conflict Paradox: Seven dilemmas at the core of disputes. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, p. 48
134 Daiva Račelytė, Agnė Tvaronavičienė

classical interests-based approach. Positions as a clear demand statement

should be changed to interests, which reflect the aim of a person in a conflict.
Managing conflict in interest level opens broader perspective for collaboration
as not all interests of opposite parties are competing.
Development and integration of conflict management approaches that
involve understanding and employing conflict resolution skills in context,
contextualizing conflict management decisions can help to reach the goal of
expanding and enhancing capacities to manage and transform conflicts more
effectively. People are sensitive about engaging in conflict and managing conflict
differently because of situational constraints and personality characteristics
of conflict parties. Educators can encourage students to manage conflicts
differently depending on whether interpersonal relationships or other
outcomes matter more in any given situation. Similarly, university staff and
conflict resolution practitioners who engage in conflict management trainings
can also empower others to more effectively handle conflicts with the insights
by sharing the different effects of distinct motives and frames.
 APPENDIX
Examples for Training About Conflict
Styles (Conflict Management Strategies)

1. Recognition of different conflict styles (Beatty, Barker Scott, 2004)

It’s Friday afternoon at 3:15 p.m., and your team meeting was supposed to start
at 3:00 p.m. Everyone is present, except for Brenda, who is late again. The team
has agreed that being on time for meetings is an important norm. At 3:25 p.m.,
she rushes in, apologizing for her tardiness and explaining that the computer
ate her document.

Which of the following are members most likely to do?

1. Ignore the problem and continue discussion.
2. Acknowledge the problem but do nothing to correct the situation.
3. Acknowledge the problem and attempt to solve it.
4. Acknowledge the problem, solve it, and discuss and agree on a
procedure for dealing with similar problems in the future.
Explanation
Avoiding. Members choose not to confront or be involved. In the previous
case, members would choose to ignore Brenda’s tardiness, even though
they are bothered by it.
Accommodating. Members adapt or agree to satisfy the needs of others
above their own needs. Here, members might choose to sympathize with
Brenda and not raise the issue. As a result, Brenda will probably be late
for the next meeting as well.
Competing. Members choose to satisfy their own needs by asserting,
controlling, or resisting. Here, members would likely confront Brenda by
telling her in no uncertain terms that her tardiness is unacceptable and
dictate their expectations for the future: Be on time, or else.
Collaborating. Members attempt to create mutually satisfying solutions
through win-win strategies. Here, members would likely acknowledge the
problem, explore the causes, and work with Brenda to create a protocol
that will meet the team’s needs and Brenda’s as well.

2. The Five Styles in Action (McCorkle & Reese, 2018, p. 121)

Julia and Layla are assigned as roommates their freshman year. From different

135
136 Appendix

backgrounds, they have little in common. Soon their differences begin to

surface, and conflict is inevitable. Julia asks if she can borrow a scarf from Layla,
who agrees. Soon Julia is borrowing shirts, coats, and whatever else she wants
without asking.
Explanation
If Layla is an avoider, she will suffer silently, think bad thoughts about
Julia, and probably complain to friends. If Julia asks what is wrong, Layla
will say she has to go study in the library and leave the room.
If Layla is an accommodator, she will say she doesn’t mind that Julia
borrows things. If Layla has a competitive style, she will confront Julia
and demand that all her clothes be washed and never borrowed again.
If Layla uses a compromiser style, she will raise the issue of borrowing
clothes with Julia. Then some middle ground will be sought. For example,
the clothes can be borrowed if Julia asks every time in advance and
washes and irons the clothes when returning them.
If Layla is a collaborator, she will ask Julia to sit down with her to discuss
the roommate situation. She will frame the issue in a comprehensive
way, asking what it means to be roommates and discussing each of their
expectations. At some point, borrowing clothes will be discussed as part
of the bigger picture.

3. Conflict behavior preferences (CB-Pref)

(Johnson & Hall, 2018, pp. 560–561)
Task
Please read the following scenarios. For each situation, read all of the
potential responses you might have to the person described, and rank order
each option from 1 (I would be most likely to behave this way) to 5 (I would be
least likely to behave this way). The most preferred item should be given the
rank of 1. Remember, this is what YOU WOULD do, not what you think is best
to do. Try to honestly depict how you would behave in each situation. There
are many ways to handle conflicts, and several ways may be equally good or
bad for a given situation. In general, there is no one correct way to handle a
conflict. Some ways may be good in some situations and not good in others. If
the situation is one you have not experienced or are unlikely to experience, you
should still imagine being in that situation or one very much like it.

(1) You have gotten into a heated political debate with your friend. As you voice
your opinion, you feel that your friend is not open to what you have to say about
the subject because they continue repeating their same argument over and
 Chapter 6. Conflict Diagnosis and Management 137

over. Alternatively, your friend feels that they are open to your opinion but they
have not been persuaded so their position has not changed:
• You continue to restate your beliefs until it seems like your friend is
beginning to yield to your opinions. You really want to persuade them
to adopt your viewpoint (force).
• You tell them you understand their position and suggest your opinions
really are not so different. You would rather not continue arguing
(avoid).
• You give up arguing and tell the other person you understand their
viewpoint. You may even decide to give up and simply agree with
them (yield).
• You emphasize that there is some common ground between the two
of you, and you point it out. You try to persuade the other person to
accept that you have some points you agree on and accept that there
are some points which you cannot agree on (compromise).
• You acknowledge that your friend’s opinions are legitimate, but you
tell them you would appreciate it if they would take some time to
think about and really consider your position. You tell them you will
also do the same (honestly consider their points) before you continue
your discussion (problem solve).
(2) Your parents feel they do not see you often enough so they have asked you
to visit this weekend. However, you are particularly busy this week and would
prefer to relax during the weekend rather than travel to visit your parents. Your
parents are upset because they are eager to see you, but you know you will be
exhausted and visiting them would require a lot of effort on your part:
• You tell them you would not be able to see them this weekend. You
want to relax and spend time doing your own thing (force).
• You decide to go see them. You do not want to hurt their feelings (yield).
• You avoid responding to your parents and set this issue aside. You
focus on your daily routine, and make a decision last minute (avoid).
• You tell them you would love to see them but suggest that next week
will be better, and you ask if this would work just as well. You know
you are going to need your down time this weekend (problem solve).
• You agree to visit them this weekend as long as they are aware of, and
considerate of, your desire to relax (compromise).
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 2

TIME
MANAGEMENT
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
 Time Management 141

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS

By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli and Francesca Maoli

“It is more than certain that we all

have the same 24 hours in one day.
It’s how we use them that matters."

Introduction

As a preliminary remark, it is important to note at the outset that “time

management”, as understood below, can only refer to the last of the three
understandings of time, namely the internal and personal one. A “day”, in its
natural sense, cannot be managed by a person; so cannot an hour, as this is only
the social construct of humanity and does not exist in the world of real and
material things.
What can be “managed” are the activities a single person, and so – in last
instance his or her productivity – can proficiently carry out within the specific
time-space of the social construct she or he has at disposal.
However, if “time-management” turns into the paradigm of “activity
management during a given set of time”, and thus if the focus rests on the third
understanding of time (the internal perception), the existence of a multitude of
subjective and psychological elements – variable over time – make it difficult
to elaborate a general and absolute theory and model for time management.
In other words, it seems difficult, if not impossible, to elaborate e good-for-
all forecast time management solution model that applies to everyone, in all
situations.
If the task to create a time management model valid in any circumstance
for anyone seems impossible to reach – than the quest of time management
becomes more narrow, but feasible and social utile: increase awareness
in people about factors subjective and objective factors that usually lower
efficiency in productivity and help them understand to which degree they are
exposed to such factors.
142 Exercises

Need for time management and efficient planning skills

Time management and efficient planning skills are aimed at (i) managing time
effectively so that the right time is allocated to the right activity; (ii) planning
you actions according to your own goals.
The development of specific skills on time management and efficient
planning has now consolidated its importance in the professional and
occupational context.
Like every other soft skill, the ability to manage time can be learned
and trained, until it becomes an automatic and consolidated habit. Time
management is not an emergency plan, to use only when you are falling behind
your work, but a long-term and sustainable lifestyle. For this purpose, and since
time management strongly depends on each individual’s personal approach
towards work and life, it is very to proceed with a preliminary subjective self-
assessment test.
Time management and efficient planning skills are in high demand across
all industries and jobs. Employers and recruiters are expecting strong capacities
in the management of the work from their employees or future colleagues.
They require the achievement of great results in less time: the ability to use
time makes the all the difference in the choice of a good employee or associate,
and in the success of your own business. Therefore, the ability to efficiently
use your time, avoiding at the same time stress, burnouts and a poor quality of
work, is critical.
The key idea is that the ability to plan and to manage time efficiently allows
us to work smarter than harder. A poor time management may result in: low
work quality, missing deadlines and appointments, poor professional reputation,
dealing only with urgencies, inability to learn new things and inability to pursue
long-term goals. On the “personal” side, this might lead to work and life imbalance
and, consequently, to dissatisfaction and possibly to burnouts.
Learning time management skills as a student allows to consolidate
effective capacities before accessing to the labor market, other than enhancing
academic results that increase their chances of better job-placement. Having
the possibility to acquire and learn those skills enable students to develop a
consolidated personalized method that can easily be applied in the future.
If universities are supposed to prepare people for their future professional
life, a teaching on time management and efficient planning should be considered
compulsory, since those abilities have evident effects on how jobs are and will
be performed, as well as they might contribute in attaining an acceptable work-
life balance.
 Time Management 143

Main goals and learning outcomes

These exercises are developed in order to help students and professionals:

• to explore key concepts of time management and efficient planning;
• to explore concepts to understand time as a resource and time
management as a process;
• to learn the basic techniques to use time better according individual
goals, as well as to manage time according to personal energy
necessities;
• to learn how to overcome the most common “time wasters” and to
learn strategies to reduce them;
• to learn techniques to work “smarter, not harder”;
• to learn to use a tool to develop a personalized plan for short, mid and
long-term goals.

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process

In the following sections we offer 4 exercises for individual work and 5 exercises
for the group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4). Exercises for group work are
marked with letters (A, B, C, D, E). Below you will find short explanation how to
use those exercises.

Exercise 1
Self-assessment of time management attitude

The Britton-Tesser TMQ (Time management questionnaire)

The development of an individual (effective) time management plan is not
a contingency strategy, but rather requires time, and adjustment. This can only
be constructed over the self-assessment of each persons’ daily activity. Only
after weaknesses and strong points in the management of daily activities are
carefully analysed by the persons, the subsequent study of the “interference”
factors and their “degree” of interference over productivity can lead to identify
the priority action to be taken to increase effectiveness and efficiency. However,
to change a model, the previous one must be known.
144 Exercises

In order to assess the time management capacities of college students, the

“Time management questionnaire” developed by Britton and Tesser in 1991 is
being used (Britton & Tesser, 1991). Students shall answer questions according
to their own perception, assigning it a value between always, frequently,
sometimes, infrequently, and never.
In scoring, 5 points are assigned to the response at the end of the scale that
is defined a priori as a “good” practice, while 1 point is assigned to the response
at the other end of the scale. Intermediate values are given to the other responses.
Higher values on the scale correspond to better time management practices.
The following version contains questions, with the points assigned to
each answer. Students are provided with a clean version of the questionnaire.
In order to determine the final score of each students, sum up the points of each
given answer.

Short-range planning
1. Do you make a list of the Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things you have to do each 5 4 3 2 1
day?
2. Do you plan your day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
before you start it? 5 4 3 2 1
3. Do you make a schedule Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
of the activities you have to 5 4 3 2 1
do on work days?
4. Do you write a set of goals Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
for yourself for each day? 5 4 3 2 1
5. Do you spend time each Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
day planning? 5 4 3 2 1
6. Do you have a clear Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
idea of what you want to 5 4 3 2 1
accomplish during the next
week?
7. Do you set and honor Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
priorities? 5 4 3 2 1
Time attitudes
1. Do you often find yourself Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
doing things which interfere 1 2 3 4 5
with your schoolwork
simply because you hate to
say “No” to people?
 Time Management 145

2. Do you feel you are in Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never

charge of your own time, by 5 4 3 2 1
and large?
3. On an average class day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
do you spend more time 1 2 3 4 5
with personal grooming
than doing schoolwork?
4. Do you believe that there Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
is room for improvement in 5 4 3 2 1
the way you manage your
time?
5. Do you make constructive Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
use of your time? 5 4 3 2 1
6. Do you continue Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
unprofitable routines or 1 2 3 4 5
activities?
Long-range planning
1. Do you usually keep your Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
desk clear of everything 5 4 3 2 1
other than what you are
currently working on?
2. Do you have a set of goals Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
for the entire quarter? 5 4 3 2 1
3. The night before a major Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
assignment is due, are you 5 4 3 2 1
usually still working on it?
4. When you have several Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things to do, do you think 1 2 3 4 5
it is best to do a little bit of
work on each one?
5. Do you regularly review Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
your class notes, even when 5 4 3 2 1
a test is not imminent?
146 Exercises

Exercise 2
Manage your distractions

The goal of this exercise is to teach students about external distractions

which tend to steal time.
1. The students are invited to analyze the environment they usually
work in and count the number of times they get distracted.
2. The teacher’s task is to suggest students identify “silence working
areas” in libraries (or close the doors in offices with “no disturb”
signs) for 2 hours in the morning and identify one hour for work in
common spaces (or work in the office with open door) for 2 weeks.
3. After 2 weeks the teacher has a discussion with the students to evaluate
whether their perception of external distraction has increased their
capacity for time management.

Exercise 3
The art of setting priorities

1. The goal of this exercise is to teach students to set their priorities

effectively by deciding in which tasks to engage first and the amount
of time to dedicate to each task.
2. Students are invited to make a list of goals they want to achieve in the
upcoming week or month and give a score to each goal.
3. After the scoring is done, the students are asked to split each goal
into specific activities which are necessary in order to reach that goal.
Each activity should also be ranked by the students
4. Students make a new list of goals, with the order that reflects the score
given to each goal (1 to 4). At the right side of each goal, the students
shall put the list of the activities assigned to each goal, with the order
that reflects the ranking given to each activity (a to c). Activities with
ranking “d” should be left out.
5. When the task is done, students are asked to fill in a weekly (or a
monthly) calendar, in which to plan the activities that they would like to
perform each day (or each week) according to the fixed set of priorities.
6. At the end of the week (or month) students make a self-assessment
included in the exercise.
 Time Management 147

Exercise 4
The urgent important matrix

1. The goal of this exercise is to teach students prioritize their tasks by

urgency and importance as well as to deal with problems before they
become critical.
2. Students are asked to fill the four quadrants with the activities that
they must and want to perform in one day/week/month according to
the qualifications given in the exercise.
3. As it is not always possible to foreseen all the activities that may fall
in Quadrant 1 (Crises) and in Quadrant 3 (interruptions). Therefore,
students are asked to regularly update their chart, signing up those
activities that come unexpectedly and can be classified into those
quadrants.
4. During the day/week/month, students are asked to try to operate as
much as possible in Quadrant 2 (Preparation and Planning). They may
prepare a daily/weekly/monthly plan that fits with this objective.
5. In the end of the exercise, students are asked to discuss in groups and
answer questions given after the exrercise.

Exercise A
Roles and responsibilities in a team

The goal of this exercise is to train the ability of the students: i) to identify
the personal characteristics and abilities of the members of a group, in order
to find the most useful ones to perform a particular assignment; ii) to split a
big task in small passages; iii) to valorize the capacities of each member of the
team; iv) to be aware of the positive outcomes that may derive from a correct
allocation of tasks.
1. This exercise is done in groups of 5–6 students.
2. The teacher’s task is to assign each group one of the given scenarios
(the same scenario can be assigned to more than one group if
necessary):
3. Each member of the group lists all the personal characteristics and
abilities that they think would be useful for the group in performing
the assignment.
4. The group works together on a list of tasks that will need to be done
148 Exercises

in order to correctly perform the assignment and distributes the tasks

among the group members
5. The teacher discusses with each group whether they were able to
valorize the capacity of each member of the team and the positive
outcomes that may derive from a correct allocation of tasks.

The exercise should highlight the importance to valorize the capacity of

each member of the team in order to better perform a task or reach a particular
goal. When each member is able to offer what he/she can do better, the overall
energy of the group will be spent more efficiently.

Exercise B
Planning and delegating

The following exercise is very useful for groups in order to learn the
importance of a good planning and of delegating, in order to achieve a task in
the shortest amount of time.

Arrange the cards:

1. This exercise is done in groups of 5–6 students.
2. The teacher would need a deck of cards for each group.
3. Each group recieves a deck of playing cards to shuffle them.
4. The teacher shows to all the groups a composition of six cards
arranged in a specific order. It can be a picture on a screen (that was
previously prepared), or it can be a deck of cards at disposal for this
purpose.
5. Each group is asked to search the same cards from their deck and to
arrange the cards in the same specific order. The team that completes
the task in the shortest amount of time wins.
6. It is recommended to perform this exercise for a few rounds. In this
way the groups shall be able to refine their strategy and to try different
ones, if needed.
7. At the end of the rounds, groups are invited to discuss their strategies.
Planning and delegating should come out, from the discussion, as key
elements to manage time successfully.
 Time Management 149

Exercise C
Fighting time-wasters

1. This exercise is done in groups of 5–6 students. Each group has a set
of blank cards or papers and a pen.
2. There should be ss many envelopes as there are groups.
3. On the back of every envelope, the teacher writes names of time-
wasters: e.g. Facebook/Instagram; unexpected visitor; excessive
meetings; e-mail overload; inability to say “no”; perfectionism; multi-
tasking; lack of motivation.
4. Each group receives one envelope to write on a blank card/paper all
the possible ways to overcome the time-waster that is written on the
envelope. Time for this task is 4 minutes,
5. After the 4 minutes are up, each group is asked to put the compiled
card/paper on the envelope and to pass their envelope to the next
group. In this way, each group shall have a different envelope at every
round.
6. It is recommended to perform this exercise for a few rounds. (if
possible, each group shall have the possibility to work on each time-
waster).
7. At the end of all rounds, students are invited to discuss the results
of the exercise and share their opinions. Each time-waster can be
examined together with the multiple ways participant found to
overcome it. Participants could also discuss about the best strategies
to fight each time-wasters.

Exercise D
The Parkinson’s law

The work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.
1. This exercise is done in groups.
2. The teacher gives the groups a task to do. It can be a simple task, like
organize a deck of cards in a specific way, or to arrange furniture, or
to color some papers.
3. Some of the teams receive a time limit (e.g. 10 minutes) to complete
the exercice. And other teams get a shorter time limit (e.g. 5 minutes).
The rest of the teams have no time limit.
150 Exercises

4. However, all teams are asked to finish their tasks as soon as they can.
5. Chances are that the teams with the shortest time limit will be finished
first, followed by the teams with the longer time limit. Those who had
open-ended time frames will take the longest.
6. Students learn about the Parkinson’s law and the practical ways to
incorporate it into real life.

Exercise E
Identification of priorities

The following exercise will help students to gain a different perspective

on their way to set a specific plan for their pre-determined goals.
1. For this exercise, it is better to divide the class into small groups of no
more than 4 people.
2. Each group will work in autonomy. In turn, one person of the group
will write on a piece of paper a personal goal for the future. The
goal can relate to any area of life. He/she can show the goal to other
members of the group.
3. The same person is asked to write, on another piece of paper, a list of
actions which are necessary in order to reach that goal.
4. At the same time, the other members of the group will do the same:
each of them will write down the actions that he or she considers
necessary to reach that goal.
5. After a couple of minutes, each group is invited to discuss together
their lists of activities. The person that has chosen the goal will notice
if there are differences between his/her list and the other member’s
list.
6. After the first round, other rounds can be performed in which other
members of each group will share a personal goal and different ways
of implementation can be discussed.
 Time Management 151

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli and Francesca Maoli

Please see below 4 exercises for individual work:

1. Self-assessment of time management attitude
2. Manage your distractions
3. The art of setting priorities
4. The urgent important matrix

These exercises will help you to improve your time management and
planning skills.

Exercise 1
Self-assessment of time management attitude

Introduction
The first step that is necessary in order to acquire new skills and integrate
them into our daily life is to know from which point we are starting.
The development of an effective individual time management plan is not
a contingency strategy, but rather requires time, and adjustment. This can only
be constructed over the self-assessment of our daily activity and habits.

Exercise
The following questionnaire will enable you to acquire knowledge about
the way time is managed in your life at the present moment. Please compile the
questionnaire and submit it to your teacher for the score calculation.

