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Investigation of Factors Affecting the Intermediate-Temperature Cracking

Resistance of In-Situ Asphalt Mixtures Based on Semi-Circular Bending Test

Article in Coatings · February 2023

DOI: 10.3390/coatings13020384

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 coatings
Article
Investigation of Factors Affecting the Intermediate-Temperature
Cracking Resistance of In-Situ Asphalt Mixtures Based on
Semi-Circular Bending Test
Duo Xu 1 , Fujian Ni 1, *, Hui Du 2 , Zili Zhao 1 , Jingling Wang 1 and Sheng Chen 3

1 School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China

2 School of Civil Engineering, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou 350118, China
3 Huai’an Boyan Civil Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd., Huai’an 223003, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Cracking is one of the main distresses in asphalt pavement. At present, few studies have
been conducted on the cracking performance of asphalt mixtures from the field due to the difficulty
of sample collection. Therefore, this study aims to assess the cracking resistance of in-service asphalt
pavement at intermediate temperature using a large number of field cores in Jiangsu province, China.
A semi-circular bending (SCB) test at 25 ◦ C was conducted on field-cored samples covering three
asphalt layers from 16 in-service road sections that represent a combination of influencing factors,
including air void, mixture type, service age, cumulative number of equivalent single-axle loads
(ESALs), and overload rate. The flexibility index (FI) and tensile strength were calculated from the
experimental data as cracking performance evaluation indices. According to the analysis of variance
results, at the top layer, ESALs and service age had a strong influence on cracking resistance. The
decline rate of FI became slower with increasing ESALs. The most rapid decline in crack resistance
with service age occurred on medium-traffic-level sections that served for over 14 years. At the
middle layer, the overload rate replaced service age as a significant factor for FI. At the bottom layer,
the air void was the only significant factor affecting the cracking resistance. In general, as the depth
of layer increased, the effect of traffic load and service age decreased, whereas the effect of material
Citation: Xu, D.; Ni, F.; Du, H.; Zhao,
properties increased. In addition, the FI and tensile strength were more sensitive to traffic load and
Z.; Wang, J.; Chen, S. Investigation of
Factors Affecting the Intermediate-
air void, respectively.
Temperature Cracking Resistance of
In-Situ Asphalt Mixtures Based on Keywords: cracking resistance; intermediate temperature; semi-circular bending test; influencing
Semi-Circular Bending Test. Coatings factors; different asphalt layers
2023, 13, 384. https://doi.org/
10.3390/coatings13020384

Academic Editors: Valeria Vignali

1. Introduction
and Joaquim Carneiro
Cracking is one of the major challenges experienced by asphalt pavements. The
Received: 27 December 2022 major cracking distresses in asphalt pavements can be categorized into reflection cracking,
Revised: 4 February 2023
thermal cracking, and fatigue cracking [1]. Field fatigue cracking is caused by tensile
Accepted: 5 February 2023
stress concentrations produced by repeated traffic loads at intermediate temperatures. The
Published: 7 February 2023
presence of cracks increases the surface roughness, resulting in reduced ride quality and
an increased risk of traffic accidents [2]. Without timely and appropriate maintenance or
rehabilitation of the asphalt layer, cracking will result in severe performance degradation
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
and the premature failure of pavements [3]. Therefore, to make reasonable rehabilitation
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. decisions, it is important to assess the resistance to intermediate-temperature cracking of
This article is an open access article existing asphalt mixtures from in-service pavements.
distributed under the terms and Various testing methods have been proposed to characterize the cracking resistance
conditions of the Creative Commons of asphalt mixtures. These include the indirect tension (IDT) test [4,5], single-edge notch
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// beam (SENB) test [6,7], disk-shaped compact tension (DCT) test [8], overlay test (OT) [9,10],
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Fenix test [11], dog-bone direct tension (DBDT) test [12], indirect tensile asphalt cracking
4.0/). test (IDEAL-CT) [13], and semicircular bending (SCB) test [3,14,15]. The pros and cons of

Coatings 2023, 13, 384. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13020384 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings

Coatings 2023, 13, 384 2 of 15

each method and performance index were determined in many aspects [16–18]. As it is
simple, reliable, and reproducible, the SCB test has drawn attention from researchers and
was selected for this study to assess the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures from field
cores at intermediate temperatures. The SCB test uses monotonic loading at a constant
rate and records a load–displacement curve for further evaluation [19]. Among the several
different SCB testing modes, the semi-circular bending Illinois flexibility index (SCB-FI)
test is widely recognized for its great capacity to distinguish the cracking performance of
asphalt mixtures [15,20].
During the testing procedure of the SCB-FI and most other SCB tests, a notch was
inserted along the symmetry axis of each specimen to produce a stress concentration [21,22].
However, notch cutting is costly and time consuming as well as producing unexpected
testing variability. In terms of the fracture toughness of porous asphalt concrete at different
temperatures combined with various displacement rates, notched SCB specimens have a
larger variance than un-notched specimens [23]. The flexibility index (FI) results of notched
specimens show a higher coefficient of variation (COV) than those of un-notched specimens
(COV of 13.7%–41.2% versus 8.6%–32.0%) [24]. The higher variability of notched specimens
may be owing to the difficulty in maintaining an identical position, width, and depth of
the notch for different specimens. In addition, the material properties vary at the notch tip
owing to the inhomogeneous characteristics of the asphalt mixtures, which may influence
the crack propagation phase. In addition to lower variability, the un-notched SCB test
can be employed to describe the complete damage process, including the crack-initiation
phase [25]. Additionally, comparing the results of the un-notched and notched SCB tests, a
strong linear correlation (R2 > 0.95) exists in their FI values [24]. Therefore, the un-notched
SCB test was selected in this study as a reasonable alternative to the conventional notched
SCB test.
Several factors can contribute to the cracking performance of asphalt mixtures, in-
cluding air void, binder performance grade (PG) and content, reclaimed asphalt pavement
materials, aging, and environmental conditions [26–30]. Therefore, it is critical to iden-
tify and evaluate the factors that significantly affect the cracking performance of asphalt
mixtures. Several studies have considered the effects of various factors on the cracking
performance of asphalt mixture samples produced in the laboratory [26,31–33]. However,
significant differences exist between laboratory-produced and field-cored samples, such as
air void, compaction degree, production temperature, and homogeneity [34]. Therefore, it is
necessary to determine the effects of various factors on in-service pavements by evaluating
the cracking resistance of field-cored samples. Biligiri [35] compared the crack resistance
and predicted service life of mixes in common pavement structures used in Sweden with
those of mixes in modified pavement systems by utilizing SCB tests. Fang [36] investigated
the fracture and fatigue characteristics of field core samples taken from a section of a
highway in Jiangsu Province, China by using the SCB test and stereo-DIC. In terms of
previous research on the influencing factors on field-cored sample properties, both mixture-
design parameters and external conditions were considered for the statistical evaluation of
the factors affecting high-temperature performance using the multi-sequenced repeated
load test [37]. Significant factors that influence the tensile strength and fracture energy
of field cores from the three asphalt layers were determined using low-temperature SCB
tests [38,39].
The SCB test is now increasingly used for field core samples, due to its reasonable
size, simple operation, and distinguishable index. However, as mentioned above, most of
the studies mainly focus on a particular field case, or some laboratory-produced asphalt
mixes. There is a lack of systematic studies on asphalt field materials with different service
ages, traffic volumes, and material properties. This study uses the SCB test method and
its related indexes to characterize the deterioration of the cracking resistance of asphalt
field materials under the influence of different internal and external factors and reveal the
significant factors affecting different layers of asphalt pavements.
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 3 of 15

In this study, the fracture potentials of 429 semicircular specimens from three asphalt
layers of 16 in-service freeway sections with different structures, traffic loads, and service
ages were assessed using the SCB test at 25 ◦ C with a loading rate of 50 mm/min. The FI
and tensile strength were chosen as cracking performance indices. Statistical analyses were
conducted to verify the influence of material and external factors on the fracture resistance
of in-service asphalt pavements.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Information about Field-Cored Samples
As shown in Table 1, field cores were drilled from 16 in-service road sections with
diverse material properties and external conditions in Jiangsu Province, China. Table 1 lists
the key information about the service age, pavement structure, mix type, and cumulative
number of equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) for each road section. The structure of all
the sections is an asphalt mixture surface with a semi-rigid base built by cement-stabilized
macadam or lime–fly ash macadam, which is the most common freeway structure in Jiangsu
Province. The surface layer consists of top, middle, and bottom layers with thicknesses of
approximately 4, 6, and 8 cm, respectively. The top and middle layers used the styrene-
butadiene-styrene polymer-modified asphalt binder PG70-22 and the bottom layer used
neat asphalt.