Short-Range Planning
1. Do you make a list of the Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things you have to do each ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
day?
2. Do you plan your day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
before you start it? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
152 Exercises

3. Do you make a schedule Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never

of the activities you have to ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
do on work days?
4. Do you write a set of goals Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
for yourself for each day? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
5. Do you spend time each Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
day planning? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
6. Do you have a clear Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
idea of what you want to ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
accomplish during the next
week?
7. Do you set and honor Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
priorities? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Time Attitudes
1. Do you often find yourself Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
doing things which interfere ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
with your schoolwork
simply because you hate to
say “No” to people?
2. Do you feel you are in Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
charge of your own time, by ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
and large?
3. On an average class day Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
do you spend more time ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
with personal grooming
than doing schoolwork?
4. Do you believe that there Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
is room for improvement in ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
the way you manage your
time?
5. Do you make constructive Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
use of your time? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
6. Do you continue Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
unprofitable routines or ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
activities?
Long-Range Planning
1. Do you usually keep your Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
desk clear of everything ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
other than what you are
currently working on?
 Time Management 153

2. Do you have a set of goals Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never

for the entire quarter? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
3. The night before a major Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
assignment is due, are you ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
usually still working on it?
4. When you have several Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
things to do, do you think ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
it is best to do a little bit of
work on each one?
5. Do you regularly review Always Frequently Sometimes Infrequently Never
your class notes, even when ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
a test is not imminent?

Exercise 2
Manage your distractions

Introduction
In most occasions, in particular where work is performed in groups,
the possibility to carry our activities is greatly influenced by the surrounding
environment. Colleagues and distractions (such as cell phone, social medial,
etc.) negatively affect your time management. Whereas some negative factors
can easily be controlled (even though not necessarily completely eliminated
as a moment of relax is not per se negative), a multitude of interruptions can
prejudice if not even nullify a well-constructed time-management plan, obliging
you to keep up with work or study at home, thus breaking the work-life balance
time management should contribute to preserve.
This exercise will make possible that your well-reasoned time mana-
gement plan is not negatively affected by outside elements and sources.

Exercise
Step 1
Analyse the environment you usually work in and count i) the number of
times that you check the phone (to check what time it is; to check social media
account, etc.); ii) the number of times you are interrupted by people (even if
they are just passing by and greeting);
154 Exercises

Step 2
How many minutes in average in 3 working hours did you lose due points
i) and ii) above?

Step 3
Try to identify “silence working areas” in libraries (or close the doors
in offices with “no disturb” signs) for 2 hours in the morning and identify one
hour for work in common spaces (or work in the office with open door). For the
same time, avoid using cell phones for non-professional purposes.

Evaluation
Check after two weeks if your perception of external distraction has
increased your capacity of time management.

Remember: The “concentration” of “distractions” in one single,

“controlled” and pre-defined time-slot (most probably, the working hours
where you feel yourself less able to better perform) should allow you to better
keep you on track with your time-management schedule without necessarily
being unfriendly in a working place – as your door will always be open (just in
specific times, your times!)

Exercise 3
The art of setting priorities

Introduction
Most people think time management is about doing as more activities
as possible in the shortest amount of time. However, time management is an
instrument that allows us to achieve previously established goals according to
our desires and duties. In establishing goals (and the executive activities that
are necessary to achieve them), we set them in a hierarchical order on the basis
of priority.
As Stephen Covey wrote in The seven habits of highly effective people, “The
key is not to prioritize what’s on your schedule, but to schedule your priorities”.
We should rely to our priority hierarchy while deciding:
1. In which tasks to engage first;
2. The amount of time to dedicate to each task.
 Time Management 155

Exercise
Step 1
Make a list of goals you want to achieve in the upcoming week or month
(the time span can be modulated according the course schedule).

Step 2
Examine the list and give a score to each goal:
1 = Extremely important
2 = Very important
3 = Somewhat important
4 = Less important

Warning: Avoid the procrastination trap! This scoring should avoid

lists filled with unimportant goals that gives us the impression that we are
progressing in something, instead of addressing the elephant in the room.

Step 3
Take into consideration each goal and split it in a list of activities which
are necessary in order to reach that goal. Activities should be as specific as
possible.
Subsequently, rank each activity (within a single goal), according to its
importance in achieving that goal:
a = extremely important
b = very important
c = somewhat important
d = unimportant

Step 4
Make a new list of goals, with the order that reflects the score given to
each goal (1 to 4). At the right side of each goal, the students shall put the list
of the activities assigned to each goal, with the order that reflects the ranking
given to each activity (a to c). Activities with ranking “d” should be left out.

Step 5
Fill in a weekly (or a monthly) calendar, in which to plan the activities
that you would like to perform each day (or each week) according to the fixed
set of priorities.
156 Exercises

Evaluation
At the end of the week (or month), make an assessment of:
• goals reached;
• activities effectively performed;
• amount of effort dedicated to the activities performed, compared
with the importance ranking given to each activity at the beginning
of the exercise.

Exercise 4
The urgent important matrix

Introduction
The urgent important matrix has been developed by Stephen Covey
following an inspirational quote of the former US president Eisenhower: “What
is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important”. It is an
important tool to move us towards our goals, because it enable us to manage
our time more effectively.
Using a simple grid, Covey helps us to define our tasks according to two
parameters:
1. Urgent tasks are the tasks that we are required to perform
immediately, or within a short time framework. We are usually obliged
to stop what we are doing to focus on the urgent task instead. Not
dealing with urgent tasks usually brings immediate consequences.
E.g.
2. Important tasks are the tasks that move us towards our bigger goals
and projects. Since those tasks are often not associated with a close
deadline, it is easier to procrastinate on them: we are more likely to
prioritize tasks with a deadline, even if other tasks may have major
payoffs in the long term.

Starting from this, The urgent important matrix consists in four quadrants
that classify your daily/weekly/monthly activities on the basis of the aforemen-
tioned parameters.
 Time Management 157

URGENT NOT URGENT

IMPORTANT

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2
Crises Preparation and planning
IMPORTANT

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
NOT

Interruptions Distractions

Quadrant 1 (Crises) – contains all the activities that are urgent

and require our immediate attention. They may be unexpected events,
emergencies at work or in personal life (like sudden health issues), sudden
deadlines, urgent meetings, pressing problems. Those activities are also
qualified as important, because we cannot avoid to perform them.
When our schedule becomes very busy and we are overwhelmed by
the workload, we tend to operate mostly in Quadrant 1 (Crises). Therefore,
we find ourselves shifting from one activity to another, in the attempt to
manage all the sudden emergencies. At the same time, if we spend all day
dealing only with urgent tasks, the latter will most probably pile up because
we do not have time to plan our work and to work on the real priorities.
Quadrant 2 (Preparation and planning) – contains all the activities that
lead us towards our goals and projects and are not urgent in the present
moment. Their positive impact is experienced in the long term. If we
make sure to have enough time to deal with this things properly, we will
significantly reduce the load of Quadrant 1 and we will spend our energies
on what really matters. If we deal with activities in Quadrant 2 before they
become urgent, we will gain more control over our daily schedule.
Quadrant 3 (Interruptions) – contains the activities that are not important
for the purposes of our goals, but we have to do anyway. In addition, they need
to be done immediately. For instance, in this quadrant there are unimportant
meetings, interruptions from co-workers, unnecessary checking our emails
or phone calls. Those activities are not “important” under the perspective of
our personal goals (although they may be important for others).
158 Exercises

Those activities usually interrupt or take us away from important

tasks. It is important to minimize our time in this quadrant by reviewing
and prioritizing our tasks.
Quadrant 4 (Distractions) – If the activities in Quadrant 3 are distractions
with deadlines, the activities in Quadrant 4 are the frivolous distractions:
checking social media, surfing the web without a purpose, watching TV, etc.
Sometimes, it is important to linger in those activities when we feel tired
and we need a break. However, if we spend too much time in this quadrant
we will be late on our projects and deadlines

The objective of The urgent important matrix is to spend as much time as

possible in Quadrant 2, in order to prevent the overfill of Quadrant 1, and to limit
the time spent on Quadrants 3 and 4.

Exercise
Step 1
List all the activities that you must and want to perform in one day, one
week or one month. It is possible to use the list developed in the previous
exercise.

Step 2
At the beginning of the day/week/month, fill the four quadrants according
to the qualifications given in the introduction.

URGENT NOT URGENT

IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT
NOT
 Time Management 159

Step 3
Please keep in mind that it is not always possible to foreseen all the
activities that may fall in Quadrant 1 (Crises) and in Quadrant 3 (interruptions).
Therefore, you should regularly update the chart, signing up those activities
that come unexpectedly and can be classified into those quadrants.

Step 4
During the day/week/month, try to operate as much as possible in
Quadrant 2 (preparation and planning). You may prepare a daily/weekly/
monthly plan that fits with this objective.

Evaluation
• If you find Quadrant 1 filled with a lot of urgent and important
activities, are there some activities that you could have foreseen?
How those activities could have been scheduled in advance in order
to deal with them before they became urgent?
• Did you manage to spend as less time as possible in Quadrant 3 and
Quadrant 4?
• On average, do you think that you have spent enough time on Quadrant 2?
160 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR
STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Francesco Pesce, Stefano Dominelli and Francesca Maoli

Please see below 5 exercises for group work:

A. Roles and responsibilities in a team
B. Planning and delegating
C. Fighting time-wasters
D. Parkinson’s law
E. Identification of priorities

The following exercises are designed to engage in collective learning

of time management techniques; to understand the dynamics of collective
environments that affect time management in an organization and to improve
time management skills of a collective reality as a whole.

Exercise A
Roles and responsibilities in a team

Introduction
Each group, be it a company, an association of professionals, or a team of
any kind, has its own characteristics. Identifying those characteristics enables
the group to understand what to improve and what to valorize. This is also true
for time management and efficient planning.
A group is different from a mere gathering of people. In a group, two or
more people are connected by common characteristics or goals.
Knowing your team is the first step to determine the best use of time
and achieve an overall effective organization. A clear identification of roles and
responsibilities is a way to correctly balance the energies and strengths of a
team.
This exercise should highlight the importance to valorize the capacity of
each member of the team in order to better perform a task or reach a particular
goal. When each member is able to offer what he/she can do better, the overall
energy of the group will be spent more efficiently.
 Time Management 161

Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people.
2. Each group is given one of the following scenarios:

Scenario 1
You are a study group. You have to perform a scientific experiment
that involves to plant five little jars of basil and to take care of the
plants until the gems come off the ground. This means providing the
necessary materials and to take care of the experiment in all the phases.
Meanwhile, it will also be necessary to conduct a scientific study on
the ways to plant, grow and harvest basil and on the properties of the
plant for health and nutrition purpose. The results of the research will
need to be written in a report of 20 pages.

Scenario 2
You are employed in a bank as a team of the HR office. You are presented
with 20 curriculums of candidates for a new position in the bank. You
have 2 weeks to make a first selection of CVs, to conduct all interviews
and to choose the ideal candidate.

Scenario 3
You are a team and you have to organize a half-day conference on “Time
management and efficient planning” in two months. This requires
choosing the topics of the presentations (how many presentations?),
invititing speakers, setting the location, setting the travel and accom-
modation arrangements for each speakers, advertising the event and
organizing the subscriptions for participants. A person in charge of
taking care of speakers during their stay in town will also be necessary.

Scenario 4
You are a team and you have to help a family of six people in need.
You need to raise some money through charity in order to buy food,
clothes, medicines, etc. Someone has to take care of the budget and
has to decide what to buy and when. You also need to establish who
will run the direct contact with the family (go visit, talk with them,
bring them necessary items).

3. After reading the assignment, each member of the team writes down all the
personal characteristics and abilities that they think would be useful for
their team in performing the assignment.
162 Exercises

4. Each team develops a list of tasks that needs to be done in order to perform
the assignment effectively and distributes the tasks among the members,
discussing the abilities/strengths that each of them has offered to contribute
in the assignment.

Exercise B
Planning and delegating

Introduction
The following exercise is very useful for groups in order to learn the
importance of a good planning and delegating, in order to achieve a task in the
shortest amount of time.

Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people.
2. Each group is given a deck of playing cards to shuffle them.
3. The teacher shows to all the groups a composition of six cards arranged in
a specific order.
4. Each group starts searching the same cards from their deck and in order to
arrange the cards in the same specific order that you have shown. The team
that completes the task in the shortest amount of time wins.
5. It is recommended to do more than one round.

Evaluation
• What was the strategy of your team to perform this exercise?
• Did you use planning and delegating in order to manage time
successfully?

Exercise C
Fighting time-wasters

Introduction
Time wasters are one of the most common reasons for not achieving goals
in a set amount of time. They can occur anytime during the day, interrupting
us from our main activity. There are many strategies to avoid time-wasters:
working in groups on this will enable participants to learn a high number of
ways to cope with time wasters in a short amount of time.
 Time Management 163

Exercise
1. Divide into small groups of 5–6 people. Each group should have a set of
blank cards or papers and a pen.
2. Each group is given one envelope and 4 minutes to write on a blank card/
paper all the possible ways to overcome the time-waster that is written on
the envelope.
3. The compiled card/paper should be put in the envelope and passed to the
next group. In this way, each group shall have a different envelope at every
round.
4. If possible, each group shall have the possibility to work on each time-
waster.

Evaluation
• How do you overcome these time-wasters?
• What is your best strategies to fight each time-wasters?

Exercise D
Parkinson’s law

Introduction
This is the famous Parkinson’s law, coined by Cyril Northcote Parkinson in
1955, that explains the importance of deadlines and to give a pre-selected amount
of time of each activity we need/want to accomplish. If we set one hour to write
a paper, it will probably take us one hour to do the job. However, if you set four
hours, the very same task will probably take you four hours to be completed.
Procrastination is a key component in understanding Parkinson’s Law:
looming deadlines makes us hesitant to start a task, especially if it is adverse or
undesirable or unpleasant for us. As a consequence, if we set a certain period of
time to perform that task, it likely that we will use all the time available.

Exercise
1. Divide into small groups.
2. Each group receives a tast from the teacher.
3. Some teams are given a time limit, others work without a time limit.
However, all teams should finish their task as soon as they can.

Evaluation
Do you know any practical ways to incorporate the Parkinson’s law into
real life?
164 Exercises

Exercise E
Identification of priorities

Introduction
Our perception of an efficient use of time may be undermined by the
fact that we perform non-important tasks and we postpone important ones. In
establishing goals, it is very important to identify the executive activities that
are necessary to achieve them and to set them in a hierarchical order on the
basis of priority. We should rely to our priority hierarchy while deciding: a) in
which tasks to engage first; b) the amount of time to dedicate to each task.
The development of an effective planning finds its basis in the ability to set
into actions our pre-determined desires and goals. Once we have established
our direction, and we have identified our long-term and short-term goals, we
need to translate them into a well-defined set of actions.

Exercise
1. Divide into small groups no more than 4 students in one group.
2. Each group member writes on a piece of paper a personal goal for the future
and shows this goal to the other members of his/her group. The goal can
relate to work, study or any other area of life.
3. Each member of the group individually writes down actions/activities that
he or she considers necessary to reach that goal. Activities should be as
specific as possible.
4. After a couple of minutes, each group discusses together their lists of
activities. The person that has chosen the goal will notice if there are
differences between his/her list and the other member’s list.
5. After the first round, other rounds can be performed in which other members
of each group shares a personal goal and different ways of implementation
can be discussed.
 Time Management 165

References

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control, work-family conflict, and strain, in Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, p. 72
Aeon, B., Aguinis, H. (2017). It’s About Time: New Perspectives and Insights
on Time Management, in Academy of Management Perspectives, pp. 309–330
Ancona, D. G., Goodman, P. S., Lawrence, B. S., Tushman, M. L. (2001). Time:
a new research lens, in Academy of Management Review, p. 645
Ariga, A., Lleras, A. (2011). Brief and rare mental ‘breaks’ keep you focused:
Deactivation and reactivation of task goals preempt vigilance decrements, in
Cognition. Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0010027710002994?via%3Dihub
Britton, B. K., Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on
college grades, in Journal of Educational Psychology, p. 405
Claessens B. J. C., Van Eerde W., Roe R. A. (2007). A Review of Time
Management Literature, in Personnel Review, p. 255
Covey, S. R. (1989). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in
Personal Change, 1st ed. New York, p. 145 ff
Ericsson, K., Krampe, R., Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The Role of Deliberate
Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance, in Psychological Review, Vol.
100, No. 3, pp. 363–406. Available at https://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/
blogs/freakonomics/pdf/DeliberatePractice(PsychologicalReview).pdf
Flashman, B. (2012). The Successful Persons Guide to Time Management,
available at http://fcs-hes.ca.uky.edu/publication/successful-persons-guide-
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Jackson, V. P. (2009). Time Management: a Realistic Approach, in Journal of the
American Colleg of Radiology, Vol. 6, pp. 434–436. Available at https://www.
jacr.org/article/S1546-1440(08)00581-4/pdf
Lakein, A. (1974). How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life. Signet
Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: test of a process model, in Journal of
Applied Psychology, p. 381
Pearson, T. Maker’s Schedule, Manager’s Schedule. Available at http://www.
paulgraham.com/makersschedule.html
166 Exercises

Schwartz, T., McCarthy, C. (2007). Manage your Energy, not Your Time, in
Harvard Business Review
Shin, K., Chung, Y. K., Kwon, Y.-J., Son, J.-S., Lee, S.-H. (2016). The Effect of Long
Working Hours on Cerebrovascular and Cardiovascular Disease; A Case-
Crossover Study, in American Journal of Industrial Medicine, pp. 753–761
Simons, D. J., Galotti, K. M. (1992). Everyday planning: an analysis of daily time
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Video
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com/watch?v=EFhkdzj-x80&t=254s
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 3

ABILITY TO
COOPERATE
IN A TEAM
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 171

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS

By Gea van Klompenburg, Marjon Kuipers and Jan van Zwieten

Introduction

Soft skills are personality traits and interpersonal skills that characterise
an individual’s professional behaviour and how they relate to others. In the
workplace, soft skills are considered to complement “hard skills”, which
refer to an individual’s knowledge and concrete abilities. A well-functioning
team consists of several individuals whose motivations, interactions and
communication synergize to produce effective team results. Individual and
joint consciousness exercises contribute to the development of a strong team.

Need for cooperation in a team

The relationships among the team members themselves are of great impor-
tance for the team’s functioning, both in the short and the long run. Well-
cared-for relationships within the team ensure the development of a sense
of well-being and safety. Via this process, (temporary) loss of team members
and, consequently, the team’s loss can be minimised as much as possible. The
exercises mentioned above are intended to enable team members to gain
experience with their self-consciousness.

Main goals and learning outcomes

The main goals when teaching students soft skills in teams include the following:

• Providing knowledge about what is important when forming a team

• Ensuring awareness of everyone’s individual patterns and their
influence on mutual dynamics
• Outlining the requirements for viable and durable cooperation
172 Exercises

In a well-functioning team, attention must be paid to ethical awareness

in different fields, such as durability, social responsibility and life quality.
Moreover, one must examine the personality characteristics of all team
members. Research has demonstrated that a team requires more than just the
capacities of individual members.
Rather, a well-composed team requires the optimisation of all skills,
knowledge and personal drivers of each team member according to the Teamstar
model (van Zwieten & Smit, 2019).

The Teamstar model consists of three main elements:

1. Team alignment: This element focuses on alignment and involvement
and entails the process of bringing unrelated individuals together
into a solid group;
2. Team sustainability: This element focuses on efficiency and effectivity
and achieving an optimal level of functioning as a team;
3. Team performance: This element focuses on development and vitality
and setting the basis for a sustainable dream team.

The three main elements of Teamstar cannot be considered phases that a

team passes through, such as is the case with Tuckman’s development phases.
Rather, they provide a vision by which to continuously monitor and evaluate a
team in order to ensure continued growth.

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process

In following sections we offer 4 exercises for individual work and 6 exercises

for the group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4). Exercises for group work are
marked with letters (A, B, C, D, E and F). Below you will find short explanation
how to use those exercises.
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 173

Exercise 1
Personal development plan

This exercise is intended as a tool for personal development. The student

makes a personal development plan at home and has three or four weeks to
accomplish this so that there is also time to observe progress. In the classroom,
each student’s experiences with the personal development plans are exchanged
with two other fellow students after this period.
How much time the student spends on this exercise depends on how
seriously the student is working on their personal development plan; it could
take up to several hours.
The sharing of experience is recommended to last approximately 15
minutes per student, so with three students, 45 minutes.

Exercise 2
Awareness of vitality

This exercise relates to awareness of vitality.

The exercise is a self-assessment which does not require any background
knowledge of teamwork. The student’s awareness of the importance of vitality
is the most important goal of this exercise.
The exercise is recommended to be conducted in approximately 10 to 15
minutes.

Exercise 3
Perception

This exercise is connected to exercise D (groupwork).

This exercise is about perception and realising that every person has
their own perception of what they see, hear and feel.
This is an individual assignment in which the student writes down three
items per observation category: three things they see, three things they hear
and three things they feel.
This exercise is recommended to take approximately 5 minutes.
174 Exercises

Exercise 4
Self-reflection

This exercise does not require any background knowledge. The purpose
of this exercise is for the student to become aware that their own behaviours
and reactions determine how communication with other people proceeds.
The exercise is recommended to take approximately 15 minutes.

Exercise A
Values I

Students start with exercise A.

(Exercise B is the sequel of A)
The purpose of this exercise is to investigate one’s programming: to
become aware of one’s subconscious drivers, what energises them, and what
fatigues them.
Students work in pairs and ask each other 10 questions about their values.
Person A asks person B, “What do you find important? And what else? Do
you value other things as well?” The person asking questions also writes down
these values. Students should continue until they have discovered 10 values.
If both have found 10 values, they can order them based on personal
importance. This means the most important value ranks as number 1 and a
slightly less critical value as number 2. Students should continue to evaluate
and rank their values until they are happy with the results.
Students then continue to write the individual values on separate sheets
of paper, which they then place on the ground. Person A, whose values are on
the floor, can stand on “10”, and Person B will ask them the following questions:

Imagine that you either have ....... (value on place “10”)

while lacking ....... (value on place “9”)
or you have ....... (value on place “9”)
while lacking ....... (value on place “10”),
which would you choose?

If the value on “10” feels more important than the value on “9”, these
should be exchanged.
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 175

Repeat this process for all 10 values until it feels correct for the person
whose values are on the floor. Students have now created a “top 10” list of their
values with the (current) most important values on top.
This exercise can take up to 40 minutes (20 minutes per person).

Exercise B
Values II

Exercise B is the continuation of exercise A, so students continue to work

in pairs.
The “top 10” must be reduced to a “top 5”.
Students must choose the five most important (core) values for this
complementary exercise.
After doing so, person A asks the following questions of person B and
simultaneously writes down as much as possible to preserve the answers.
Answer the following questions for each value:

1. What does value ....... mean to you?

2. Why is value ....... important to you?
And why is that important to you?
And why is that important to you?
3. Why is value ....... also important to you?
And why is that important to you?
And why is that important to you?
4. What is for you the opposite of value .......?
5. Where and when did you first encounter the opposite of value .......?
(Discover if there is still an unprocessed negative emotion connected
to this encounter.)

The exercise can take up to 40 minutes (20 minutes per person).

Exercise C
Compliments

Round I
One person sits in front of the group, and the others take turns giving
them a compliment. The recipient acknowledges the compliment with a “thank
176 Exercises

you” and says nothing else. Once everyone has had their turn, participants
should discuss their experience of the exercise.

Round II
One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns making
negative comments about them. The recipient is not allowed to say anything.
Both the group and the recipient should then discuss the following
questions:
1. How did this round differ from the round of compliments?
2. What is it that you see of feel?

Always end with a round of compliments!

The purpose of this exercise is to become aware of the effects of receiving
feedback, both in a positive and a negative way. In other words, feedback
according to the sandwich method is recommended.
This exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise D
Perception

This exercise is the continuation of exercise 3 (individual student). The

results are intended to reveal differences in perception.
Every student shares their experiences of what they saw, heard or felt.
Then the students (team members) discuss the resulting differences in terms
of perception. Some people notice details while others see broad outlines;
some hear sounds close by while others notice sounds further away; and some
may feel the chair they sit on while others feel internal sensations (such as a
headache).
The exercise can take up to 20 minutes.

Exercise E
Lie or actually the truth?

The purpose of this exercise is for students to get to know each other
better.
Each person writes down three sentences about themselves that are true
and one that is a lie. Each participant must read their statements in a random
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 177

order. Listeners discuss the stories and must evaluate which statements are
true and which one is made up.
Subsequently, students discuss questions that delve further into whether
or not they are honest about what they feel or say, such as whether they ever
tell white lie or exaggerate.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise F
White board or flipchart back-to-back drawing

This exercise involves collaborative drawing and relates to efficiency and

trust in the team.
The students are divided into two or three groups.
Two individuals of each group will walk up to the whiteboard or flipchart
while the other students stand opposite of them on the other side of the room.
One person is blindfolded and will be the one to draw. The person without a
blindfold will be shown a drawing by the people on the other side of the room.
The person without a blindfold must give directions to the blindfolded person
who must attempt to recreate the aforementioned drawing. However, nobody
is allowed to say the name of what the drawing depicts.
Instead, they are to provide hints such as “move up now” or “a little bit to
the right”.
It is easier to choose fairly simple drawings, such as the outline of a house
or a fruit such as an apple. Blindfolded drawing is much harder than one might
think.
After the exercise is concluded, students can change roles with others in
the group.
The exercise can take up to 40 minutes, depending on how many people
will take a turn drawing.
178 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Gea van Klompenburg, Marjon Kuipers and Jan van Zwieten

Please see below 4 exercises for individual work:

1. Personal development plan
2. Awareness of vitality
3. Perception I
4. Self-reflection

Exercise 1
Personal development plan

In order to achieve your goals you should develop personal development

plan. In establishing your plan, you must accomplish several following steps.
Please do following steps:
• Set goals;
• Prioritise those goals;
• Set deadlines for achieving them;
• Recognise threats and opportunities;
• Develop skills or increase knowledge;
• Use the support network; and
• Measure your progress.

Congratulations! You have done your first step for achieving your goals and
developing your personality. If the goals are set, they are prioritised, deadlines
are fixed, you have analysed threats and opportunities then everything is set.
Now just keep going and monitor your progress. Do not forget about learning,
increasing your skills and knowledge on the way of implementation of your pan!

Exercise 2
Awareness of vitality

To work on your vitality now and in the future, please answer the following
questions:
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 179

1. What is the most crucial motive for you to work on your vitality?
2. What kind of vital student do you want to be?
3. What is your ultimate goal for your vitality?
4. What are your expectations about your vitality?
5. What challenges do you encounter when developing your vitality?
6. Which behavioral pattern do you recognize in yourself that you would
like to develop further?

Vitality means the state of being strong and active, having energy. If you
do not follow your vitality you might experience burnout, structural stress,
sleep problems and poor health (such as obesity or diabetes). Question of this
exercise will help you to formulate your vitality formula and help yourself to
find your balance.

Exercise 3
Preception exercise

This exercise will help you to analyse your perception and feelings.
Note and write down:

What you see

1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________

What you hear

1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________

What you feel

1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________
180 Exercises

Everyone can have different perception. Ask to fill in this worksheet

to your friend, family member and you will see that he or she can see/feel/
hear something totally different.

Exercise 4
Self-reflection feedback questions

In this exercise, you will reflect on how you deal with giving and receiving
feedback.
* Below you will find a number of questions about dealing with feedback that you
answer by underlining one of the three words.

Question 1: What do you do when someone else tells you something you
do not understand?
• I frown [sometimes / often / never *]
• I ask for clarification [sometimes / often / never *]
• I am annoyed because the other person is so unclear [sometimes /
often / never *]
• I tell the other person that they are unclear [sometimes / often /
never *]
• I stop listening to the other person [sometimes / often / never *]

Question 2: What do you do when you tell someone else something?

• I say what I want as clearly as possible and assume that the other
person will understand me [sometimes / often / never *]
• I will go into what the other person answers me [sometimes / often
/ never *]
• I pay attention to the other person’s facial expression [sometimes /
often / never *]
• I ask the other person from time to time if they can still follow me
[sometimes / often / never *]
• I say what I want as clearly as possible and at the same time pay
attention to the reaction of the other person [sometimes / often /
never *]

Question 3: You are in a working group together with three other people.
You think one participant talks too much.
• What do you do in such a situation?
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 181

• If possible, I will no longer attend that working group [sometimes /

often / never *]
• I do not listen when they talk. I let it pass me by [sometimes / often
/ never *]
• I get annoyed to death. I do not let any sign of my annoyance show
[sometimes / often / never *]
• I tell them they talk too much [sometimes / often / never *]
• I tell them that I am annoyed by their excessive talking and that I can
no longer listen to what they have to say [sometimes / often / never *]
• I blame them for talking too much [sometimes / often / never *]

Question 4: How do you give and receive feedback?

• When giving feedback, I use I-language [sometimes / often / never *]
• When giving feedback, I separate concrete behaviour and concrete
facts from my own opinion and interpretation [sometimes / often /
never *]
• When I give feedback, I describe the effect that the named behaviour
has on myself [sometimes / often / never *]
• When giving feedback, I provide the other person with space to
respond, and I listen to that as well [sometimes / often / never *]
• I conclude feedback by formulating a conclusion, common agreement,
and intention with the other person [sometimes / often / never *]
• When giving feedback, I am willing to examine my own part in this
process [sometimes / often / never *]
• When I receive feedback, I take the time to absorb what the other
person is saying and to investigate whether I can do something with
it [sometimes / often / never *]
• When I receive feedback, I ask if the feedback is not clear to me
[sometimes / often / never *]
• If I have received feedback, I thank the other person for their feedback
[sometimes / often / never *]

When working in the team it is important to give and receive feedback.

Evaluate your answers to the questions and think – maybe you need to change
your attitude to the feedback.
182 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR
STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Gea van Klompenburg, Marjon Kuipers and Jan van Zwieten

Please see below 6 exercises for group work:

A. Questioning values I
B. Questioning values II
C. Compliments
D. Perception II
E. Lie or actually the truth?
F. White board or flipchart back-to-back drawing

Exercise A
Questioning values I

The goal of this exercise is to help students to investigate their program-

ming and to become aware of their subconscious drivers and what energises
and fatigues them.
1. Work in pairs and ask questions about your partner’s values. Person
A asks person B, “What do you find important? And what else? Do you
value other things as well?” The person asking questions also writes
down these values. Continue until you have discovered 10 values.
2. Once you have both identified 10 values, order them based on their
importance to you. This means your most important value ranks as
number 1 and a slightly less critical value as number 2. Continue to
evaluate and rank your values until you are happy with the results.
3. Next, write the individual values on separate sheets of paper, which
you then place on the ground. Person A, whose values are on the floor,
can stand on “10”, and Person B will ask them the following questions:
• Imagine that you either have ....... (value on place “10”)
• while lacking ...... (value on place “9”)
• or you have ....... (value on place “9”)
• while lacking ....... (value on place “10”),
• Which would you choose?
4. If the value on “10” feels more important than the value on “9”, these
should be exchanged.
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 183

5. Repeat this process for all 10 values until it feels correct for the person
whose values are on the floor. You now have created a “top 10” list of
your values with the (current) most important values on top.

Exercise B
Questioning values II

1. Choose 5 most important (core) values for this complementary exercise.

2. Person A shall ask the following questions to person B for each value
and simultaneously write down as much as possible to preserve the
answers:
• What does value ..... mean to you?
• Why is value ..... important to you?
• And why is that important to you?
• And why is that important to you?
• Why is value ..... also important to you?
• And why is that important to you?
• And why is that important to you?
• What is for you the opposite of value ....?
• Where and when did you first encounter the opposite of value .....?
(Discover if there is still an unprocessed negative emotion
connected to this encounter.)

With this exercise students will challenge each other to think more about
their values, what those values really mean and why they are important to them.

Exercise C
Compliments

Round I
• One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns giving
them a compliment.
• The recipient acknowledges the compliment with a “thank you” and
says nothing else.
• Once everyone has had their turn, they should discuss their experiences
of this exercise.
184 Exercises

Round II
• Can you handle hearing negative sentiments about your personality
as well? You will most certainly feel that they affect you in one way or
another.
• One person sits in front of the group and the others take turns making
negative comments about that person. The recipient is not allowed to
say anything.
• Note for the group: pay attention to any non-verbal signals coming
from the recipient.
• How did this differ from the round of compliments? What is it that
you see? Solicit responses from both the group and the recipient.
• Finish with a round of compliments!

Exercise D
Perception II

1. Write down for yourself what you have seen, heard and felt. You can
use worksheet from Collection of exercises for individual work –
Exercise 3.
2. Then, discuss it with your team members and answer the following
questions:
• What differences exist in terms of perception?
• Do you see that which is very close to you or further away, and
do you see details or broad outlines?
• Do you hear the sounds close by, or do you hear the sounds
further away better?
• What sounds did you filter out when your colleague mentioned
them first?
• And regarding feeling, how do you differ in experiencing heat
or cold?
• Do you feel sensations internally, such as unrest or peace, or
feel only that which is external, such as the chair you are sitting
on or the shoes on your feet?
3. Discuss the differences with each other and see where adjustments
are needed or where you can support each other.
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 185

Exercise E
Lie or actually the truth?

1. Each team member receives four pieces of paper to write down three
truths and one lie about themselves. The lie must be to some extent
believable (so avoid sentences like “I drank a bottle of vodka with the
Pope”).
2. Each participant reads their statements in a random order. The rest
of the participants discuss the stories and decide which story is true
and which is made up.

Discussion after the exercise:

• How often do you not say what you actually think or feel?
• How often do you hold back the truth?
• What does it mean to you when someone does not tell the truth, such
as when a colleague describes what they think of you?
• Is it still lying if you only slightly exaggerate the truth?
• What is your belief about this?

Trust is priority number one in a strong and close team!

Exercise F
White board or flipchart back-to-back drawing

This exercise entails breaching students’ comfort zone and daring to let
go of others’ opinions of their actions.
1. The team will be divided into two or three groups.
2. Two individuals will walk up to the whiteboard or flipchart while the other
team members stand opposite of them on the other side of the room. One
person is blindfolded, who will be the one to draw. The person without a
blindfold will be shown a drawing by the people on the other side of the
room. This person must give directions to the blindfolded person with
the goal of recreating the aforementioned drawing. However, no one is
allowed to say the name of what the drawing depicts.
3. The objective of this exercise is for people to work together in a team.
They are to provide hints such as “move up now” or “a little bit to the
right”.
186 Exercises

4. It is easier to choose fairly simple drawings, such as the outline of a

house or a fruit such as an apple. Blindfolded drawing is much harder
than one might think.

This exercise will help to the team to understand how they are functioning
and how well they can cooperate. There should be trust, clear and well defined
communication in order to complete this task.
 Ability to Cooperate in a Team 187

References

Baily, R. (2013, March). Language and Behavior Profile as a method to be used

in a coaching process, Vol. 13, No. 3. Poznań University of Economics. Retrieved
from https://www.ebr.edu.pl/pub/2013_3_107.pdf
Childre, D. (2006). Transforming Anxiety: The HeartMath Solution for Overcoming
Fear and Worry and Creating Serenity (1st ed.). Oakland, United States: New
Harbinger Publications
Dispenza, J. (2019). Becoming Supernatural. New York, Verenigde Staten:
Penguin Random House
Harris, P. R. (1993). Team development for european organizations. European
Business Review, 93 (4), pp. 1–78, https://doi.org/10.1108/eum0000000001916
Kuipers-Hemken, M., & Buma, S. (2020). Minder stress, minder autisme (1st ed.).
Amsterdam, Netherlands: SWP
Kuipers-Hemken, M., & Horvers, G. (2016). Plan B (1st ed.). Amsterdam,
Netherlands: SWP
Lipton, B. H. (2016). The Biology of Belief. New York, United States: Penguin
Random House
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some
limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63 (2),
pp. 81–97, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158
Ogden, P., & Fisher, J. (2015). Sensorimotor Psychotherapy: Interventions
for Trauma and Attachment (Norton Series on Interpersonal Neurobiology).
In P. Ogden & J. Fischer (Eds.), The brain and the processing of information,
pp. 193–281. New York, United States: W. W. Norton & Company
Robbins, T. (2012). Awaken The Giant Within. New York, United States: Simon &
Schuster
Smit, M., & van Zwieten, J. (2019, April 24). TeamStar – De Kracht van
Samenwerken. Retrieved 11 January 2021, from https://teamstar.nl
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 4

SETTING
THE GOALS
BY MEANS
OF COACHING
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's
Individual Work
Exercises for Student's
Group Work
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 191

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS

By Kristina Nesterova and Dana Rone

Introduction

The definition of coaching is helping persons to make changes in their life and
to go in a direction they want to go. Everyone wants to be happy and more
satisfied with their life but many don’t know how, therefore coaching helps to
become more self-aware, empowers choices and leads to change. It unlocks a
person’s potential to maximise his or her performance.
Traditionally, coaching has been associated with sports. Nowadays, it is
quite common to see coaching as a helping set of tools in order to achieve goals
in life and work. Coaching links the world of dreaming with the reality.

Need for coaching skills

Coaching provides actionable realization and opportunity to grow based on

given areas an individual wishes to improve. Coaching provides a set of practical
tools which can be used individually co-called ‘self-coaching’ and in teams.
Self-coaching helps to reduce anxiety, panic, relationship struggle and
more importantly to get rid of the habit of insecurity and negative thinking. It
helps to understand exactly what needs to be done to eliminate psychological
friction and maintain complete control of one’s own success.
It is possible to gain self-confidence, determination and motivation by
empowering a person through self-coaching.
Additionally, team coaching with the use of specific tools and thechniques
can help to develop commitment and talent of the members; improve
organisational performance; motivate and engage members as well as facilitate
the adoption of a new culture/management style.
192 Exercises

Main goals and learning outcomes

These exercises are developed in order to help students and professionals:

• to become more productive and to achieve a higher performance at
work as well as everyday life;
• to gain more self-confidence as it is connected to almost every
element involved in a happy life. It is very important to believe
in own strength and worth as well as to have an inner peace. Self-
confidence is attractive, brings success and helps to connect better
with other people;
• to define true goals and values. A lot of people think they know what
they want to accomplish in life but if fact they just do what others
(parents, partners, society, etc.) expect them to do. Coaching helps to
become clearer about what people what in life;
• to have more balanced life. There is a number of practical coaching
tools and self-assessments which helps quickly to understand how
balanced and fulfilled a person’s life is and to identify the ‘weak’ spots
in order to focus and improve them;
• to get intellectual stimulation from discussing important ideas. Almost
every topic in coaching can be analysed and observed in everyday life.
Coaching makes people understand that there is no ‘black and white’
objects or subjects in life, most of the people’s behaviour and actions,
even bad ones, have their positive intention underneath;
• to be more satisfied with life and to become a person you want to be.
Coaching makes people dream and helps to shape dreams into goals
and the goals into reality.

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process

In following sections we offer 2 exercises for individual work and 2 exercises

for the group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2). Exercises for group work are marked with letters (A
and B). Below you will find short explanation how to use those exercises.
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 193

Exercise 1
Life balance wheel

This exercise is a self-assessment which does not require any background

knowledge on coaching. The Wheel consists of eight areas and students
individually rate their level of satisfaction with each area. This gives an
immediate summary of their current “life balance”.
After the rating is done, it is required to make connections between
areas, to see the development of which areas give a positive impact on others.
Students do it individually.
The exercise is recommended to be done between 15–30 minutes.
The results are supposed to show the areas of the students’ life, which
require to focus on more, in order to improve them.
The exercise is well-explained and has visual examples for students for
better understanding.

Exercise 2
Setting the right goals

This exercise does not require any background knowledge.

The goal of the ‘Setting the Right Goals’ exercise is to teach students to
formulate their goals correctly and explicitly. For that reason, two concepts of
goal setting are presented: HUGGS (Huge, Unbelievably Good Goals) and SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Attractive, Realistic and Time Bound).
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise A
Drama triangle

This is a group exercise which requires an advance reading for better

understanding. The recommended articles to read are the following:
• ‘The three faces of victim – An overview of the victim triangle’ by
Lynne Forrest,
• ‘Breaking the drama triangle’ by Goule John.
194 Exercises

Students are divided into groups of 4–6 persons per group. The distribution
is better to be done randomly and students who are not very close to each other,
get a chance to work together in one team. An example of how to team students
up can be to find something common in their appearance (colour of their clothing,
glasses or those who wear blazers, birthday months, preferred outdoor activities,
etc.). Students who match, start building a team for this exercise.
The exercise includes two dialogues between two different family
members. After students have read both dialogues, they are asked to discuss in
the groups: Who from the fictional characters is right and who is wrong?
The next task is to distribute the roles of: V = victim; R = rescuer and P =
persecutor for each speaker. Note, one speaker can keep switching roles during
the conversation. The example of how the exercise should be done is shown in
the first 3 lines of the dialogue A.
When the task is complete, students are required to discus in groups a
question of ‘who is a missing person in the given situations?’ (the answer is ‘an
adult’ or ‘a responsible person’).
The conclusion provides an answer to the question and students can
compare it to their answers.