Table 1. Information about the road sections.

Service Pavement Structure ESALs (Million Times/ Overload

Road Sections Age (Year) Top Layer Middle Layer Bottom Layer Lane) Rate (%)
1 4.2 SMA-13 1 SUP-20 2 SUP-25 2.19 14.10
2 9.2 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 4.18 13.34
3 9.5 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 1.69 12.44
4 9.7 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 2.87 7.88
5 10.4 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 6.12 16.04
6 10.4 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 8.88 17.60
7 11.2 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 2.15 10.05
8 14.1 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 15.36 9.27
9 14.1 SMA-13 AC-20 3 AC-25 10.13 11.10
10 14.1 SMA-13 AC-20 AC-25 25.63 19.15
11 14.8 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 9.35 14.43
12 17.4 SMA-13 AC-20 AC-25 13.15 15.59
13 17.6 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 14.65 19.08
14 17.6 SMA-13 SUP-20 SUP-25 18.47 19.20
15 18.1 AK-13 4 AC-20 AC-25 25.90 21.68
16 18.6 AK-13 AC-20 AC-25 22.18 18.65
1 SMA: stone mastic asphalt, 2 SUP: superpave volumetric design criteria, 3 AC: Chinese specifications for the
design of highway asphalt pavements [40], 4 AK: a type of coarse-type dense graded asphalt mixture; 13/20/25 is
the nominal maximum aggregate size of the mix.

Full-depth core samples of the asphalt surface course in the shape of a cylinder with
a height of 18 cm and diameter of 15 cm were drilled at two-wheel tracks as shown in
Figure 1. Figure 2a shows the coring procedure of asphalt field samples. The coring of all
the sections was completed in the fourth quarter of 2021, with a total of 96 core samples
used for this study. A typical core sample with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid base,
the field cores, and semi-circular specimens are shown in Figure 2b–d.

2.2. Testing Procedure

The untreated cylindrical core samples of the asphalt surface course were 150 mm in
diameter and 170–180 mm in height. As shown in Figure 3, the top layer was cut according
to its actual thickness, generally about 40 mm. The thicknesses of the middle and bottom
layers were approximately 60 and 80 mm, respectively, and both were cut into cylinders
of 50 mm thickness. The cylinders of all three layers were cut into two semicircles along
Coatings 2023,
Coatings 13,13,x 384
2023, FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15 4 of 16

Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

the diameter to replicate each other. Nine semicircular specimens were discarded owing to
used for this study. A typical core sample with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid base
variability in the cutting process, and 429 standard specimens were finally fabricated for
the field cores,
subsequent SCB
and semi-circular specimens are shown in Figure 2b–d.
tests.A typical core sample with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid base,
used for this study.
the field cores, and semi-circular specimens are shown in Figure 2b–d.

Figure
Figure1.1.
Figure Schematic
1.Schematic
Schematicofofof coring
coring
coring position.
position.
position.