Exercise B
Powerful questions

Coaching is an art of questioning. Good coaching questions are powerful

and empowering.
This is a group exercise which requires an advance reading for better
understanding. The recommended article to read is the following:
‘Coaching 101: Ask Powerful Questions’ by Stephanie Soler
The main purpose of this exercise is to help students to learn the
importance of asking ‘right’ questions in order to get powerful answers.
This exercise is done in groups of 4–6 students. The students can keep
working in same groups as in the previous exercise of ‘Drama triangle’.
There should be one client in each group with a request or a goal they
want to accomplish in the nearest future. The rest of the group members are
performing a team coaching.
The client announces his/her request, and the team of coaches starts
questioning clockwise. A client gives one answer to every question regarding
his/her request. There should be 2 or 3 rounds so every coach has a chance to
ask 2–3 questions, one question at a time.
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 195

Below the exercise, there is an evaluation sheet provided, where 1 means a

very weak question and 10 is the strongest question. Every group member should
write the questions down in order to give a constructive feedback after the session
and use the evaluation sheet to rate each question, which coaches have asked.
The exercise is well-described to students and has examples of weak and
strong questions for better understanding.
After the evaluation is made, the students are welcome to share their
feedbacks and thoughts regarding every question they have heard and the
exercise in general.
196 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Kristina Nesterova and Dana Rone

Here we offer you 2 exercises for individual work:

1. Life balance wheel
2. Setting the right goals

These exercises will help you to become more self-aware and get them a
long-term development vision.

Exercise 1
Life balance wheel

Introduction
The “Life balance wheel” or the “Wheel of life” is a visual tool used in
coaching to help people quickly understand how balanced and fulfilled their
life is at the moment.
The concept was originally created by Paul J. Meyer, founder of Success
Motivation Institute, Inc. In 1960. Today different variations of the wheel are
used in coaching for personal development reasons.
Life balance wheel usually consists of eight areas considered as important
to have a balanced and happy life. A coachee rates their level of satisfaction and
fulfilment with every area, then map this onto an image of a wheel. The exercise
gives an immediate summary of the current “life balance”.

The key areas on the life balance wheel:

1. Family and friends. The relationship between you and your family as
well as the close ones who you can truly call ‘friends’;
2. Physical environment. It includes the country and town you live in,
your home and working place;
3. Fun & recreation. How you spend your leisure time;
4. Health. This category includes both “Emotional” and “Physical” health;
5. Personal growth. It involves self-development and self-enhancement,
the feelings you have about yourself, and your effectiveness in life.
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 197

6. Business and career. The job you do for living. It can be: self-employ-
ment, work, motherhood or volunteering;
7. Finance: Your financial security, dependency on loans and debts
(including cars, student loans, and mortgage);
8. Romance: This category includes your ‘dating’ situation, whether you
have found a partner for life or still in process.

Now, how balanced your life is?!

Exercise
Below you can see an empty wheel, looking like eight pieces of a pie or
a bicycle wheel, which you should fill in with your current level of satisfaction
and fulfilment in life. The entire circle represents your overall life and you can
not know the exact numbers, so, do it according to your feelings.
Each of the categories can be assigned a value of 1 (very dissatisfied) to
10 (very satisfied). The value of 1 is closest to the centre of the wheel and the
value 10 is at the edge.
Before doing this exercise, try to clear your mind and remember there is
no right answer just be honest with yourself, that is the key.

Figure 1. Life balance wheel

198 Exercises

Step 1
Please have a look at the Wheel (see figure 1).
• Which category would you like to start from?
After choosing one, go clockwise to the rest of the areas of the Life balance
wheel.

Step 2
• How much are you satisfied with this category (the answer from the
Step 1) from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied)?
Starting from the center of the wheel, colour the slice according to your
answer (see figure 1). Below you can see an example how it should look like
(see figure 2).

Figure 2. The satisfaction level with ‘Personal growth’ and

‘Business & career’ categories

The example above shows the satisfaction rates with two categories:
‘Personal growth’ (the rate is 6) and ‘Business & career’ (the rate is 8).

Step 3
Evaluate all eight areas of your Life balance wheel.
When it is done, answer the following questions:
• How well-balanced is your wheel?
• As a bicycle wheel, is it possible to ride?
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 199

Step 4
If you completed your Life balance wheel and do not feel satisfied with
the results, let’s try to find out how it can be improved.
• In your opinion, which areas of the wheel impact others?
• What depends on what?

Make connections between them as it is shown in the example below (see

figure 3). Draw arrows from the categories which gives the biggest impact on
others using different color ink. Try to make as many connections as possible,
to see which area is the most influencing.

Figure 3. The impact of ‘Personal growth’ on ‘Finance’,

‘Business and career’ and ‘Physical environment’ development

Step 5
When the connections are done, answer the following questions:
• In which area do you want to make the difference first?
• How much from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied) do you
want to be satisfied with it?
• What can you do to make the growth happen?
(write down 5–8 options)
200 Exercises

Step 6
Now when having several options,
• What will be your first step already today?
• How will you motivate yourself in reaching your goal?

Step 7
Think of a reminder for yourself. It can be something materialistic,
such as: a bracelet, a key chain, a pen, a notebook and etc. Put some time and
effort in order to find the right reminder for yourself. Have this item with you
everywhere, it will remind you of your main goal which have to accomplished
in the nearest future. Good luck!

Exercise 2
Setting the right goals

Introduction
All successful people set goals. Goals are dreams with legs, they are going
somewhere. Coaching inspires and supports in achieving goals.

The concept of HUGGs

HUGGs stands for Huge, Unbelievably Good Goals and have the following
qualities:
• they are long term (5–30 years);
• they connect with the person’s identity and core values;
• when they are first set, they seem impossible. As the time goes on,
they start to manifest more and more;
• they make a person feel strongly about them.

Examples of HUGGs:
• become a published author;
• become a millionaire;
• establish your own successful company.

Exercise
Set between 2–4 long-term HUGGs for your life. Use your Life Balance
Wheel to help setting these goals. As these goals are in the far future, they may
not be very specific but positive and in very simple language.
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 201

Goal 1

Goal 2

Goal 3

Goal 4

One year goals

Now, take each of your long-term HUGGs goals and set goals that you
want to accomplish within one year in order to be on track. You need to set a
goal for every part of your Life Balance Wheel, it will give a more clear picture
of your future.
To make sure the goals are clear, motivating and reachable, each one
should be set in a SMART form:
Specific: to focus all the efforts and feel truly motivated for achieving
goals, they should be simple, sensible and significant;
Measurable: the goals should be meaningful in order to track progress
and stay motivated;
Attractive: they goals should be likeable by the client;
Realistic: The goals also needs to be reasonable and attainable to be
successful. It should stretch a person’s abilities but still remain possible.
Time bound: every goal needs a target date, so there is a deadline to focus
on and something to work toward.
202 Exercises

Goal 1. Family and friends

Goal 2. Physical environment

Goal 3. Fun & recreation

Goal 4. Health

Goal 5. Personal growth

Goal 6. Business and career

Goal 7. Finance

Goal 8. Romance
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 203

What are the immediate steps you need to take now in order to
achieve your goals in the nearest future?

Save your goals and read them through as a reminder of your BIG DREAMS!
204 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

GROUP WORK
By Kristina Nesterova and Dana Rone

Here we offer you 2 exercises for group work:

A. The drama triangle
B. Powerful questions

These exercises will help you to become more responsible and to unlock
your potential in professional, academic and personal life.

Exercise A
The drama triangle

Introduction
Many of us at times act like we are being victims in our lives. Every time
when we refuse to take responsibility for ourselves, we are unconsciously
choosing to act like victims.
The drama triangle is a dynamic model of social interaction and conflict
developed by Stephen B. Karpman. He specifies that “victim, rescuer and
persecutor” refer to roles people unconsciously play, or try to manipulate
others to play, and not the real circumstances in life, such as victims of crime
or abuse, etc.
The three roles of the drama triangle are typical and easily recognizable
in their extreme versions.
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 205

• V = victim. Victims usually feel helpless, oppressed and powerless.

Their typical attitude is “Poor me!” Victims are unable to make
decisions, solve problems, take responsibilities for their own
lives. Being powerless, victims constantly seek for rescuers to save
them and solve their problems.
• R = rescuer. The stance of a rescuer is “Let me help you.” Rescuers
can feel guilty if they do not ‘save’ someone. Although rescuers have
positive intentions, their attitude at times has negative impact. It
keeps the Victim dependent and gives them Victim permission to fail.
The role of rescuer, in reality, is an avoidance of dealing with their
own issues.
• P = persecutor. Persecutors are controlling, authoritative and
unpleasant to deal with. They usually criticize and blame the victim,
set strict limits, but they don’t actually solve any problems or help
anyone else. They make the victim feeling ‘small’ through threats and
bullying. On the other hand, persecutors are scared of being a victim
themselves.

Exercise
1. Divide into groups of 4–6 students and read the following two fictional
stories. After reading these A and B stories below
2. Discuss in the groups who from these 4 fictional characters is right and who
is wrong?
3. Distribute roles of: V = victim; R = rescuer and P = persecutor for each
speaker. Note, one speaker can keep switching roles during the conversation.

Story A
The first situation is happening between Richard and Ann, a married
couple with children.

Richard: You burned dinner again! That’s not the first time this month, Ann!
Ann: Well, little Johnny fell and skinned his elbow, poor thing. I was busy getting
him a bandage and the dinner accidentally burnt.
Richard: You baby that kid too much!
Ann: I do not think you would want him to get an infection. I’d end up taking
care of him while he’s sick.
Richard: He’s big enough to be able to get his own bandage.
Ann: I just didn’t want leave our son bleeding all over the carpet.
206 Exercises

Richard: You know, that’s the problem with these kids? They expect you to do
everything for them
Ann: That’s natural, they are just children.
Richard: I work like a dog all day at a job I hate…
Ann: Yes, you do work very hard, dear.
Richard: And I can’t even have a good dinner home!
Ann: I can cook something else, it won’t take too long.
Richard: A waste of an expensive steak!
Ann: Well maybe if you could have stood up out of your chair for a minute while
I was busy, it wouldn’t have gotten burned!
Richard: You didn’t say anything! How was I supposed to know?
Ann: As if you couldn’t hear Johnny crying? You always ignore the kids!
Richard: I do not. I just need time to sit and relax and unwind after working all
day! You don’t know what it’s like…
Ann: Sure, as if taking care of the house and kids isn’t work!

Story B
The second fictional argument is happening between David and Kathy, a
young couple.

David: Kathy, why are you late again? I am sick of it, you are always late!
Kathy: I’m sorry, I just did not hear my alarm ringing. Please don’t be mad at me.
David: Well, you have absolutely no respect for my time. I’ve no idea why I still
put up with you!
Kathy: But you are not perfect yourself. Stop yelling at me otherwise you will
regret it!
David: OK, OK. Calm down. I didn’t mean to upset you.
Kathy: Well you never help me with my lateness so what do you expect?
David: OK, so from now on I will make sure you get out of the house on time.

After compiling the exercise, discus in the groups: who could be a missing
person in the given situations?

Conclusion
‘The only way to “escape” the drama triangle is to function as an “adult”
and not participate in the game.’ – John Goulet, MFT, Breaking the drama triangle
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 207

Each role of the drama triangle has its own outcomes. Rescuers take care
of Victims and feel good about it. Victims are usually convinced that they are
powerless or defective and needing rescue. This way have someone to blame for
their failures and to solve their problems for them. In of these circumstances,
Persecutors get a feeling of being more powerful and ‘higher’ than both victim
and rescuer.
The biggest cost of this ‘role-play’ is to keep going a dysfunctional social
dynamic and to miss out on the possibilities of healthy and strong relationships.
In fact, if every participant of the drama triangle starts making decisions
for themselves and taking responsibility for their own life, the triangle will no
longer ‘poison’ the interpersonal relationship.

Exercise B
Powerful Questions

Introduction
Most people think of coaching as giving advice and instructions. In reality,
coaching is an art of questioning. Good coaching questions are often complex
but powerful and there is more than one right answer. Powerful coaching
questions help a coachee to think and uncover what’s really important for them.
This exercise helps to learn the importance of asking the ‘right’ questions
in order to get a powerful answer.

Exercise
1. Divide into groups of 4–6 students.
2. Choose 1 person among your group, who will play a role of the “Client”.
The “Client” formulates and anounes his/her long-term goal for the nearest
future. For instance “I want to write and publish a novel”.
3. The rest of the group members perform a team coaching by asking the
“Client” one question at a time.
4. The Client gives one answer to each question.
5. There should be 2 or 3 rounds, so every coach has a chance to ask 2–3
questions.
6. After each question asked, every group member rates the quality question in
their evaluation sheet (see attachment 1), where 1 is the lowest (the weakest
question) and 10 is the highest (the strongest question).
7. Everyone should write the questions down in order to give a constructive
feedback when the exercise is done.
208 Exercises

The principles of powerful questions

1. Open-ended questions. Open-ended questions help to uncover the
real issue and show a variety of options without limitations. For
example: “What your novel will be about?”
2. Future-oriented. Focussing on the future often brings positive
emotions as let us dream.
3. Solution-oriented. Usually, there is no point to search for the cause
of a problem as it already exists. It is more effective to search for the
right solution to overcome the problem.
4. Timely asked. It is extremely important to ask the right questions
at the right time so they become powerful. Some questions require
more rapport from a coachee than others and should be asked at the
right moment to reach their target.
5. Lead to action. In order to make a change there should be an action.
Even a small action is already the first step towards the new direction.
Without action there is no point in coaching.
6. Direct. The powerful questions are easy to understand and simply
constructed.
7. Contain positive assumption. In powerful coaching questions, there is no
judgement, over-generalisation, pressure or any kind of presupposition,
especially negative.
8. No ‘why’ questions. Questions beginning with ‘why’ tend to be judging,
evoke details and justifications of the situation. Understanding the
situation in detail does not necessarily help to resolve it. It is much
more effective to look for solutions and focus on the future. Questions
starting with “What” are usually stronger.

Examples
Weak questions Powerful questions
What should you do? What do you want?
Whose fault is this? What is the solution?
Why is this happening to you? What can you learn from this?
 Setting the Goals by Means of Coaching 209

Attachment 1
The evaluation sheet
The client’s request (shortly formulated):

Question (Q) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Q1:
Coach 1

Q2:

Q3:

Q1:
Coach 2

Q2:

Q3:

Q1:
Coach 3

Q2:

Q3:

Q1:
Coach 4

Q2:

Q3:

Q1:
Coach 5

Q2:

Q3:
210

References

Bitner, T., Clark, M. Your Wheel of Life – Balanced or Bumpy? Available online:
https://www.icfaustin.org/Resources/Documents/Wheel%20of%20Life%20
Article%20for%20Coaches%20Week.pdf
Forrest, L. (2008). The Three Faces of Victim – An Overview of the Victim
Triangle. Available online: https://www.lynneforrest.com/articles/2008/06/
the-faces-of-victim/
Gallwey, W. Timothy (1997). The Inner Game of Tennis: The Classic Guide to the
Mental Side of Peak
Goule, J. Breaking the Drama Triangle (MFT). Available online: http://www.
johngouletmft.com/Breaking_The_Drama_Triangle_Newest.pdf
International Coach Federation (2009). ICF Global Coaching Client
Study: Executive Summary. Lexington, KY: Association Resource Centre,
PricewaterhouseCoopers
Life Coach Hub (2016). Is life coaching worth the time and money? Available
online: https://www.lifecoachhub.com/beginners-guide-to-life-coaching/
is-life-coaching-worth-the-time-and-money
O’Connor, J., Lages, A. (Paperback, 2004). Coaching With NLP: How To Be A
Master Coach
Soler, S. (2014). Coaching 101: Ask Powerful Questions. Available online:
https://medium.com/@StephanieLSoler/to-be-a-great-coach-ask-powerful-
questions-d6b18614fffb
Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for Performance: GROWing People, Performance
and Purpose
Wilber, K., Patten, T., Leonard, A. (Paperback, 2008). Integral Life Practice: A
21st-Century Blueprint for Physical Health, Emotional Balance, Mental Clarity,
and Spiritual Awakening
 EXERCISES
CHAPTER 5

MULTICULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's Individual Work
Exercises for Student's Group Work
 Multicultural Communication 215

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS

By Agnieszka Góra and Jacek Czaja

“Every human is like all other humans,

some other humans and no other human.”
– Clyde Kluckhohn

Introduction

Multicultural communication skills are crucial. As the world is becoming a

smaller and smaller place, differences that occur on both our professional and
personal paths are increasingly bigger and more noticeable. While working and
living across nations and cultures, the comprehension and awareness of the
intercultural competency is the survival issue. Very much needed to thrive. The
importance of cultural competency is becoming more recognized and materials
helping to develop such are required.
Here you will find methodology designed to assist you and help you
navigate the topic of multicultural communication. The exercises are designed
to help students develop their knowledge and skills to communicate cross-
culturally in a more effective way.

Need for multicultural communication skills

Multicultural communication can be defined in many ways, typically it is said

to be: a verbal or written interaction involving two or more participants who
have different cultural values and beliefs. In other words, it is an interaction
between individuals coming from significantly different backgrounds (the said
differences may regard: origin, gender, system of beliefs, social status and many
more).
Students and professionals should learn how to effectively communicate
in a multicultural context with an emphasis on globalization, professional
relevance. Until now, however, despite the universal need for everyone to
216 Exercises

be skilled in that topic, little or no teaching at educational institutions on

multicultural communication is offered.

Main goals and learning outcomes

The ultimate goal of teaching multicultural communication skills is for learner

to obtain Intercultural communication competency (ICC). The ICC is simply the
ability to navigate a communication process in order to minimize the [negative]
influence of culture on [the effectiveness of] communication.
In pursuance of mastering their intercultural communication competency
learners need to become aware, to transform their attitudes, develop their
flexibility and adaptability as well as transform knowledge into competence –
with a set of skills helpful in reaching full potential of intercultural interaction.

The ICC does not require simply learning about each and every culture
in the world. Moreover, it cannot be measured by the number of cultures one
learnt about. Simply put, when Leslie has studied 7 cultures, it does not mean
they are have higher cross cultural competency than Alex who has learnt 3.
The ICC is adequate when cultural differences between interacting
people do not hinder the outcome of the communication process. In other
words, when you understand and are understood to the same extend by people
of ‘your culture’ as you are understood by representatives of the ‘other culture’.
 Multicultural Communication 217

The main goals of the following materials are to help learners understand:
• basic concepts e.g.: communication, culture, biases, preferences as per
communication styles, multicultural influence on communication;
• factors playing important roles in the way one communicates;
• role of importance of effective communication;
• role of culture in communication.
In order for learners to be able to:
• observe and analyze their personal and other people communication
styles;
• recognize differences in communication;
• discuss differences in communication;
• overcome obstacles in communication;
• adjust communication style and methods to maximize communication
effectiveness.

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process

In following sections we offer 3 exercises for individual work and 3 exercises

for the group work. Exercises for use of individual students are marked with
numbers (Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3), whereas group exercises are
marked with letters (A, B and C). Below you will find short explanation how to
use those exercises.

Teacher DO’s
One important perspective in teaching multicultural communication
skills is to emphasize the importance of learner’s individual efforts put into an
intercultural conversation or other interaction – in other words, one needs to
take the burden of communication on their shoulders. With that perspective,
their self-knowledge (knowing and managing oneself in a multicultural
scenario) is crucial. As well as the ability to identify which communication
happens in a multicultural context – in order for learners to be able to entail
appropriate measures and use proper communication methods. Hence, there
are two main concepts: that should be taught and explained CULTURE and
COMMUNICATION.
218 Exercises

Teacher DON’Ts
However, it is extremely crucial to avoid some counter-productive
attitudes in teaching about multicultural communication such as:
1. be careful to not reinforce stereotypes,
2. do not equate:
• a country with a culture;
• a citizen of a country with an ideal representative of a particular
‘culture of a country ’;
• a person with a stereotype;
3. do not generalize and regionalize – as in an era of communication
geographical boundaries are becoming less solid.

Intercultural communication competency is not only about learning

about other cultures; it is about developing mindset and instruments universal
and applicable in multicultural scenarios.

Exercise 1
How many cultures?

This exercise explores what is culture, how students understand culture

and clarifies it’s visible and less visible elements. It is in a form of self-assessment
exercise which does not require any background knowledge on multicultural
communication.
The exercise is recommended to be done between 25–45 minutes.
For the purposes of this exercise use Exercise 1 worksheet. With the aim
of discussing the concept of culture – you may use the Culture as an iceberg
graphic included in Chapter 5 of this Book.
Note: This exercise is appropriate as an individual study material.
However, it may also serve as an introductory work in a group meeting, when
debrief may take on a form of a group discussion.

Observations and suggestions for discussions

1. Seeing the Culture as an iceberg graphic, which of the elements –
above or below the water – students listed to describe another culture
compared to which traits and qualities they indicated when referring
to their own culture?
2. Use group reflections to discuss:
• Who they chose to describe? Was it someone from a different
country, language, ethnicity?
 Multicultural Communication 219

• Culture as a concept. Culture does not equal nationality. The term

‘culture’ includes not only culture related to nationality, race,
ethnicity, but e.g. beliefs, experiences and ways of being in the
world shared by people with common characteristics – people
with disabilities, people who are members of faith and spiritual
communities, people of various socio-economic status etc.
Conclusion: there are more cultural differences ‘near you’ and
you interact cross-culturally more often than you could think.
• Assumptions. Be aware of the assumptions that you hold about
people of cultures different from your own.
• Stereotypes. Are you aware of your stereotypes as they arise?
• Ambiguity and assessment of the limits of one’s knowledge. Do
you recognize that your knowledge of certain cultural groups is
limited? How much are you committed to create opportunities to
learn more?

Exercise 2
What is your personal communication style?

This exercise explores communication styles and their importance in the

communication process.
As well as provides for self-assessment of individual preferences as to
communication styles.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.
There are multiple styles of communication. Some possible style-pairs
are listed below. It is important to note, that there are no two separate boxes for
each communication style pair. It is rather a spectrum – a continuum.
Ask your students to put a mark on a graph in each pair – as they feel they
communicate. E.g. Are they more indirect or direct? They can place the mark
wherever they feel, there is however no possibility to put a mark in the middle
(always one of the styles is prevailing over the other in the pair). Next (or – when
style names are too ambiguous to your students – before completing the graph),
present your students with definitions of each style as listed in the worksheet.

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• Understanding one’s own communication preference, while disco-
vering the preferences of others can be a very useful mechanism to
enhance the effectiveness of communication. Communication style
220 Exercises

influences HOW one speaks, not WHAT one says. Hence, differences
in communication styles can have an impact on whether the intent
of our message and the impact it has on the receiver of that message.
Differences in communication styles may in some cases hinder
communication and lead to misunderstandings.
• There is no one right or universal communication style, as each of them
have their strengths and possible challenges. Ask your students to
give some examples. Communication styles can be used as a profiling
and analysing tool in a multicultural communication situation.
• It is crucial to remember that, each of the above-mentioned pairs is
independent from other pairs. In other words ‘the left column’ does
not always go together as well ‘the right column’ does not always go
together either. Therefore, an individual always needs to stay alert to
the other person’s styles, rather than assume formal=indirect, etc.
• Communication styles are not separate boxes – rather a continuum, a
scale. While every individual uses multiple styles, they also move on
the spectrum (more towards right or left as per the graph presented
in the Worksheet) dependent on the person they communicate with
(e.g. in a conversation with a principal a student is more indirect,
whereas at home while conversing with their siblings they may be
more direct).
• Use of multiple styles is common, even though, individuals tend to
have personal preference, some kind of a default mode they lean
towards while under pressure.

Exercise 3
E-mail time

This exercise explores the impact of style and the need for adjustment of
communication tools used in each individual communication situation in order
to understand and be understood by the other person.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.
For the purposes of this exercise student must finish Exercise 2.Ask your
students to list on Worksheet 3 which of the styles in all of the indicated six
categories is their prevailing (automatically assumed) one. Next, ask them to
list the opposite styles. The task is to write an e-mail according to instruction
included in the Exercise 3 worksheet.
 Multicultural Communication 221

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• Ask your students how they felt to switch to a different style? Often
it is not automatic, unintuitive and even hard. Adapting to a different
style requires analysis and awareness of oneself and others.
• Discuss what the students learnt from this activity. Conscious
adjustments to style of the other person may help in better under-
standing one another.
• Ask your students what things they altered/adapted. Brainstorm
with the group possible other elements/tools in written and spoken
communication.

Exercise A
Tell me… What do you think?

This exercise explores the concept of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.

The purpose of this exercise is to develop an understanding of the influence
of both attitudes on the communication.
The exercise is recommended to be done between 20–35 minutes.
Read one of the two proposed scenarios to your group. Scenario I is a story
about child care standards, traditions. Whereas Scenario II regards freedom of
choice and religion as well as gender issues and this case may be appropriate
and interesting especially for a slightly older group of learners.
Ask your students to write their individual, personal opinion on the matter.
Next, divide them in groups of 3–4 and ask them to exchange their opinions and
reflections (read them out loud) and then to decide upon a GROUP response.
There are a couple of rules for the said group response:
• one group needs to prepare just ONE response that all group members
agree on or say they could not consent within their small group;
• the response should be written in full sentences, evaluation everyone
can agree upon ;
• the group response cannot be a copy of any individual member response.

Observations and suggestions for discussions

Introduce the concepts of:
• Ethnocentrism – is the tendency to look at the world primarily from
the perspective of one’s own culture;
222 Exercises

• Cultural relativism – is the principle of regarding and valuing the

practices of a culture from the point of view of that culture and to
avoid making hasty judgments;
• Xenocentrism – is the opposite of ethnocentrism, and refers to the
belief that another culture is superior to one’s own.

The discussion on the above mentioned concepts may be expanded

further. Ask one half of your group to write an ethnocentric response to the
story and the other half to write a culturally relative response to the story. How
these two responses differ?
Discuss with the group what are risks and positives of each of these attitudes.

Exercise B
How I see you

This exercise explores communication styles in depth and their impact

on communication.
Exercise shows the phenomena of the Self-Reference Criterion or SRC
(Varner & Beamer, 2011). By SRC we see other cultures from our own perspective.
Our own values, priorities and behaviours seem accepted and familiar –
NATURAL. And they serve as a reference point. For example, if someone comes
from a very formal culture, that approach is normal and desirable. They will
judge other people if they are more formal or less formal than them.
Such a perspective, to no surprise is very subjective. A good example may
be when in a group (the more diverse group, the more differences in opinion
will most likely occur) one behaviour is deemed very formal by some of group
members and may be deemed informal by the others. In a communication
process, it is crucial how the interacting parties are capable to adjust
communication tools to the styles they use, in an effort to understand and be
understood, rather than some general classification.
The exercise is recommended to be done between 15–30 minutes. Please
note, that Exercise 2 needs to be completed BEFORE the group work with
Exercise B.
For the purposes of this exercise you will need to have one volunteer (or
choose one participant to assume that role). Kindly, be mindful, that it needs to
be someone who would feel comfortable while sharing their continuum with
the group. Once, that one student is chosen, ask the other students to fill in the
worksheet for the volunteer (how they see her/him in each category).
 Multicultural Communication 223

Discuss with the group (while staying cautions to not allow pointing
fingers or putting anyone on the spotlight – rather facilitate the discussion in a
non-accusatory direction):
• What is the chosen communication style of the volunteer as per their
continuum worksheet?
• Are the other students surprised of her/his responses?
• How different is the volunteer worksheet to how he/she was described
by the other students?

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• Use the above-mentioned discussion questions to show that
communication style of individuals is always subjective in nature.
How we may think we are is not how a person we communicate
with may see us, as they will use their own communication style as a
reference point. It is important to always stay conscious and adapt if
needed for the sake of the effectiveness of communication.
• Ask your students to reflect on the importance and impact of
differences in communication styles on individuals and on teams.
• Discuss how students – as communicators – can behave in order not
to harm the other person’s feelings (if they present a different style)
and what elements they should be alert to in order to be a considerate
and respectful in a communication process.

Exercise C
Cross-cultural sensitivity as a goal?

This exercise explores Milton J. Bennett model on cultural sensitivity – the

framework describes the different ways in which people can react to cultural
differences. The goal of this task is to show the link between knowledge of
cultures and the attitude.
Present and discuss with your students the model on cultural sensitivity
by Milton J. Bennett, for that purpose you can use information provided in the
Exercise C worksheet. Next, ask your students to write down three stories
describing their cross cultural interactions. One of the three stories should be a
positive memory, one a neutral one and the last one representing a bad memory.
Students are asked to mark which level of Bennett model is appropriate for
each of their stories. Ask your students to share stories according to good-
neutral-bad memories.
224 Exercises

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• No one is a master fully aware of other cultures.
• Where does knowledge of other cultures come from?
• How can we show cross-cultural sensitivity?
• What are three examples of desirable behaviours when we commu-
nicate in an intercultural context? On the contrary, what are three
examples of multicultural DON’Ts?
 Multicultural Communication 225

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Agnieszka Góra and Jacek Czaja

Please see below 3 exercises for individual work:

1. How many cultures?
2. What is your personal communication style?
3. E-mail time!

These individual exercises were designed for the purpose to help students
develop knowledge and skills to communicate cross-culturally in a more effective
way.

Exercise 1
How many cultures?

Worksheet

This exercise explores what is culture, how to understand culture and

clarifies it’s visible and less visible elements.

Exercise
I Please come up with up with and list five things that, to you represent
a culture of a person from a different culture than yours:
A. _____________________________________________________________________________________
B. _____________________________________________________________________________________
C. _____________________________________________________________________________________
D. _____________________________________________________________________________________
E. _____________________________________________________________________________________

II Now, please come up with and list five things that, to you, represent
your own culture.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
226 Exercises

3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________________________

III Next, come up with and list five more things that, to you, represent your
culture. However, no outsider should be able to easily learn about/
guess those.
1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________________________

IV Having completed the three elements of this exercise, please take a

look at the following graphic portraying culture as an iceberg.

Observations and evaluation

1. Which of the indicated elements – above or below the water – you chose to
describe another culture?
 Multicultural Communication 227

2. Which elements – visible or invisible – you indicated when referring to your

own culture? Are any of them assumptions or stereotypes?

3. Who did you choose to describe as a representative of a different culture?

Was it someone from a different country, language, ethnicity?

Key takeaway points

Remember, a culture:
• Can be defined as something accepted and familiar,
• Is learnt – not inborn;
• Describes the characteristics of particular group;
• Culture influences perceptions, interpretations, communication style,
behaviours, manners and much more.

Having seen the Culture as an iceberg graphic, it often times transpires that
we tend to go more in-depth when describing our own culture – as we know it
best. At the same time it is more difficult to touch the core of another cultures.
We are not born with any culture, we rather grow into many cultures and they
have profound influence on our behaviour and the way we communicate. Be
sure to try to understand the other culture to it’s core, just like you see your
own one, as deep understanding helps to have a more effective communication
process.
Don’t forget that:
• There are more cultures than nationalities
• The term ‘culture’ includes not only culture related to nationality,
race, ethnicity, but e.g. beliefs, experiences and ways of being in
the world shared by people with common characteristics – people
with disabilities, people who are members of faith and spiritual
communities, people of various socio-economic status etc.
• There are more cultural differences ‘near you’ and you interact cross-
culturally more often than you think!
228 Exercises

Beware of:
• The assumptions that you hold about people of cultures different
from your own. The same geos to stereotypes. Did you refer to any
stereotypes in describing the other culture? Are you aware of your
stereotypes as they arise?
• Ambiguity and assessment of the limits of our knowledge. Do you
recognize that your knowledge of certain cultural groups is limited?
How much are you committed to create opportunities to learn more?

V BONUS task!
Make an effort to get to know better someone representing a culture
different than yours. Choose to learn more about their culture. Pick three
elements from “under-water” culture iceberg which you would like to inquire
about and note down what you learnt.

1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2
What is your personal communication style?

This exercise explores communication styles and their importance in the

communication process. As well as provides for self-assessment of individual
preferences as to communication styles.

Exercise
There are multiple communication styles. Some possible style-pairs are
listed below. It is important to note, that there are no two separate boxes for
each communication style pair.
It is rather a spectrum – a continuum. Please, mark on the graph in each
of the six pairs as you feel is your communication style. There is one important
rule – no mark can be put in the middle!
 Multicultural Communication 229

Before filling in this graphs, you can take a look at the definitions of each
communication style:

DIRECT INDIRECT
A straightforward way of expressing Meaning is conveyed in a subtle way using
thoughts and feelings; non-verbal cues, parables and stories;
Directness is equated with honesty and High respect for other person’s emotions and
respect for the other person and their time; feelings;
Do not create ambiguity or uncertainty Indirectness is equated with politeness and
by avoiding discussion on the issue (even respect for the other person;
trivial ones) – state specifics; Do not put the other person on a spot by
Values time, so every communication is being blatantly direct. Citing a mistake or
simple and clear to be quick. voicing disapproval is deemed impolite, subtle
implication allows for ‘face-saving’.
230 Exercises

FORMAL INFORMAL
Status of each person is important and Communication is less limited by conventions,
acknowledged (age, topics, rituals), a person has more flexibility in what, to whom
Strict communication rules apply. They and under what circumstances they say (e.g.
regard i.a.: forms of address, ways to the use of first name is welcome);
address persons of different age and status, Indirectness supports the value of fairness and
topics that can and cannot be discussed; equity;
Formal communication supports the values Communication has few rules – find out what
of status and hierarchy; is allowable in that particular group and follow
Communication is highly ritualized. the conventions.
DETTACHED ATTACHED
Unemotional, calm, objective, impersonal Emotional, expressive way of speaking;
communication; Strong feelings are shown and vocalized;
Dispassionate statements are considered Issues are discussed with passion and
professional and equated with objectivism, commitment,
which is valued; Ideas, issues and a person are not separate;
Focus is on objective information/data; There is strong personal stake in the outcome –
Disagreement is with the idea, not the if one cares about the idea, they show it;
person – it is not seen as personal attack; Sharing ones values and feelings about the
Highly expressive communication is issue is highly valued.
inappropriate as it is deemed biased.
LOW-CONTEXT HIGH-CONTEXT
The communication context is not assumed The context of communication is assumed to
to be shared and known; be known;
Things and meanings are explained clearly It is unnecessary or event insulting to
and precisely. overexplain and state meaning precisely, as
meaning is understood from context.
TASK FOCUSED RELATIONSHIP FOCUSED
Accomplishing the goals is a priority; Group harmony, relations are priority;
Feelings of other people are secondary; The need to make everyone feel heard;
Little or no small-talk; Any concern for the task, does not hurt or
If there is disagreement or discontent with exploit someone, their feelings and well-being;
the work of other people, it is polite and Frequent appraisals to participants for their
expected to be discussed publicly. good work;
No individual criticism on a forum.
LINEAR CIRCULAR
Communication is like a straight line – Communication takes circular manner –
moving in a linear way toward the main ‘around the main point’;
point; It is not necessary to state main point clearly,
‘The point’ is stated as quick as possible; as verbal and non-verbal messages provides
Brief and explicit communication, for sufficient understanding;
Lengthy deviations from the main point are Elegant and flowing communication full of
considered time wasters. stories and anecdotes where stories make a
point;
Meaning is inferred from stories and parables;
Supports the values of relationships, history
and group meaning.
 Multicultural Communication 231

Observations and evaluation

There is no one right or universal communication style, as each of them
have their strengths and possible challenges. Please, think of examples when
extreme communication style can pose challenges in effective communication
and how can you overcome them?

Style: ____________________________________________________________________________
Challenge: ____________________________________________________________________________
Solution: ____________________________________________________________________________

Style: ____________________________________________________________________________
Challenge: ____________________________________________________________________________
Solution: ____________________________________________________________________________

Key takeaway points

• Communication style influences HOW one speaks, not WHAT one
says. Hence, differences in communication styles can have an impact
on whether the intent of our message and the impact it has on the
receiver of that message. Differences in communication styles may
in some cases hinder communication and lead to misunderstandings.
• Understanding your own communication preference, while disco-
vering the preferences of others can be a very useful mechanism
to enhance the effectiveness of communication. Communication
styles can be used as a profiling and analysing tool in a multicultural
communication situation.
• Use of multiple styles is common, even though, individuals tend to
have personal preference, some kind of a default mode they lean
towards while under pressure.
• It is crucial to remember that, each of the above-mentioned pairs is
independent from other pairs. In other words ‘the left column’ does
not always go together as well ‘the right column’ does not always go
together either. Therefore, an individual always needs to stay alert to
the other person’s styles, rather than assume formal=indirect, etc.
• Communication styles are not separate boxes- rather a continuum, a
scale. While every individual uses multiple styles, they also move on
the spectrum (more towards right or left as per the graph presented
in the Worksheet) dependent on the person they communicate with
232 Exercises

(e.g. in a conversation with a principal a student is more indirect,

whereas at home while conversing with their siblings they may be
more direct).

Exercise 3
E-mail time!

This exercise explores the impact of style and the need for adjustment of
communication tools used in each individual communication situation in order
to understand and be understood by the other person.

Exercise
For the purposes of this exercise use your completed Exercise 2. Also, feel
free to refer to Communication Styles definition list.

Using the Exercise 2 graph, in each of the six categories, please highlight
your own prevailing (automatically assumed) style in each of the six categories:

1. Direct Indirect
2. Formal Informal
3. Detached Attached
4. Low context High context
5. Task focused Relationship focused
6. Linear Circular

Now, list the opposite styles:

A. _____________________ B. _____________________

C. _____________________ D. _____________________

E. _____________________ F. _____________________

Your task
Imagine you are a representative of a team working with a group of
internationals and your task is to write an email to Jesse – the representative
of the other group with an invitation to a work meeting at your headquarters.
 Multicultural Communication 233

Important fact is that Jesse represents completely opposite styles to you

(as A–F listed above). Note at least three elements in your email that you
intentionally changed – compared to when you would draft an email to someone
like you.

Three adjustments:

1. _____________________________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________________________

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• How did it felt to switch to a different style? Often it is not automatic,
unintuitive and even hard. Adapting to a different style requires
analysis and awareness of oneself and others.
• What did you learn from this activity? Conscious adjustments to style
of the other person may help in better understanding one another.
• Which elements did you change? Consider the elements that you
altered/adapted. Brainstorm other elements/tools in written and
spoken communication which may need adjustments when interacting
with a person who has a different style compared to yours.
234 Exercises

EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS’

GROUP WORK
By Agnieszka Góra and Jacek Czaja

Please see below 3 exercises for group work:

A. Tell me… what do you think?
B. How I see you
C. Cross-cultural sensitivity as a goal?

These group exercises were developed for the purpose to help students
develop knowledge and skills to communicate cross-culturally in a more
effective way.

Exercise A
Tell me… what do you think?

This exercise explores the concept of ethnocentrism and cultural

relativism. The purpose of this exercise is to develop an understanding of the
influence of both attitudes on the communication.

Exercise
Below you will find two scenarios. Both of them describe situations with
culture-based elements. The whole group should pick just one for your further
work. Each group member is asked to read it.

Scenario I
In your country, there is a pending proceeding to deprive the mother of
parental rights arose from following circumstances. Monika is a single mum
who moved to your country quite recently from X (X is a name of the country).
One day Monika came back home after work at 22.30 and sit to dinner with
her 12-year-old beloved Sara. Only 30 mins after finishing the dinner Sara’s
stomach started to ache. Since it did not stop after a painkiller, Monika rushed to
a hospital and described the situation to doctors. As it turned out, there was no
reason to worry. At least this time. The doctors, however, got very upset about
the fact that Sara was alone at home for two hours before Monika’s arrival, did
 Multicultural Communication 235

not sleep till 23.00 and, last by not least, that food prepared by Monika was not
appropriate for kids her age at all!
Monika was shocked! Sara has stayed alone at home since she was 10, as
did Monika, all her colleagues, family and friends from X. Moreover, the meal
which she prepared for Sara was Monika’s favourite when she was her age. Of
course it is quite heavy and definitely not healthy – but it is what everyone eats
from time to time…. Isn’t it?

Scenario II
Tom is 17 years old citizen of your country, of Z’s origin. His parents
are very conservative and religious. According to both: their parents’ religion
and traditions of Z, gender is not fluid and there is no such thing as changing
the sex. ‘You are who you were born as – biologically of course!’ – they say. As
indicated in a custom, every kid in Z upon birth gets a tattoos depending on the
gender (sun – a boy and moon – a girl). Tom was born as Ola, and this is how his
parents address him. As Tom identifies as a boy and indicates that he will fully
transition the day he is an adult (in 6 months according to your country’s law),
he wants to have his tat changed. Parents do not consent and no tat’s artist
agrees to do it without the parents’ consent.

Your task
1. Each group member has 5–10 minutes to write their individual, personal
response and opinion on the matter. Your statement has to be written in full
sentences. Please, note it down and keep it for next steps of this exercise.

2. Next, divide in groups of 3–4 and exchange your opinions (read out loud
your individual responses as written above). The group task is to decide upon a
GROUP RESPONSE. There are a couple of rules you need to follow while coming
up with the said response:
• one group needs to prepare just ONE response that all group members
agree on or say they could not consent on the matter;
• the response should be written in full sentences and carefully examined
by all group members to ensure they all agree with the response fully;
• the group response cannot be a copy of any individual member response.
236 Exercises

3. One representative of each group reads out the statement mutually agreed
by their groups. Follow with group discussion.