toptopmiddle
middle semi-rigid
bottom semi-rigid
bottom base base

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2. (a) Coring procedure; (b) A typical field core with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid
2. (a) Coring procedure; (b) A typical field core with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid
(c)Figure
base; (c) Field cores; (d) Semi-circular specimens. (d)
base; (c) Field cores; (d) Semi-circular specimens.
Figure 2. (a) Coring procedure; (b) A typical field core with three asphalt layers and a semi-rigid
2.2. As
base; Testing
(c)shownProcedure
Field in Figure
cores; 4, a UTM-25 (IPC,
(d) Semi-circular Melbourne, Australia) universal testing system
specimens.
with aThebend test fixture
untreated was utilized
cylindrical coreinsamples
this study, which
of the could
asphalt delivercourse
surface loads were
in compression
150 mm in
with a
diameter
2.2. resolution
Testing and of 10 N and maximum capacity of 25 kN. The SCB test
170–180 mm in height. As shown in Figure 3, the top layer was cut according
Procedure was conducted
according
to its actualto thickness,
AASHTO TP 124 [21].
generally Figure
about 4c shows
40 mm. the schematic
The thicknesses of the
of the specimen
middle under
and bottom
the The
SCBwere untreated cylindrical
test. approximately
The distance between core samples of the asphalt surface course were 150
is mm in
layers 60 and the two respectively,
80 mm, roller supports andat both
the bottom
were cut of the
intosample
cylinders
diameter
0.8
of times
50 mmthe and 170–180
diameterThe
thickness. mm
of the in height.
semi-circular
cylinders As shown
specimen,
of all three in Figure
layers which
were cut 3, the
is 120
intommtop layer was
twoinsemicircles cut according
this study.along
The
to
theits
top of actual thickness,
the specimen
diameter generally
is the
to replicate loadother.
each about
actuator. 40
NineBeforemm. theThe
semicircular thicknesses
test,specimens
the specimens of the
were were middle inand
an bottom
kept owing
discarded
environmental chamber at 25 ◦ C for more than 4 h to ensure that the internal temperature
layers were approximately 60 and 80 mm, respectively, and both
to variability in the cutting process, and 429 standard specimens were finally fabricated were cut into cylinders
of the specimen also reaches 25 ◦ C, which is the test temperature. The test was conducted
of
for50 mm thickness.
subsequent The cylinders of all three layers were cut into two semicircles along
SCB tests.
using displacement
the diameter control at
to replicate a rate
each of 50Nine
other. mm/min and the applied
semicircular load was
specimens were measured.
discarded owing
to variability in the cutting process, and 429 standard specimens were finally fabricated
for subsequent SCB tests.
 Top layer 40 mm

≈180 mm
Middle layer 50 mm
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 5 of 15

Bottom layer 50 mm
150 mm 150 mm
Figure 3. Schematic of SCB specimen preparation for the three asphalt layers.

As shown in Figure Top 4, a UTM-25 40 mm

layer (IPC, Melbourne, Australia) universal testing system
with a bend test fixture was utilized in this study, which could deliver loads in compres-
≈180 mm

sion with a resolution of 10 N and maximum capacity of 25 kN. The SCB test was con-
ducted according to AASHTO TP 124 [21]. Figure 50 mm4c shows the schematic of the specimen
Middle layer
under the SCB test. The distance between the two roller supports at the bottom of the
sample is 0.8 times the diameter of the semi-circular specimen, which is 120 mm in this
study. The top of the specimen is the load actuator. Before the test, the specimens were
kept in an environmental chamber
Bottom layerat 25 °C50
formm
more than 4 h to ensure that the internal
temperature of the specimen also reaches 25 °C, which is the test temperature. The test
was conducted using displacement control at a rate of 50 mm/min and the applied load
Figure
Figure 3.3.Schematic
Schematicofof
SCBSCB specimen
specimen preparation
preparation forthree
for the the asphalt
three asphalt
layers. layers.
was measured.

As shown in Figure 4, a UTM-25 (IPC, Melbourne, Australia) universal testing system

with a bend test fixture was utilized in this study, which could deliver loads in compres-
sion with a resolution of 10 N and maximum capacity of 25 kN. The SCB test was con-
ducted according to AASHTO TP 124 [21]. Figure 4c shows the schematic of the specimen
under the SCB test. The distance between the two roller supports at the bottom of the
sample is 0.8 times the diameter of the semi-circular specimen, which is 120 mm in this
study. The top of the specimen is the load actuator. Before the test, the specimens were
kept in an environmental chamber at 25 °C for more than 4 h to ensure that the internal
temperature of the specimen also reaches 25 °C, which is the test temperature. The test
was conducted using displacement control at a rate of 50 mm/min and the applied load
was measured.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure4.4.(a)
(a)UTM-25
UTM-25universal
universaltesting
testingsystem;
system;(b)
(b)Bend
Bendtest
testfixture;
fixture; (c)
(c) Specimen
Specimen under
under SCB
SCB test.
test.