Observations and suggestions for discussions

The goal of this task is to introduce the concepts of
• Ethnocentrism – which is the tendency to look at the world primarily
from the perspective of one’s own culture;
• Cultural relativism – which is the principle of regarding and valuing
the practices of a culture from the point of view of that culture and to
avoid making hasty judgments;
• Xenocentrism – which is the opposite of ethnocentrism, and refers to
the belief that another culture is superior to one’s own.

4. Now, half of your group will have the task to write an ethnocentric response to
the scenario you chose and the other half to write a culturally relative response
to the same story. How these two responses differ?

5. Having learnt about those concepts, please brainstorm:

Which of the individual as well as group responses could be defined as
ethnocentric? And WHY?

Which of the individual as well as group responses could be defined as

culturally relative? And WHY?
 Multicultural Communication 237

6. Discuss with the group what are the risks and positives of each of the two
attitudes.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM ETHNOCENTRISM

Exercise B
How I see you

This exercise explores communication styles in depth and their importance

in the communication process as well as how communication styles are perceived
and what is their impact on communication.
Exercise 2 needs to be completed BEFORE the group work with Exercise B.

Exercise
1. Ask one of the group members to volunteer to share their continuum
with the group. Remember, a volunteer should be a person who will feel
comfortable with sharing their continuum graph with the group. When
one of the group members volunteered ask them to keep their graph to
themselves.
2. The group task is for everyone fill in the communication styles worksheet
for the volunteer – how each of the group members sees the volunteer in
each of the six indicated communication style pairs? (For that purpose, you
can use again the worksheet as provided on the next page). Remember, do
not confer with one another yet!
3. Only after everyone has filled in their Communication style of the Volunteer
worksheet (see below), ask the volunteer to show the group her/his
personal communication styles graph and next explore:
• What is the chosen communication style of the volunteer as per
their continuum worksheet?
• Are the other students surprised of her/his responses?
238 Exercises

• How different is the volunteer worksheet to how he/she was

described by the other students?

4. Ask the group members to indicate WHY – which particular behaviour of

the volunteer made them assign the volunteer to particular styles.

Remember, be kind and respectful! The purpose of this exercise is not to be

judgmental, rather to learn and better understand oneself and how we perceive
the world around us!

Communication style of the volunteer

WORKSHEET

Observations and suggestions for discussions

• Do you agree that communication style of individuals is always
subjective in nature? How we may think we are is not how a person we
 Multicultural Communication 239

communicate with may see us, as they will use their own communication
style as a reference point. It is important to always stay conscious and
adapt, if needed, for the sake of the effectiveness of communication.
• Communication style influences HOW one speaks, not WHAT one
says. Hence, differences in communication styles can have an impact
on whether the intent of our message and the impact it has on the
receiver of that message. Differences in communication styles may
in some cases hinder communication and lead to misunderstandings.
• There is no one right or universal communication style – as each of
them have their strengths and possible challenges. True or false?
• Reflect on the importance and impact of differences in communication
styles on individuals and on teams.

Exercise C
Cross-cultural sensitivity as a goal?

This exercise explores Milton J. Bennett model on cultural sensitivity. The

framework describes the different ways in which people can react to cultural
differences. The goal of this task is to show the link between knowledge of
cultures and the attitude.

Exercise
1. Present and discuss with the group the model on cultural sensitivity
by Milton J. Bennett briefly described below.Where there is culture (or
rather- cultures!) there are cultural differences. The developmental model
of intercultural sensitivity (the DMIS) identifies the underlying cognitive
orientations individuals use to understand cultural difference. Below you will
see the simplified DMIS model by Milton J. Bennett.
240 Exercises

The first three stages are ethnocentric as one’s own culture is central to
the perception of reality. Moving up the scale, an individual/group develops
a more and more culturally relative point of view. The experience shifts to
experiencing one’s own culture as in the context of other cultures.
The stages provide a good framework for outlining a possible way to work
with and improve the capacity for intercultural sensitivity and collaboration.
Both leading to development of the Intercultural Communication Competency.

STAGE CHARACTERISTICS SKILLS NEEDED?

No recognition of cultural Recognize – choose to see
DENIAL
differences. differences!
Recognition of some cultural Tolerate – Become more
differences, but negative tolerant of differences and see
DEFENSE
perception of those basic similarities among people
of different cultures!
Attempt to avoid stereotypes and Learn more about our own
even appreciate differences in culture and avoid projecting
language and culture, but own that culture onto other people’s
MINIMIZATION
values are deemed universal and experience.
superior (unaware projection of
own cultural values)
Able to shift perspective, while still Shift perspectives to understand
maintaining one’s that the same ordinary
ACCEPTANCE
commitments to values behaviour may have different
meaning in different cultures.
Ability to evaluate other’s Learn how to step into the
behaviour from one’s individual other person’s shoes – Cognitive
frame of reference and adapt adaptation and behavioural
ADAPTATION
behaviour to fit the norms of adaptation. Be non-judgmental
different culture. and behave appropriately in
other culture.
Ability to shift frame of reference Become adept at evaluating
INTEGRATION and also deal with (resulting any from multiple frames of
identity issues) reference.
 Multicultural Communication 241

2. Next, each group member is asked to write down three stories describing
their cross cultural interactions. One of the three stories should be a positive
memory, one a neutral one and the last one representing a bad memory. Also,
please mark which level of Bennett model is appropriate for each of your stories.

DMIS
STORY
Level
Positive
memory

Neutral
memory

Bad
memory

3. When completed make a poll within the group:

• which of the Bennett levels was most often quoted?
• which of the DMIS levels was the source of majority of bad memories?

4. Share the group stories according to good-neutral-bad memories.

Key takeaway points

• No one is a master fully aware of other cultures!
• RESPECTFUL CURIOSITY as an attitude in an intercultural context –
give it a try!
• Be kind and expect kindness.
242 Exercises

Points for discussion

• Where does knowledge of other cultures come from?
• How can we show cross-cultural sensitivity?
• What are three examples of desirable behaviours when we
communicate in an intercultural context? On the contrary, what are
three examples of multicultural DON’Ts?

Multicultural DOs Multicultural DON’Ts

 Multicultural Communication 243

References

Bednarz, F. (2010). Building Up Intercultural Competences: Challenges and

Learning Processes, in Building Intercultural Competencies: A Handbook for
Professionals in Education, Social Work, and Health Care, eds. Maria Giovanna
Onorati and Furio Bednarz, Acco
Bennett, M. J. (2004). Becoming interculturally competent. In J. S. Wurzel (Ed.)
Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education. Newton, MA:
Intercultural Resource Corporation
Dossou, K. M., Klein, G. B. (2016). Radar Guidelines. Understanding hate-
oriented communication and tools for anti-hate communication strategies in an
intercultural Dimension. Key & Key Communications
Hyun, J., Lee, A. S. (2014). Flex: The New Playbook for Managing Across
Differences, HarperCollinsPublishers
Kim, H., Williams, C. P. (2021). Discovering Intercultural Communication. From
Lan,guage Users to Language Use. Springer Link
Lewis, R. (2018). When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures, 4th edition.
N. Brealey Publishingl
McKinney, K., Beck, F. D.,Heyl, B. S. (2001). Sociology Through Active Learning:
Student Exercises. Pine Forge Press
Meyer, E. (2016). The Culture Map: Decoding How People Think, Lead, and Get
Things Done Across Cultures. U.S.: PublicAffairs
Varner, I. I., Beamer, L. (2011). Intercultural Communication in the Global
Workplace. McGraw-Hill Higher Education
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 6

CONFLICT
DIAGNOSIS
AND
MANAGEMENT
Methodology for Teachers
Exercises for Student's
Individual Work
Exercises for Student's
Group Work
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 247

CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS
METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl

Introduction

Conflict diagnosis is an important topic for everyone. Whenever people meet

(may it be at the workplace, at university, within families, with friends, etc.)
there is the possibility of disputes to arise.
It is an asset to be able to analyze these conflicts in order to subsequently
deescalate and solve them. Especially people working in leading or counseling
positions (e.g. employees of human resources departments, social workers,
lawyers) find themselves often confronted with different conflict situations. In
order to react adequately and/or give good advice it is necessary to understand
the dynamics behind the problem. Otherwise the dispute may not be solved at
all, personal or business relationships may be damaged and/or the parties may
find themselves unsatisfied with the outcome. Diagnosing conflicts is therefore
a great support in making smart decisions when solving disputes.

Need for the conflict diagnosis skills

A European-wide survey among 340 students with different study backgrounds

shows the importance of the topic. More than half of the students (54%)
answered that they do not think that their university pays sufficient attention
to the development of soft skills of the students. The soft skill “conflict
management” was chosen by 13% of the students as a skill they would like to
develop. This seems comprehensible, since unsolved conflicts in organizations
lead, inter alia, to a loss of productivity and higher sickness rates, which
ultimately results in high conflict costs and therefore people with the skill to
diagnose and manage conflicts are very popular and in demand on the labor
market.
248 Exercises

Main goals and learning outcomes

The main goal when teaching students conflict diagnosis is to enable them to
analyze conflict situations from various angels. They can identify the current
circumstances of the conflict, which type of conflict they are dealing with, what
level of escalation it has reached and which procedure of dispute resolution
would possibly be most appropriate to achieve a satisfying outcome for the
parties involved.

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process

In the following sections we offer 2 exercises for individual work and 2 exercises
for group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2). Exercises for group work are marked with letters (A
and B). Below you will find a short explanation how to use those exercises.

Exercise 1
The War of Roses

This exercise will help students to understand different levels of conflict

escalation according to the theory of Glasl.
This exercise is based on the movie “War of Roses” from 1989 and is an
(exaggerated) example of how a conflict might escalate. Suggest your students
to watch this movie.
In order to complete the exercise students must read about the different
levels of conflict escalation according to Glasl explained in Chapter 6 of this
book.
First, students are asked to put the different levels of conflict escalation
into the right order. In the second task students are asked to identify at which
level of escalation the conflict is in each of the given situations.

Correct answers for the task “Martial dispute”

The situations were given in the following order: Level 2, 5, 7, 9, 1, 3, 8,
6, 4.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 249

Suggestions for discussions

Effective conflict diagnosis includes:
• Identifying the circumstances of the case (what causes the conflict,
who is part of the conflict, how are their roles defined, what are the
relations between them, what are their interests and needs in solving
the dispute etc.);
• Identifying the type of conflict (inter- or intrapersonal, structural,
distributional etc.);
• Identifying the current stage of the conflict (level of escalation, are
the parties willing to cooperate etc.).

If conflicts are not diagnosed right (or not at all) before taking action
various problems might occur:
• The conflict might not be solved at all, because the real cause of the
dispute was not found;
• The false dispute resolution method or strategy might be chosen if
the level of conflict escalation is not diagnosed;
• One or more of the conflicting parties may be very unsatisfied with
the outcome of the chosen method/strategy, since their needs and
interests in solving the dispute were not identified right or not at all.

Exercise 2
Different ways to deal with conflicts

This exercise will help students to understand different conflict resolution

behaviours according to Schwarz.
In order to complete the exercise students must read about the different
conflict resolution behaviours according to Schwarz explained in Chapter 6 of
this book.
Students must read the dialogue examples and try to figure out what
conflict resolution behaviour should be used in each situation.
Correct answers of the exercise: 1. Escape, 2. Destruction, 3. Subor-
dination, 4. Delegation, 5. Compromise, 6. Consensus

Suggestions for discussions

You can initiate a discussion about common mistakes in conflict diagnosis.
Give students real life examples.
A common mistake that is made when conflicts within organizations
occur is the wrong analysis of the conflict cause, respectively conflict type.
250 Exercises

For example, when co-workers are having a dispute it might often seem like a
personal conflict between them, while the real cause of the problem lies within
the structure of the organization. It could be that the roles of the employees
are organized in a way that they inevitably constrain each other when fulfilling
their tasks. Trying to find a consensus on a personal level without working on
the structural problem will not work.
Another mistake would be to refer parties to the court, although the
level of escalation of their dispute would allow them still to find a solution
with the help of e.g. mediation. In practice, many people do not know about
the alternatives when (legal) problems arise and therefore immediately think
about court proceedings that should actually be ultima ratio.

Exercise A
Difficult divorce I – conflict analysis

Exercise B
Difficult divorce II – conflict analysis

Those are group exercises which require an advance reading for better
understanding. Students must read the Chapter 6 of this book. Please give an
introduction to the students about effective conflict diagnosis:
• Identifying the circumstances of the case;
• Identifying the type of conflict (inter- or intrapersonal, structural,
distributional etc.);
• Identifying the current stage of the conflict (level of escalation, are
the parties willing to cooperate etc.).

In the given situation students in groups by 2 will learn to paraphrase the

given situation and later they will analyze each given case.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 251

CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS EXERCISES

FOR STUDENTS’ INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl

Please see below 2 exercises for individual work:

1. The War of Roses;
2. Different ways to deal with conflicts

Exercise 1
The War of Roses

This exercise is based on the movie “War of Roses” from 1989 and is an
(exaggerated) example of how a conflict might escalate. We suggest to watch
this movie before completing the exercise.
In order to complete the exercise you must read about the different levels
of conflict escalation according to Glasl explained in Chapter 6 of this book.

Exercise
Please explore one more time the different levels of conflict escalation
according to Glasl.

1. Bring the different levels of conflict escalation into the right order.

Debate – Level __
Action not words – Level __
Threat strategies – Level __
Tension – Level __
Limited destruction – Level __
Loss of face – Level __
Coalitions – Level __
Together into the abyss – Level __
Disintegration – Level __
252 Exercises

2. Identify at which level of escalation the conflict is in each of the given

situations of the marital dispute.

Level __
The Roses buy a house, which Barbara chooses and Oliver pays for.
Over the next few years, Barbara decorates the house meticulously. Once
there is nothing left to decorate in the house, she decides to set up a catering
company. Oliver agrees but places an assistant at her disposal despite Barbara’s
repudiation. In the meantime, Oliver moved up the career ladder and is a top
lawyer. He promises to look through Barbara’s company contracts but instead,
he swats a fly with them. In turn, she seeks revenge by being noisy when he
makes important phone calls. In bed, she fights off his advances with martial
arts techniques.

Level __
A fight in front of the children and the housekeeper escalates and Oliver
spreads intimate details about his wife on the street. The lighting of the
Christmas tree flickers and the couple accuse each other of their respective
inability to look after technical issues. At night, an electrical short circuit sets
the Christmas tree on fire, the house and the family can be saved at the very last
minute.

Level __
Oliver tells Barbara about the accident with the cat. As a result, Barbara
locks him in the sauna. Just before he threatens to suffocate, she lets him out
but utters further threats.

Level __
In front of Barbara’s guests, the couple stages a battle. As Oliver refuses
to exit his vintage car, Barbara drives over his car and all its occupants. Oliver
enters the house armed with an iron bar. The situation escalates and turns
into a fight to the death. During the fight, Barbara falls over the handrail on the
second floor and lands on the chandelier. Oliver jumps on top of her and the
chandelier plummets. The housekeeper and the sent for lawyer find both of
them dead.

Level __
Three years after the birth of their youngest child, the Roses’ marriage
is plunged into a crisis. Oliver starts a promising career as lawyer and spends
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 253

less time with his family. The married couple fights over trivialities such as the
placing of the Christmas star. A serious incident occurs during a dinner with
Oliver’s superiors where he stifles his wife’s halting story and continues to tell
the story instead of her. At night he apologises for his behaviour saying: “I hope
they didn’t notice what a jerk I am.”

Level __
Oliver collapses in the middle of a work meeting and is taken to hospital
in suspicion of a heart attack. Barbara does not visit him in hospital. When
his work colleague takes him home, Barbara demands a divorce. She ignores
the love letter Oliver wrote in his hospital bed and says: “I couldn’t read your
handwriting.” Oliver moves out.

Level __
Oliver saws off the heels of Barbara’s much-loved high heels. Barbara
visits Oliver’s lawyer and wants to take advantage of his weakness for attractive
women. He declines her offers and says: “If you want this to end, all of us have
to sit down and compromise.” Oliver shows up drunk at a reception Barbara
organised for her clients and causes a scandal by his obscene entrance.
Consequently, Barbara drives her Jeep against her husband’s vintage car.

Level __
Barbara and Oliver divide the house into differently coloured zones, which
may not be entered be the opposite party. Oliver’s lawyer issues the following
warning: “There are other houses, too, and other women. Nobody will win this
case; it is only about HOW MUCH you will lose.” Oliver disagrees: “I have more
square metres.” After a fight he hits Barbara’s cat by accident.

Level __
Barbara and Oliver meet at Barbara’s lawyer’s office, Oliver’s former
partner, who quotes from Oliver’s love letter: “Everything I have I owe to you”,
a statement he wants to use to prove that Barbara is entitled to the house.
Oliver feels betrayed and announces an unconditional fight over the house. The
lawyer calms Barbara down: “My dear, once all this is over, this will be one of
your happiest days.” Oliver discusses counter-strategies with his own lawyer
and moves back into the embattled house.

You can find the correct answers in the previous chapter.

254 Exercises

3. Think about 1–2 aspects you have learned from this exercise.
Different levels of conflict by Glasl

Exercise 2
Different ways to deal with conflicts

This exercise will help you to understand the different conflict resolution
behaviours according to Schwarz.
In order to complete the exercise you must read about the different
conflict resolution behaviours explained in Chapter 6 of this book.

Exercise
Read through the examples and try to figure out what conflict resolution
behaviour is shown (according to Schwarz: delegation, escape, consensus,
destruction, compromise, subordination).
In all examples, A and B live together in a shared apartment.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 255

Example 1
A: “You never put your dishes away! I can’t cook anymore because the whole
sink is full! Whenever I come home from my night shift, I have to clean up the
kitchen first!”
B: “That’s not true, I always put my dishes away!” – and goes into his room.

Example 2
A: “I am the main tenant and I want you to move out. It just can’t go on like this!”
B: bursts into tears and packs his bags.

Example 3
A: “It just can’t go on like this! You never put your dishes away! If that doesn’t
change immediately, you’ll move out tomorrow! You know that I am the main
tenant here!”
B: “You’re so mean, but then I’ll just do it ...”

Example 4
A + B: argue again about the dishes that have not been cleared away, the dispute
escalates, landlady C is called in.
C: “The kitchen always needs to be tidied up! I don’t want to see leftovers lying
around or bugs crawling around here! If you don’t pull yourself together, you’ll
both have to move out!”

Example 5
A: “How about if we agree that the sink is always free ...”
B: “... and I can leave the dishes on the sideboard. Fits!”
A: “Ok, all right!”

Example 6
B: “What if I cook for us every day and you clean up afterwards?”
A: “Yes, you cook so well, that’s a good idea! Let’s try it!”

You can find the correct answers in the previous chapter.