The
TheFIFIisisdefined
definedbybyEquation
Equation (1)(1)
using
usingthethe
parameters
parametersobtained
obtainedfromfromthe load–dis-
the load–
displacement
placement curvecurve of SCB
of the the SCB
test, test, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 5. A 5. A simple
simple correction
correction factorfactor
was
was established to eliminate the effect of thickness variations on the FI,
established to eliminate the effect of thickness variations on the FI, as expressed in Equa- as expressed
in Equation
tion (1) [41]. Considered
(1) [41]. Considered as the evaluation
as the evaluation index, strength
index, the tensile the tensile
(σt strength (σt ) of the
) of the un-notched
un-notched
SCB specimen SCB specimen
geometry was geometry
determined was using
determined using
Equation (4) Equation
as follows(4) as follows [14]:
[14]:

Gf B
FI = ×A× , (1)
|m| 50

Wf
Gf = × 106 , (2)
Alig

(a) (b) Alig = 0.5 × B × D, (c) (3)

4.8 × F
Figure 4. (a) UTM-25 universal testingσsystem;
t = (b) Bend
, test fixture; (c) Specimen under(4)
SCB test.
B × D
whereThe
FI denotes the flexibility index, Gf(1)
(J/m 2 ) denotes the fracture energy, and m denotes
FI is defined by Equation using the parameters obtained from the load–dis-
placement curve of the SCB test, as shown in Figurecurve
the slope at the inflection point on the load–displacement 5. A after thecorrection
simple peak point,factor
as was
shown in Figure 5. A = 0.01 for unit conversion and scaling, B (mm) denotes the specimen
established to eliminate the effect of thickness variations on the FI, as expressed in Equa-
thickness, and Wf (J) denotes the work of fracture, calculated as the area under the load–
tion (1) [41]. Considered as the evaluation index, the tensile strength (σt ) of the un-notched
displacement curve using analytical integration. The pre-peak and post-peak load portions
SCB
of thespecimen
curve were geometry wasa polynomial
fitted using determinedfunction
using Equation (4) as follows [14]:
and an exponential-based function
 Coatings 2023, 13, 384 6 of 15

oatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

before integration, where Alig (mm2 ) denotes the ligament area, σt (MPa) denotes the tensile
strength, F (kN) denotes the peak load, and D (mm) denotes the specimen diameter.

6 Peak Load

5
Slope at Inflection Point
Load, P (kN)

4 (kN/mm)
3

0
0 1 2 3 4
Displacement, u (mm)
Figure 5. Typical load–displacement curve from the SCB test.
Figure 5. Typical load–displacement curve from the SCB test.
3. Results and Discussion
The distribution of the FI and tensile strength results are shown in Figure 6. In contrast,
the tensile strength was much closer to a normal distribution,
Gf while
B the FI was mostly
FI = |m|
distributed below 10. The specimens with low fracture × A usually
energy × , have a fast drop in
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
50 7 of 16
the post-peak load–displacement curve, leading to a low FI value, which is the fracture
energy divided by the slope. Wf
Gf = × 106 ,
Alig

Alig = 0.5 × B × D,

4.8 × F
σt = ,
B×D
where FI denotes the flexibility index, Gf (J/m2) denotes the fracture energy
notes the slope at the inflection point on the load–displacement curve after th
as shown in Figure 5. A = 0.01 for unit conversion and scaling, B (mm) denot
men
(a) thickness, and Wf (J) denotes the work (b) of fracture, calculated as the ar
load–displacement
Figure curve using analytical integration. The pre-peak and po
Figure 6.
6. Distribution
Distribution of
of (a)
(a) FI
FI and
and (b)
(b) tensile
tensile strength.
strength.
portions of the curve were fitted using a polynomial function and an expon
functionAnalysis variance
of variance
before (ANOVA)where
(ANOVA)
integration, isisaavalid
validmethod
Amethod used
used 2 toto investigate
investigate whether
whether differ-
different
lig (mm ) denotes the ligament area, σ
ent levels
levels of control
of control variables
variables havehave significant
significant effectseffects on observation
on observation variables.
variables. In thisIn this
study,
notes
study,
ANOVA the tensile
ANOVA
was wasstrength,
performed
performed Fto(kN)
to evaluate evaluatedenotes
the effectthe thefactors
of effect
these ofpeak load,
theseonfactors and
on theDresistance
the cracking (mm) re-
cracking denotes
of t
diameter.
sistance
the threeof the three
asphalt asphalt
layer samples.layer samples. A value
A probability probability value
(p-value) less(p-value) less than thelevel
than the significance sig-
nificance level (0.05)
(0.05) indicated indicated
that the thatstatistically
factor was the factor was statistically
significant. significant.
The following The
five following
factors were
five factors were
considered: considered:
air void, mixtureair void,
type, mixture
service type,
age, service
ESALs, andage, ESALs,rate.
overload and overload rate.
The overload
3.The
Results and Discussion
overload rate, calculated as the percentage of axle load over 100 kN, ranged from 7.9%
to 21.7%
Thefor the selected sections,
distribution of theindicating a serious strength
FI and tensile overload problem.
results are shown in Figu
trast, the tensile strength was much closer to a normal distribution, while
3.1. Effect of Factors on the Top Layer
mostly Thedistributed
ANOVA results below
for the10. Thetensile
FI and specimens with
strength of low
the top fracture
layers energy
are presented in usuall
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 7 of 15