256 Exercises

Specific actions to be taken to increase the ability to diagnose conflicts:

• Practice active listening (summarizing, paraphrasing and questioning);
• Learn about the different types of conflicts;
• Learn about the different dispute resolution methods (e.g. mediation,
arbitration, conciliation, court proceedings);
• Learn about the different models to analyze conflicts (e.g. Glasl,
Schwarz);
• Study real case examples;
• Practice with mock cases.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 257

CONFLICT DIAGNOSIS EXERCISES

FOR STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Karin Sonnleitner and Verena Gschweitl

Please see below 2 exercises for group work:

A. Difficult divorce I – conflict analysis
B. Difficult divorce II – conflict analysis

Exercise A
Difficult divorce I – conflict analysis

First, please paraphrase the following statement in pairs. It is an excerpt

from a husband’s account of his divorce. Afterwards, discuss together in a group
of 4–6 people what you think the circumstances of the conflict are, the topics to
work on, the type of conflict, the level of escalation of the conflict. Furthermore,
think about what might be the needs of the husband in this situation and what
could be the needs of his (ex-)wife. What needs and interests might be the
same? What needs and interests are different, maybe even opposing?
“... I don’t understand why everything was so downplayed by the youth
welfare office later. “That could happen sometimes.” Strangely, my wife could
afford to make some mistakes, she didn’t keep appointments at the youth
welfare office or they believed her lies without checking. As a result, I have not
seen our children for over four years, except in court. I have a suspicion that I
want to be careful about. I have always tried to treat the children and my wife
properly. Therefore I cannot understand that according to the youth welfare
office, the well-being of my children is guaranteed if I have not been in contact
with them for more than four years. From the start, people were using time
against me to alienate the children.”
258 Exercises

Exercise B
Difficult divorce II – conflict analysis

First, please paraphrase the following statement in pairs. It is an excerpt

from a husband’s account of his divorce. Afterwards, discuss together in a group
of 4–6 people what you think the circumstances of the conflict are, the topics to
work on, the type of conflict, the level of escalation of the conflict. Furthermore,
think about what might be the needs of the husband in this situation and what
could be the needs of his (ex-)wife. What needs and interests might be the
same? What needs and interests are different, maybe even opposing?
“... I had always behaved correctly towards my wife in the year of the
separation and tried to talk about it again in a proper conversation without
arguing with her. She just said that I hadn’t done anything wrong. She even said
that it’s not me. However, she couldn’t tell me exactly what led her to this step
(separation). At first she wanted to try again. But then she was manipulated by
Mr. X (my rival) again. He was obsessed with destroying our marriage and acted
out of selfishness. Every means was right for him“.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 259

References

Beatty C. A., Barker Scott, B. A. (2004). Building Smart Teams: A Roadmap to

High Performance. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications
Chavez Rudolph, M. (2006). Conflict Related Roles. The CNCR Swap Meet
Sourcebook: 35 Exercises for Teaching Conflict Management, Ed. Lin Inlow,
pp. 138–143. http://law.gsu.edu/cncr/images/higher_ed/swap_meet/CNCR_
Swap_Meet_Sourcebook2.pdf
Coleman, P. T. (2018). Conflict Intelligence and Systemic Wisdom: Meta-
Competences for Engaging Conflict in a Complex, Dynamic World. Negotiation
Journal, 1, pp. 7–35
Conerly, K., Tripathi, A. (2004). What is your conflict style? Understanding
and dealing with your conflict style. The Journal for Quality and Participation,
Summer, pp. 16–20
Corvete, B. B. (2007). Conflict Management, A Practical Guide to Developing
Negotiation Strategies. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 57–59
Fisher, R., Ury, W., Patton, B., Boutsikaris, D. (2011). Getting to yes: negotiating
agreement without giving in. New York: Simon & Schuster
Glasl, F. (2013). Konfliktmanagement: ein Handbuch für Führungskräfte, Berater-
Innen und Berater, 11th ed. Bern–Haupt–Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistesleben
Glasl, F., Weeks, D. (2008). Die Kernkompetenzen für Mediation und
Konfliktmanagement. Ein Praxisbuch mit Fallbeispielen auf DVD. Stuttgart:
Concordia Verlag
Hagen, J., Lenz, C. (2008). Wirtschaftsmediation. Theorie, Verfahren, Technik,
Praxis. Wien: Manz
Marjorie, A. (2013). Client Science: Advice for Lawyers on Initial Client
Interviews, available online: clientsciencecourse.com
Mayer, B. (2012). The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and
Intervention, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
McCorkle, S., Reese, M. J. (2018). Personal Conflict Management. New York and
London: Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group
Orme-Johnson, C., Cason-Snow, M. (2002). Basic Mediation Training: Trainers
Handbook. Mediation@MIT : http://www.campus-adr.org/cr_services_cntr/
mit_all.pdf
260 Exercises

Proksch S. (2016). Conflict Management. Vienna (Springer), 2 ff.

Pruitt, D. G., Sung, H. K. (2004). Social Conflict. Escalation, Stalemate, and
Settlement, 3rd ed. Boston et. al. McGraw-Hill Education
Rahim, M. H. Magner, N. R. (1995). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the
Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict: First-Order Factor Model and Its
Invariance across Groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), pp. 122–132
Runde, C., Flanagan, T. A. (2007). Becoming A Conflict Competent Leader:
How You and Your Organization Can Manage Conflict Effectively. San-Francisco:
Jossey-Bass
Runde, C., Flanagan, T. A. (2010). Developing Your Conflict Competence:
A Hands-on Guide for Leaders, Managers, Facilitators, and Teams. Center for
Creative Leadership. San-Francisco: JosseyBass
Schwarz, G. (2014). Konfliktmanagement. Konflikte erkennen, analysieren,
lösen, 9th ed. Wiesbaden: Springer
Solarte-Vásquez M. C. (b.d.). The Wider Context: An Introduction to Conflict
Management and Dispute Resolution, in: Mediation in Civil and Criminal Cases
to Foster European Wide Settlement of Disputes (E-Book). Available online:
https://mediation.turiba.lv/index.php?id=42
Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument Profile and Interpretive Report.
(2010). Kenneth W. Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann. CPP
Weeks, D. (1994). The Eight Essential Steps to Conflict Resolution: Preserving
Relationships at Work, at Home, and in the Community. New York: Penguin
Putnam
Wilmot, W. W., Hocker, J. L. (2011). Interpersonal Conflict, 8th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill
Yarn, D. H. (1999). Dictionary of Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
Publishers, p. 228
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 261

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHERS
By Daiva Račelytė and Agnė Tvaronavičienė

Introduction

It is evident that no society can exist without conflicts between individuals and
organizations. Conflicts are an inevitable part of social interaction and no one is
able to be free from it. However, conflicts not obligatory lead us to the negative
consequences. On the contrary, conflicts can educate, encourage to explore
the interests of the parties and strive to improve their relationships through
mutually satisfying outcomes whenever possible.
We offer a set of simple and easy to follow exercises designed to obtain
the basic knowledge and skills of conflict management. The main aim is to
show variety of ways how we can engage in constructive conflict management
and reach the positive outcomes of the conflicts. As well it focuses on teachers’
perspective and strives to disclose the teachers’ role in helping students to
develop their knowledge and skills in conflict management.

Need for conflict management skills

The development of conflict management skills is necessary for the future

professionals. As the other soft skills, conflict management helps students to
be ready for the successful social interaction in organizations. Moreover, such
skills will help them in their personal life, as conflicts lead us in all fields of
social interaction.
Destructive conflicts in professional and personal activities have negative
influence on people, worsens their emotional state of mind, causes tension
and stress. Conflict management is one of the most important skills, which
each individual should develop in order to create a positive basis for further
achievements. In organizations such a soft skill as conflict management is
always valuable. On contrary lack of conflict management skills often lead to
failures and difficulties in pursuing a professional career as conflicting people
are often avoided, eliminated, feel misunderstood, and not encouraged.
262 Exercises

Conflict management skills should be developed from the early childhood

in family, later improved in schools and universities. Naturally, every individual,
who is studying in university, already has personal approach towards conflict
situations and its own level of conflict intelligence. Thus contemporary labour
market requires more than self-education based knowledge and skills. Following
a generally recognized mission of universities to develop all covering education
it is obvious that students should have a guided access to the scientifically based
sources of conflict management.
Knowledge, attitudes and skills for managing conflicts may be developed
in different ways. These exercises are designed to guide teachers and to
facilitate the process of education. Still, it is really useful to adapt the suggested
tasks and exercises with the content of the topics connected to the subjects of
the students, which they are studying according to their syllabus. In this way,
conflict management skills may be developed together with a professional
knowledge in different fields (for example, particular aspects of conflicts are
always close to the subjects of legal studies, social work, communication,
political sciences and etc.).

Main goals and learning outcomes

The main goal of conflict management topic is to develop conflict intelligence.

According to Coleman (2018, 14), conflict intelligence is the set of competences
and skills used to manage different types of normative conflicts in diverse or
changing situations effectively and constructively.
The main learning outcomes may be connected with the acquiring of the
core competences of conflict intelligence (Coleman, 2018):
• Self-knowledge: Knowing and managing yourself in conflict. This includes
awareness of cognitive, motivational, moral and action orientations to
conflict situations that guide one’s conflict behaviours and responses.
• Constructive conflict resolution: understanding the constructive
and destructive potential of conflict and developing the knowledge,
attitudes and skills for constructive resolution.
• Conflict optimality: The capacity to navigate between different or
competing motives, and emotions, and combine different approaches
to conflict to achieve desired outcomes.
• Conflict adaptivity: the capacity to employ distinct strategies in
different types of conflict situations in a manner that achieves goals
and is fitting with demands of the situation.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 263

Guidelines for teachers –

how to use exercises in teaching process
In following sections we offer 5 exercises for individual work and 4 exercises
for the group work. Exercises for individual work are marked with numbers
(Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4 and Exercise 5). Exercises for
group work are marked with letters (A, B, C and D). Below you will find short
explanation how to use those exercises.
Attention! It should be taken into account that emotionally safe
environment and interpersonal trust is especially important for sharing
personal experiences in study group. For some students may be too painful
and difficult to disclose certain conflicts situations. Teachers should respect
different approaches and be not demanding and strict on the active involvement
of all students to this kind of discussions. As well such a task may be done in
written form and provided only for the teacher.

Exercise 1
Self-reflection and discussion on the personal experiences
of students in conflict situations

This exercise can help to enhance self-awareness of the students in the field
of conflict management. It does not require any specific background knowledge.
Students should be asked to answer provided questions individually. After
it is done, teacher could ask students to share their experience and insights
about their current conflict management skills.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes.

Exercise 2
Which conflict style the parties to the below described
conflict have chosen?

This exercise requires presenting some theoretical material before student

will be able to do it. Teachers should get acquainted well with materials presented
in introduction. Teacher is expected to explain how conflict style differences
cause or escalate interpersonal conflict and recognize their impact on conflict.
Teachers should present for the student situation and ask them to identify
the conflict management styles, which were used by the people in this situations.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.
264 Exercises

Exercise 3
Supervisor conflict-related roles quiz

This exercise requires presenting some theoretical material before

student will be able to do it. Teachers should get acquainted well with materials
presented below. Teacher is expected to explain the main supervisor conflict
related roles and their differences.
Teacher should provide students with stories and ask to choose the most
appropriate supervisor role(s) for each situation.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise 4
Using authority and creativity in conflict management

Teacher should briefly explain students about the meaning of authority

and creativity in conflict management.
Teacher should ask students to remember two situations. In first of them,
they should been using a creative solution to resolve a conflict. In second –
simply used any kind of power.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise 5
Self-score conflict management style test

Students should be asked to complete a test for self-scoring their conflict

management style.
The exercise can take up to 30 minutes.

Exercise A
My criticism log

Wilmott and Hocker (2011) suggested a great task for a group work,
helping to identify the main issues of social interaction, which drives individual
towards conflicts. This task consists of two parts: individual preparation and
small groups’ discussions.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 265

Firstly, students are asked to keep track of all their negative thoughts they
have about people in their world over a few days.
Secondly, students are invited to discuss with the group of 3–4 people
their main identity “themes” and how they predict with whom you will have
conflict or struggles.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes depending on the group size.

Exercise B
Hot buttons and constructive responses to conflict

This activity will help participants to be aware of some of their emotional

hot buttons, and to find more constructive ways to deal with conflict more
effectively.
Firstly, students are asked to write down and later present to the group
possible emotional hot buttons.
Secondly, in groups 4–7, every student shares identified emotional hot
buttons.
Thirdly, students discuss questions related to their personal reactions to
the hot buttons and possibilities to control it.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes depending on the group size.

Exercise C
Interview

This exercise may serve well for showing the importance of conflict
management skills during the job interview, and discussing conflict management
strategies used in organizational settings.
Students should be asked in small groups to develop a list of interview
questions that might be used for potential new hires.
In addition to designing appropriate interview questions, discuss what
other sources of information will provide clues as to how this person deals with
problem solving and teamwork?
Teacher may present some additional question for the further discussion.
Although the conflict management strategies usually are used as an individual-
level tool, we often see analogous behaviours within teams and even entire
organizations.
266 Exercises

• Which style best describes the unit in which you study? Why?
• Which style best describes your organization as a whole?
• How does your individual style fit in with those in your study
environment?

The exercise can take up to 60 minutes depending on the group size.

Exercise D
The doggie discontent

This activity will help students to identify conflict management styles

and conflict related roles.
The exercise consists of a story, written by McCorkle and Reese (2018,
p. 130).
Students should be asked to analyse this case and try to identify used
conflict management styles, discuss dynamics and efficiency of different
conflict management styles.
In addition, it is highly recommended to simulate the situation by asking
students to choose different roles and try to solve conflict in role play using
different ways. At the end a group discussion should be organized.
The exercise can take up to 60 minutes depending on the group size.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 267

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT EXERCISES

FOR STUDENTS’ INDIVIDUAL WORK
By Daiva Račelytė and Agnė Tvaronavičienė

Please see below 5 exercises for individual work:

1. Self-reflection and discussion on the personal experiences of students
in conflict situations
2. Which conflict style the parties to the below described conflict have
chosen?
3. Supervisor conflict-related roles quiz
4. Using authority and creativity in conflict management
5. Self-score conflict management style test

These exercises will help you to improve your conflict management skills.

Exercise 1
Self-reflection and discussion on the personal
experiences of students in conflict situations

Introduction
The first step in a process of developing personal conflict intelligence is
raising the self-knowledge. Student should be encouraged to analyse his or her
own approaches towards conflict situations and be guided in raising his or her
awareness of cognitive, motivational, moral and action orientations to conflict
situations that affects his or her conflict behaviour and responses. Moreover,
conflict intelligence requires adequate self-regulation in conflict, or the ability
to inhibit impulsive, automatic, or “hot” emotional responses to conflict. Such
kind of managed responses are possible to gain only knowing yourself and your
common natural reaction to the conflicts in advance.

Exercise
Student is invited for the reflection based on streaming to answer these
questions (based on Wilmott, Hocker, 2011):
1. Think – what is your usual response to conflicts?
268 Exercises

• Do you generally like to get everything out in the open, even if such an
effort creates tension and strong feelings?
• Or do you usually seek peace, harmony, and reduction of strong
emotions? How would you describe yourself?
2. What emotions are most common for you when you experience conflict?
• Think of three areas of conflict: family, romantic, and studies (or
work). In each area, list your most common emotions.
• If there doesn’t seem to be a set of common emotions, think of one
conflict as an example in each area. How did/do you feel? Be sure to
use words of feeling, not judgment or description.
• Think of the most disturbing conflict you have experienced in the past
half-year or so. What was your emotional response to this conflict?
3. Think about influences.
• List the 10 most important influences on your personal response to
conflict, in order of importance.
4. What influence, if any, does violence have on your conflict responses?
• You may answer this question in your own notebook, or with a small
group. What experiences have you had with violence, whether verbal,
physical, or sexual?
• Of course, you may keep your privacy in this discussion. The important
issue is to begin to think about the influence of violence on your life.
If you did not experience violence directly, what experiences that
others had have influenced you?

Exercise 2
Which conflict style the parties to the below described
conflict have chosen?

Introduction
Conflict styles are patterned responses, or clusters of behaviour, that
people use in conflict (Wilmot & Hocker, 2011). Style preferences develop over
person’s lifetime based on a cumulative blend of genetics, life experiences,
family background, and personal beliefs and values. Developing a repertoire of
diverse styles and tactics may require some stretching of one’s comfort zone.
However, having expanded choice of styles person can use will enhance his/her
chances for effective conflict management.
McCorkle and Reese (2018, p. 121) provided a really helpful example of
the five conflict styles in action. They presented a short story:
Julia and Layla are assigned as roommates their freshman year. From
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 269

different backgrounds, they have little in common. Soon their differences begin to
surface, and conflict is inevitable. Julia asks if she can borrow a scarf from Layla,
who agrees. Soon Julia is borrowing shirts, coats, and whatever else she wants
without asking.
After it McCorkle and Reese (2018) provided explanations of every style
and it’s specific:
• If Layla is an avoider, she will suffer silently, think bad thoughts about
Julia, and probably complain to friends. If Julia asks what is wrong,
Layla will say she has to go study in the library and leave the room.
• If Layla is an accommodator, she will say she doesn’t mind that Julia
borrows things. If Layla has a competitive style, she will confront Julia
and demand that all her clothes be washed and never borrowed again.
• If Layla uses a compromiser style, she will raise the issue of borrowing
clothes with Julia. Then some middle ground will be sought. For
example, the clothes can be borrowed if Julia asks every time in advance
and washes and irons the clothes when returning them.
• If Layla is a collaborator, she will ask Julia to sit down with her
to discuss the roommate situation. She will frame the issue in a
comprehensive way, asking what it means to be roommates and
discussing each of their expectations. At some point, borrowing
clothes will be discussed as part of the bigger picture.

Conflict style explains how different people can see the same thing in
opposite ways, and choose different ways of responding to conflict. Actually,
we can’t change somebody else’s basic style. Still, we can recognize it and
understand that person better. Styles can mesh together if we are aware of our
strengths and weaknesses. Relationships are stronger if people recognize style
differences, it brings when to mutual understanding quicker. Strong teams lean
into each other’s strengths and prop up each other’s weaknesses. The most
important thing, that with time and effort, new styles can be learned.
Which conflict style is most effective?
It is important to be familiar with the results of conflict style studies and
to know when these strategies are the most effective. General suggestions of
Thomas and Kilmann (2010), based on empirical study:
Accommodating is especially useful and effective:
• When person realizes that he/she is wrong – to allow a better
solution to be considered, to learn from others, and to show that one
is reasonable.
• When issue is much more important to other person – to satisfy the needs
of others and as goodwill gesture to maintain a cooperative relationship.
270 Exercises

• When person wants to build up social credits for later issues that are
important to him/her.
• When preserving harmony and avoiding disruption are especially
important.
• When person want to help others to develop by allowing them to
experiment and learn from their mistakes.
Competing is useful and effective:
• When quick, decisive action is vital.
• On important issues when unpopular courses of action need
implementing – for example, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline.
• On issues vital to person welfare and when he/she is sure in being right.
• When person needs to protect himself/herself from people who take
advantage on non-competitive behaviour.
Compromising is useful and effective:
• When goals are moderately important but not worth the effort or the
potential disruption in more assertive strategies.
• When two opponents with equal power are strongly committed to
mutually exclusive goals.
• When person wants to achieve a temporary settlement of a complex
issue.
• When person needs to arrive at an expedient solution under time
pressure.
• As a backup strategy when collaboration or competition fails.
Avoiding is useful and effective:
• When an issue is unimportant or when other, more important issues
are pressing.
• When person perceives no chance of satisfying his/her concerns-
when he/she has low power or he/she is frustrated by something
that would be very difficult to change.
• When the potential costs of confronting a conflict overweigh the
benefits of its resolution.
• When person needs to let people cool down – to reduce tensions to a
productive level and to regain perspective and composure.
• When gathering more information outweighs the advantages of an
immediate decision.
• When others can resolve the issue more effectively.
• When the issue seems tangential or symptomatic of another, more
basic issue.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 271

Collaborating is useful and effective:

• When person needs to find an integrative solution and the concerns
of both parties are too important to be compromised.
• When person’s objective is to learn and person wishes to test his/her
assumptions and understand others’ views.
• When person wants to merge insights from people with different
perspectives on a problem.
• When person wants to gain commitment by incorporating others’
concerns into a consensual decision.
• When person needs to work through hard feelings that have been
interfering with a interpersonal relationship.

Exercise
For getting acquainted with different conflicts styles it is advised to
discuss a specific case with several different models of behaviour.
Beatty and Barker Scott (2004) presented such case for conflict styles
studies:
It’s Friday afternoon at 3:15, and your team meeting was supposed to start
at 3:00. Everyone is present, except for Brenda, who is late again. The team has
agreed that being on time for meetings is an important norm. At 3:25 p.m., she
rushes in, apologizing for her tardiness and explaining that the computer ate her
document.

1. Student should answer, which of the following are members most likely to do?
• Ignore the problem and continue discussion.
• Acknowledge the problem but do nothing to correct the situation.
• Acknowledge the problem and attempt to solve it.
• Acknowledge the problem, solve it, and discuss and agree on a
procedure for dealing with similar problems in the future.

2. According to the answers it is easy to explain what style was selected by the
concrete individual. See explanation of this case below this task.
Beatty and Barker Scott (2004) suggest such description of well-known
conflict styles for the situation in Exercise 9 (see below):
• Avoiding. Members choose not to confront or be involved. In the
previous case, members would choose to ignore Brenda’s tardiness,
even though they are bothered by it.
• Accommodating. Members adapt or agree to satisfy the needs of others
above their own needs. Here, members might choose to sympathize
272 Exercises

with Brenda and not raise the issue. As a result, Brenda will probably
be late for the next meeting as well.
• Competing. Members choose to satisfy their own needs by asserting,
controlling, or resisting. Here, members would likely confront Brenda
by telling her in no uncertain terms that her tardiness is unacceptable
and dictate their expectations for the future: Be on time, or else.
• Collaborating. Members attempt to create mutually satisfying
solutions through win-win strategies. Here, members would likely
acknowledge the problem, explore the causes, and work with Brenda
to create a protocol that will meet the team’s needs and Brenda’s as
well.

Exercise 3
Supervisor conflict-related roles quiz

Introduction
One of possible ways to explore how people accept conflict is to consider
the roles that they most ready to take on during conflict. The roles that people
as individuals are ordinarily most comfortable with are related to their
professional or formal roles they may choose to assume as conflict interveners,
but these formal roles are not identical to the roles that conflict may demand of
them, which they usually assume formally. Although people play many de facto
roles in conflict, the following six are key roles in the structure of most conflicts
(Mayer, 2012):
• Advocate (negotiator): Arguing or pushing for a particular outcome
or set of needs.
• Decision maker (arbitrator): deciding among competing positions or
claims.
• Facilitator (mediator): helping others communicate and negotiate.
• Conciliator (empathizer): tuning into and addressing the emotional
elements of a conflict.
• Information provider (expert): providing information or opinions to
decision makers or negotiators.
• Observer (witness, audience): watching, reporting, and reacting to
others in conflict.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 273

Each role can be played in many different ways, and each can influence
conflict process, conflict escalation or de-escalation. Elements of several
roles are often present in how people participate in any given conflict. Often
disputants enter a conflict primarily in one role but then change roles,
sometimes repeatedly and rapidly. Conflict can easily escalate when people
present themselves as playing one role (for example, facilitator or information
provider) but actually take on a different role (decision maker), and such
misapprehension can be done consciously or can be mistakenly perceived by
role player. Maintaining clarity about the role person is playing and how it might
be altered as circumstances change is a significant challenge and everybody
face when participates in conflicts as disputants or interveners (Mayer, 2012).
Ability to be aware and choose appropriate role is one of important skills for
person who is competent in conflict management.

Table 1. Supervisor conflict – related roles

(based on Chavez Rudolph, 2006, pp. 140–141)
CONFLICT For what purpose is this role
How this role may be
RELATED (This is someone who…) intended?
defined?
ROLES (Intended Outcome)
Rule One who knows and A violation or potential violation To inform in an effort to
Enforcer informs others about is seen and a duty is felt to gain compliance with
applicable rules, policies, prevent or correct violations to applicable rules, policies,
procedures, laws, etc. the extent possible. procedures, laws, etc. and/
and gives people clear or to prevent or correct
expectations about how to violations. (Note: This may
comply with them. require the administration of
consequences.)
Mediator Neutral party who assists Chair/Manager does not have a To help others reach
others in the resolution vested interest in the outcome agreements to resolve their
of their conflicts by other than to see agreements disputes
providing a structured reached between conflicting The best decision will
process to help them parties. This could be chosen come from the disputing
reach agreements. because the Chair/Manager parties making the decision
wants the process by which themselves.
disputing parties interact to
be effective (i.e., manageable,
productive, respectful).
Arbitrator Decision-maker who Chair/Manager has delegated To make a decision to resolve
determines how a conflict decision making authority and/ a conflict
will be resolved or content area knowledge and
utilizes authority to resolve a
conflict, especially when time is
limited.
274 Exercises

Facilitator Chair/Manager helps A group needs assistance in To allow group members

groups identify issues identifying issues and making to have input and to help a
and make decisions by decisions but doesn’t need the group make decisions about
providing a process for kind of tightly controlled process how they will be resolved.
discussion. provided by mediation. Participation and buy-in are
important.
Negotiator Chair/Manager by helping Chair/Manager cares about To gain the cooperation of
all parties (including both the content and the others to resolve disputes in a
her/himself) to identify relationship(s) involved in the mutually satisfactory manner
interests and options dispute.
to achieve a “win-win”
outcome.
Coach Chair/Manager educates The Chair/Manager sees the To assist and advise a
or advises disputing need for a disputing party to be disputing party to negotiate
parties about options and more effective in negotiating more effectively when
strategies for negotiating with others or when the conflicts arise.
effectively. disputing party wants to be
more effective in negotiating
with others.
Referral Chair/Manager listens Chair/Manager does not have Assist the disputing party to
Agent to disputing party and expertise in the content area obtain the needed services
then with the disputing and/or additional information necessary to resolve the
party determines the is needed by the disputing party conflict or to obtain support
appropriate individual, to resolve his/her conflict. This while working through the
department, agency, etc. role may be especially called conflict.
most able to assist with for when a disputing party
his/her particular need. needs emotional support and a
counsellor is called for – which
in regards to conflict, in most
cases, is not an appropriate role
for Chair/Manager.
Investigator Chair/Director makes Chair/Manager or disputing Obtain additional information.
inquiries, conducts parties require additional (Note: Often times the Chair/
research, etc. in order information, or additional Manager will serve in an
to obtain additional information would be helpful, in investigator role and then
information necessary to order to resolve a conflict. move into one of the other
resolve a conflict. roles listed above.)

Shuttle Serves as a “go between” Parties in conflict do not wish To help others reach
diplomat in an attempt to resolve to occupy the same physical agreements to resolve their
conflicts between two space simultaneously or you disputes
parties. determine that for safety
reasons it is best for the two
parties not to occupy the same
physical space simultaneously.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 275

Exercise
Students should be provided with an 8 stories and asked to choose the
most appropriate supervisor role(s) for each situation. Every decision should
be explained and grounded. This task is based on materials published by Chavez
Rudolph (pp. 142–143)

Choices:
• Enforcer
• Mediator
• Arbitrator
• Facilitator
• Negotiator
• Coach
• Referral agent
• Investigator

Situations
1. Celina approaches you to say she and Mikolaj keep getting locked in
disputes over how to divide their workload. They want you to decide it for
them. You trust both of them and want them to decide this on their own. You
are willing to help them decide but you do not want to decide for them.
2. Emma and Lucas work in the same office. Emma came to see you and
said, “Lucas isn’t listening to me and, frankly, I’ve been offended several times
at how he has been talking to me. I stood right up to him but things between us
are still tense. I think we need someone to help us communicate better.” Lucas
was a close friend of yours for many years before you became his (and Emma’s)
supervisor. Although you have tried to keep some distance between you since
becoming his supervisor, everyone in your department – including Emma – is
aware of your long friendship with Lucas.
3. You supervise a department which includes Aivars and Roberts, and
seven others. Roberts came in to see you to say that Aivars just called him a
very offensive name. He also said three of your other supervisees were present
and heard him say it.
4. The staff of another department (not your own) is trying to determine
how to best spend 10 000 Euro before the June 30 deadline (or they will lose
the money). You have been approached by the Director of that department
(who cannot be at the meeting where it will be discussed due to her vacation)
and asked to help them decide. She says whatever the group decides is fine
with her but everyone has his or her own ideas about how to spend the money
276 Exercises

and, although she doesn’t want to lose the money, she is tired of hearing all the
lobbying for various purchases. She tells you privately that she is glad she won’t
be there.
5. You supervise both Lena and Daniela, who work side-by-side in
computer related jobs. Lena is shy and tells you privately that, although it
really irritates her, she has not yet told Daniela how much she dislikes Daniela
listening to the radio in the office. “It’s not that it’s too loud,” Lena said. “I just
can’t stand that elevator music she listens to. It puts me to sleep!” You do not
object to these employees listening to the radio at work.
6. According to one of your supervisees, Julia, Nora (another of your staff
members) gave confidential information about an upcoming organizational
change to a member of another department who had no need to know that
information. Nora was in the meeting where the change was discussed and
where you clearly stated that this information needed to remain confidential
until it was released by the Public Relations department. You decide to speak to
Nora and she admits to having given confidential information.
7. Emilija and Daan have come in to talk to you. They cannot seem to
agree about how to divide the work on an important project you assigned to
them. It looks to you like both of them are both being stubborn. Your boss is
expecting the results of this project by Friday. It is now Tuesday at 11:30 am.
You estimate that if they don’t start actually doing the work by this afternoon at
the latest, they cannot get the work done.
8. You and Jonas have been discussing the staff meeting schedule for the
next year. The most likely times for the meetings are early in the morning or
late in the afternoon. Jonas has a strong preference for afternoon meetings and
you have an equally strong one for morning meetings. Jonas has to take his kids
to day care in the morning and would probably be late for most of the meetings.
As his supervisor you could “pull rank” on him and simply set the meetings for
mornings but you would like Jonas to be at the meetings. Also, he is so valuable
to your operation, you don’t want him to feel disregarded or unappreciated.

Exercise 4
Using authority and creativity in conflict management

Introduction
There are two major variables conflict competent individuals can use to
distinguish among the types of conflict situations within their organizations:
the organizational relationship of the participants and the degree to which the
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 277

person is involved in the conflict. In addition, they can use two basic tools in
managing conflict: authority (direct power) and creativity.
The following guidelines should be helpful in deciding how to approach
conflict:
• In conflict involving peers, superiors, or both, individuals should
usually rely on creativity rather than on authority. Collaboration can
be efficient strategy in such kind of conflicts.
• In conflict involving subordinates only, individuals may rely more on
their own authority, use competing style, even though creativity and
collaborative problem solving may still be the best way to manage
conflict.

In conflict in which their level of authority is medium to low, individuals

should avoid a high level of involvement (if they have such possibility),
particularly if the situation involves their superiors.

Exercise
1. Student should think about a time when he or she used a creative solution to
resolve a conflict. He or she should briefly describe the conflict and his or her
solution.

2. The same should be done regarding a conflict when he or she simply used
power.

3. Student should compare outcomes of previous conflicts and identify his/her

own priorities (what is more acceptable for her/him, and in what cases). One
of important questions is how to combine creativity and different sources of
power in conflict management.

Exercise 5
Self-score conflict management style test

Student should think of two different contexts where they have conflicts or
disagreements with someone in study, work, or live (A and B). Then, according
to the following scale, he or she is requested to fill in his or hers scores for
situations and person A, and situations and person B. For each statement
student will have two scores.
278 Exercises

1 – never 2 – seldom 3 – sometimes 4 – often 5 – always

Person A/Person B
1. ___/___ I avoid open discussion of my differences with the other.
2. ___/___ I use my authority to make decision in my favour.
3. ___/___ I try to find middle course to resolve impasse.
4. ___/___ I accommodate the other’s wishes.
5. ___/___ I try to integrate my ideas with the other’s to come up with a
decision jointly.
6. ___/___ I try to stay away from disagreement with the other.
7. ___/___ I use my influence to get my ideas accepted.
8. ___/___ I propose a middle ground for breaking deadlocks.
9. ___/___ I give in to the other’s wishes.
10. ___/___ I try to work with the other to find solutions that satisfy both our
expectations.
11. ___/___ I try to keep my disagreement to myself in order to avoid hard
feelings.
12. ___/___ I generally pursue my side of an issue.
13. ___/___ I negotiate with the other to reach a compromise.
14. ___/___ I generally try to satisfy the other’s needs.
15. ___/___ I try to investigate an issue to find a solution acceptable to us.
16. ___/___ I try to avoid unpleasant exchanges with the other.
17. ___/___ I use my power to win.
18. ___/___ I use “give and take” so that a compromise can be made.
19. ___/___ I try to satisfy the other’s expectations.
20. ___/___ I try to bring all our concerns out in the open so that the issues can
be resolved.

Scoring: Student should transfer their scores on the following statements

to the appropriate cell in the table below. Then add the columns: to obtain a
total for each category.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 279

A/B A/B A/B A/B A/B

1. / 2. / 3. / 4. / 5. /
6. / 7. / 8. / 9. / 10. /
11. / 12. / 13. / 14. / 15. /
16. / 17. / 18. / 19. / 20. /
/ / / / /
Totals: Totals: Totals: Totals: Totals:
Avoiding, Dominating, Compro- Obliging, Integrating,
withdrawal competition mising accommo- collaboration
dation

Results
Scores for the five conflict management strategies, across two different
contexts should be visible. The column with the highest point totals shows
conflict management strategy the most typical for the person.
Student is encouraged to compare their score totals for both A and B
contexts. If results for the most typical conflict management strategy are
relatively consistent in both contexts, it means that this conflict management
strategy is his or her consistent conflict management style.

1+6+11+16 2+7+12+17 3+8+13+18 4+9+14+19 5+10+15+20

Avoidance Competition Compromise Accommo- Collaboration
dation
Source: Corvete (2007), Adapted from M. H. Rahim and N. R. Magner (1995)

Another interesting tool to determine personal conflict style is suggested

by Cornely and Tripathy (2004). To make more valid generalization about
student’s personal conflict style, teacher may encourage them to compare own
results of both tests.
Source: Conerly, K., Tripathi, A. (2004). What is your conflict style? Understanding
and dealing with your conflict style. The Journal for Quality and Participation,
Summer, pp. 16–20
280 Exercises

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT EXERCISES

FOR STUDENTS’ GROUP WORK
By Daiva Račelytė and Agnė Tvaronavičienė

Please see below 4 exercises for group work:

A. My criticism log
A. Hot buttons and constructive responses to conflict
C. Interview
D. The doggie discontent

These exercises will help you to improve your conflict management skills.

Exercise A
My criticism log

Introduction
Every individual has specific attitudes towards others and their personal
characteristics, behaviour and etc. When we talk about the issues, which may
raise the conflicts and involve an individual person in it, it should be admitted
that this is also personal. For example, one individual cannot stand the unfair
behaviour and always involves in conflicts in regards of it. On contrary, other
individual may feel really neutral in regard of such issues and being able to
ignore the same unfair behaviour. Some people hate being late and do not
respect other, who is always late. On contrary, some of them are neutral for
it and do not sees the reason to conflict if their friends or colleagues are late.
Knowing yourself well helps to identify the issues, which drives one angry and
ready to struggle, helps in managing those situations.

Exercise
Wilmott and Hocker (2011) suggested a useful task for a group work,
helping to identify the main issues of social interaction, which drives individual
towards conflicts. This task consists of two parts: individual preparation and
small groups’ discussions.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 281

1. Individual preparation for the task.

Please keep track of all the negative thoughts you have about people in
your world over a few days. You don’t need to track the type of relationship,
who the other is, or anything else – just list the negative thoughts you have or
comments you make. Some examples are “he is so rigid”, “I can’t believe how
stupid she is”, “he is so subservient to everyone”, and “she is absolutely selfish“.

2. Discussion in small groups.

In groups of 3–4 people, discuss with the group your main identity
“themes” and how they predict with whom you will have conflict or struggles.
Please share your answers with your colleagues. Don’t hesitate to read
them aloud to others and don’t worry about how it will sound (even though
they are sometimes difficult to share).
Discuss with group members helping identify to every individual his/
her two or three main “themes” for the criticisms of others. Most of people
have two or three main identity dimensions that arise in criticisms of others.
You should help to put these “themes” in non-judgmental or positive terms. For
example, if person says such things about his colleagues such as “I doubt the
wisdom of confiding in his insight,” “she didn’t do very well in university”, “I just
don’t know how he became a professional given his inability to process all the
details”, and “he isn’t very bright”. These examples clearly identify the theme of
“lack of intelligence”.
Group should discuss not only the important “themes” of every individual,
but also as well how they predict with whom that individual will have conflict
or how such criticisms can effect conflict management process.

Exercise B
Hot buttons and constructive responses to conflict

Introduction
This activity will help participants to be aware of some of their emotional
hot buttons, and to find more constructive ways to deal with conflict more
effectively.

Exercise
1. For the next five minutes, you will have a chance to tell the other members
of your group how to push their emotional hot buttons. Please write down as
many specific things as you can. For example:
282 Exercises

How to push my buttons ...:

Rude tone; Know-it-alls; People who don’t get to the point; “What you
should do is ...”; “You never/always ...”; “Shut up!”
For group discussion, form small groups of four to seven see how many
emotional hot buttons everybody can come up with.

Discussion Questions:
• What are your usual responses to hot buttons and what can you do
about it?
• What are some ways we can learn to recognize and to control our hot
buttons when interacting with others?
• What happens if we push someone else’s buttons?

2. Please read descriptions of constructive responses to conflict (see text below)

and compare your personal ways to deal with hot buttons.

3. Question for final discussion: How does this activity can help you deal with
conflict more effectively?

Runde and Flanagan (2007) stress importance of appropriate actions

for conflict competent leader behaviour. Our constructive responses to conflict
can be analysed as active and passive constructive behaviours. You can analyse
your personal behaviour or group conflict situations using these explanations
(based on Davies, Kraus, Capobianco, 2004):
Active constructive responses to conflict
Active Constructive Behaviours are responses to conflict that involve
doing or saying things that reduce conflict tension, deescalate conflict and
improve the conflict situation.

Perspective taking has these components:

• Listening to the other conflict participant with the intent of under-
standing rather than debating;
• Summarizing the other conflict participant’s point of view about the
conflict to his or her satisfaction;
• Expressing empathy by identifying the other conflict participant’s
emotions and demonstrating understanding.

Creating solutions has these components:

• Identifying multiple potential solutions with other conflict participants
(one potential solution is not enough!);
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 283

• Discussing the viability of potential solutions with other conflict

participant;
• Agreeing on solutions to try.

Expressing emotions has these components:

• Identifying and disclosing emotions to other conflict participant;
• Open discussion about thoughts and feelings and their impact on the
situation;
• Casting no blame.

Reaching out includes these components:

• Making the first move to resume communicating with a other conflict
participant
• Attempting to repair emotional damage caused during the conflict
• Offering an apology or making amends when warranted

Passive constructive responses to conflict

Passive Constructive Behaviours often are characterized by withholding
comments or refraining from some action and often require very little overt
effort, but they usually result in conflict de-escalation and the reduction of
mutual tensions and harmful effects of conflict and can maximize opportunities
for creative or innovative solutions in trying circumstances.

Reflective thinking has these components:

• Taking the time to notice and analyse one’s own and other parties’
reactions during conflict;
• Reviewing the immediate and potential ongoing impact of the conflict;
• Thinking through alternatives for effectively responding to the conflict.

Delay responding has these components:

• Calling a time-out when one or both parties feel injured or downtrodden;
• Suggesting a temporary disengagement from the conflict conversation
to interrupt the flow of a conflict escalation cycle;
• Creating a pause during the conflict when tensions are so high that
the interaction becomes ineffective.

Adapting includes these components:

• An optimistic mind-set that views conflict as inevitable and resolvable
• Willingness for flexibility by entertaining alternatives for resolution
• Being alert for changes that may show new opportunities for engaging
in resolution dialogue.
284 Exercises

Exercise C
Interview

Introduction
Conflict management skills of employees are necessary in every
organization. In order to gain for knowledge how ability to identify the conflict
style may be used in practice, please engage in the fulfilment of this task oriented
towards job interview experience (this task is suggested by Raines (2012).

Exercise
1. In small groups, develop a list of interview questions that you will use for
potential new hires. These questions should give you a sense of how this
person responds to conflict and how well she or he will fit into your team’s
environment. Compare lists of different groups.

2. In addition to designing appropriate interview questions, discuss what other

sources of information will provide clues as to how this person deals with
problem solving and teamwork?

3. Questions for further discussion:

• Although the conflict management strategies usually are used as an
individual-level tool, we often see analogous behaviours within teams
and even entire organizations. Which style best describes the unit in
which you study? Why?
• Which style best describes your organization as a whole?
• How does your individual style fit in with those in your study
environment?

Exercise D
The doggie discontent

Introduction
This activity will help you to identify conflict management styles and
conflict related roles.
 Conflict Diagnosis and Management 285

Exercise
McCorkle and Reese (2018, p. 130) suggest such an exercise for developing
skills to identify the most evident styles in concrete situation. The case is
presented below:
Before Tess and Molly became roommates, Tess made sure that Molly would
be fine with her lovable little dog Gretel, a five-year-old schnauzer. After about
two months, Molly met Tess at the door, obviously upset:
Molly: “We need to talk. I hate living here! I can’t stand your dog anymore.
She jumps on me and the house smells like a dog. I like some animals, but I hate
your dog!” Tess: (Shocked). “You knew about Gretel when we moved in. She’s a
schnauzer for God’s sake – they love everybody. It’s not like she’s a pit bull and
going to attack you. What did you expect?” Molly: “I was hoping the apartment
wouldn’t allow dogs.” Tess: “I wouldn’t have moved in with you then. I could never
live without Gretel.” Molly: “I think you should get rid of her.” Tess: “That is not
going to happen! You knew I had a dog. And I don’t have the money to move. You
got yourself into this situation, so you figure a way out of it.”
Molly left the apartment and slammed the door. Gretel, sensing something
was wrong, walked over to comfort Tess.

1. Please read presented case to identify conflict management styles participants

use in this situation. Discuss dynamics and efficiency of different styles.

2. Please read description of supervisor related roles (see table 1 in section

Individual work exercises). 5–8 participants of group can choose different roles
and try to solve conflict in role play using different ways.

3. After completing role plays a group discussion should be provided to explore

strengths and weaknesses or challenges of different roles in conflict.
286 Exercises

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