rate, calculated as the percentage of axle load over 100 kN, ranged from 7.9% to 21.7% for
the selected sections, indicating a serious overload problem.

3.1. Effect of Factors on the Top Layer

The ANOVA results for the FI and tensile strength of the top layers are presented in
Table 2. In terms of the FI of the top layer, service age and ESALs were significant factors,
with p-values less than 0.05. Another traffic load indicator, the overload rate, has a p-value
close to 0.05, indicating that there is a certain effect of different levels of overload on the
top layer’s FI; however, it is less significant than the ESALs. With regard to tensile strength,
only ESALs were a significant factor with a p-value less than 0.05. Owing to excessive
compaction during construction and axial load, the air void of the top layer samples in
this study was low and concentrated (3.4%–4.2%), which had an insignificant effect on the
indices. The effects of ESALs and service age on FI, as well as the effect of ESALs on tensile
strength, are analyzed in detail below.

Table 2. ANOVA results of indices for the top layer.

Index Factors Mean Square F-Value 1 p-Value 2 Significance 3

Air void 1.2114 1.4624 0.2330 N
Mixture type 0.9256 1.1174 0.2962 N
FI Service age 3.5536 4.2899 0.0442 4 Y
ESALs 13.6821 16.5171 0.0002 4 Y
Overload rate 3.1338 3.7832 0.0582 N
Air void 0.0362 0.0176 0.8953 N
Mixture type 2.0054 0.9715 0.3304 N
Tensile Service age 6.8863 3.3360 0.0754 N
strength ESALs 15.0725 7.3016 0.0101 4 Y 8 of 16
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Overload rate 0.2629 0.1274 0.7231 N
1F-value, the ratio of mean squares, is used to determine the p-value. 2 Factor is significant if the p-value < 0.05. 3

Y indicates the factor is significant, while N indicates it is not significant. 4 p-value less than 0.05.
Figure 7 presents the detailed relationship between FI and the significant factors for
the top layer.7 As
Figure shownthe
presents in Figure 7a,relationship
detailed although some of theFI
between data
andwere scattered, the
the significant median
factors for
the top of
values layer. As shown
FI declined in Figure 7a,with
continuously although someESALs,
increasing of the data were scattered,
indicating that theretheis median
signifi-
values of FI declined
cant fatigue continuously
performance with increasing
degradation ESALs, indicating
of the pavement that
material in there
the is significant
field under re-
fatigue load.
peated performance degradation of the pavement material in the field under repeated load.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Relationship
Figure 7. Relationship between
between FI
FI and
and significant
significant factors
factors for the top
for the top layer:
layer: (a)
(a) FI
FI versus ESALs and
versus ESALs and
(b) FI versus service age.
(b) FI versus service age.

Figure
Figure 7b
7b reveals
reveals that
that the
the FI
FI values
values of
of service
service age
age less
less than
than 15
15 years
years were
were mostly
mostly
distributed
distributed between
between 99 and
and 16,
16, while
while the
the FI
FI of service age
of service age more
more than
than 15 years decreased
15 years decreased
significantly, with a reduction of about 70% in the median value. This indicates that envi-
ronmental effects and load accumulation caused the cracking performance of the top layer
material to decline sharply after more than 15 years of service.
The accumulation of ESALs is related to both the service age and the traffic level. The
decline patterns were compared for samples of similar service age or ESALs to further
 Figure 7b reveals that the FI values of service age less than 15 years
distributed between 9 and 16, while the FI of service age more than 15 yea
significantly, with a reduction of about 70% in the median value. This indica
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 8 of 15
ronmental effects and load accumulation caused the cracking performance of
material to decline sharply after more than 15 years of service.
The accumulation
significantly, with a reductionof ofESALs
about 70% is in
related to both
the median value.the
Thisservice
indicatesage
thatand
envi-the tra
decline
ronmentalpatterns
effects andwere comparedcaused
load accumulation for samples
the crackingofperformance
similar service
of the topage
layeror ESA
material to decline sharply after more than 15 years of service.
validate the sensitivity of FI to the effects of service age and traffic level.
The accumulation of ESALs is related to both the service age and the traffic level. The
Two
decline sample
patterns were groups
comparedaged 14.1–14.8
for samples andservice
of similar 17.4–18.6
age or years
ESALs towere selected
further
investigate the relationship between FI and ESALs without the effect of se
validate the sensitivity of FI to the effects of service age and traffic level.
Two sample groups aged 14.1–14.8 and 17.4–18.6 years were selected to accurately
shown in Figure 8, the FI curve for the 17.4–18.6 years sample consistently l
investigate the relationship between FI and ESALs without the effect of service age. As
14.1–14.8 years
shown in Figure sample
8, the FI curvebecause of theyears
for the 17.4–18.6 longer service
sample time.liesThe
consistently belowFI the
of both
declining with
14.1–14.8 years increasing
sample because ofESALs, while
the longer thetime.
service rateTheof FI
decline
of both gradually
groups keepsdecreas
declining with increasing ESALs, while the rate of decline gradually decreases.

Figure 8. FI versus ESALs for samples of top layer with similar service ages.
Figure 8. FI versus ESALs for samples of top layer with similar service ages.
In order to investigate the relationship between FI and service age, four groups of
samples corresponding to different levels of ESALs were selected. The difference in ESALs
within each group was less than one million times/lane to eliminate the effect of ESALs.
Information about the four sample groups is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Information about the four sample groups.

Group Service Age (Years) ESALs (Million Times/Lane) Traffic Level

A 4.2–11.2 2.15–2.19 Light
B 10.4–14.8 8.88–9.35 Medium
C 14.1–17.6 14.65–15.36 Medium
D 14.1–18.1 25.63–25.9 Heavy

As seen in Figure 9, the FI curve of the group with more ESALs always lies below that
of the group with fewer ESALs, showing a stepwise decline with age. The small graph in
Figure 9 shows the absolute values of the slopes of the FI curves of the four groups, and
the slope of Group C is much larger than for the other three groups. Group A and B had a
service age of less than 10 years with intact or slightly damaged material in the top layer, so
the FI declines the slowest with age. In the first 14 years of service for group D, with a heavy
traffic level, the FI value declined to a relatively low level with axle load accumulation.
Therefore, the FI of Group D declined more slowly with age than that of Group C, while
still faster than that of group A and B because of the higher traffic level and service age.
 so the FI declines the slowest with age. In the first 14 years of service for gro
heavy traffic level, the FI value declined to a relatively low level with axle l
lation. Therefore, the FI of Group D declined more slowly with age than tha
while still faster than that of group A and B because of the higher traffic leve
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 age. In contrast, the top layer material of the sections with a medium 9 of 15 traffic

sented by Group C showed the most significant decline in crack resistance w

serving
In contrast,forthe
around
top layer14 years.ofThe
material most probable
the sections with a medium reason
trafficfor this
level result is that
represented
life of expressways
by Group C showed the in most Jiangsu Province
significant decline iniscrack
15 years. For
resistance theage
with top layer
after servingof the me
for around 14 years. The most probable reason for this result is
section, its cracking resistance declines slower than that of the heavy-traffic that the designed life of se
expressways in Jiangsu Province is 15 years. For the top layer of the medium-traffic section,
the designed
its cracking life. Therefore,
resistance declines slower it can
thanbethatseen
of theinheavy-traffic
Figure 9 thatsection the cracking
during the resi
top layerlife.
designed of Group
Therefore,C itiscan
better than
be seen that of
in Figure Group
9 that D around
the cracking the designed
resistance of the top life. A
layer
ing itsof designed
Group C is better
life, than
the that of Groupresistance
cracking D around theofdesigned
the top life.layer
After of
exceeding
the medium
its designed life, the cracking resistance of the top layer of the medium-traffic road section
section decreases rapidly due to the long-term aging effect in the field.
decreases rapidly due to the long-term aging effect in the field.

Figure 9. FI versus service age for samples of top layer with similar ESALs.
Figure 9. FI versus service age for samples of top layer with similar ESALs.
Figure 10 presents the relationship between tensile strength and ESALs. Compared
with Figure
FI, the tensile strength declined
10 presents with increasing
the relationship ESALs at atensile
between much slower rate. From
strength and ESAL
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the smallest to the largest ESAL interval, the FI decreased by 79.57%; however, the tensile
with FI, decreased
strength the tensile strength
by only 30.19%.declined with
Therefore, for the increasing ESALs
top layer samples, the FIatwas
a much
more slow
the smallest
sensitive to theto the than
ESALs largest ESALstrength.
the tensile interval, the FI decreased by 79.57%; howeve
strength decreased by only 30.19%. Therefore, for the top layer samples, the
sensitive to the ESALs than the tensile strength.

Figure 10. Relationship between tensile strength and ESALs for the top layer.
Figure 10. Relationship between tensile strength and ESALs for the top layer.

3.2. Effect of Factors on the Middle Layer

According to the ANOVA results of the FI for the middle layer, the ESALs
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 10 of 15
Figure 10. Relationship between tensile strength and ESALs for the top layer.

3.2. Effect of Factors on the Middle Layer

3.2. Effect of Factors
According on the
to the Middleresults
ANOVA Layer of the FI for the middle layer, the ESALs and over-
load According
rate, with p-values of 0.0013
to the ANOVA andof0.0156,
results the FI respectively,
for the middlewerelayer,significant
the ESALsfactors (p-val-
and overload
rate,
ues less p-values
withthan 0.05).of
In0.0013
contrast andto0.0156,
the toprespectively,
layer, servicewere significant
age, factorsof
with a p-value (p-values less
0.0696, was
than
not a 0.05). In contrast
significant to the topcrack
factor affecting layer, service age,
resistance. with a p-value
In addition, of 0.0696,
the p-values of thewasairnot
voida
significant
and mixture factor
type affecting crack resistance.
were far beyond In addition,
the significance level. In p-values
theterms of thestrength,
of tensile air void only
and
mixture typehad
the air void were far beyond
a p-value the significance
less than 0.05 (0.0029).level. In terms of
The p-values ofthe
tensile
otherstrength,
factors ofonly the
tensile
air void had a p-value less than 0.05 (0.0029). The p-values of the other
strength were significantly higher than 0.05. A particular analysis of the effect ESALs factors of tensile
strength were significantly
and overload rate on FI, ashigher than
well as the0.05. A particular
effect of air voidanalysis
on tensileof the effect ofisESALs
strength, and
presented
overload
below. rate on FI, as well as the effect of air void on tensile strength, is presented below.
The
The FIFI of
ofthe
themiddle
middlelayer
layershowed
showed a decreasing
a decreasing trend with
trend withESALs
ESALsas seen in Figure
as seen 11a.
in Figure
When the ESALs
11a. When the ESALswerewere
between 8 and8 20
between andmillion, the FI
20 million, decreased
the FI decreasedslowly withwith
slowly ESALs in a
ESALs
stable period.
in a stable WhenWhen
period. the ESALs were were
the ESALs greater than 20
greater million,
than the median
20 million, of FI decreased
the median of FI de-
rapidly to 3.69, because the stability of the middle layer was greatly
creased rapidly to 3.69, because the stability of the middle layer was greatly influenced influenced by theby
development of top-down fatigue cracks under repeated
the development of top-down fatigue cracks under repeated axle load. axle load.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Relationship
Relationship between
between FI
FI and
and significant
significant factors
factors for
for the
the middle
middle layer:
layer: (a)
(a) FI
FI versus
versus ESALs
ESALs
and (b) FI versus overload rate.
and (b) FI versus overload rate.

Compared with
Compared with the
the top
top layer,
layer, the
the overload
overload rate
rate replaced
replaced service
service age
age asas aa significant
significant
factor in the FI of the middle layer. Under the protection of the top layer, the influence
factor in the FI of the middle layer. Under the protection of the top layer, the influence of of
external environmental conditions on the middle layer declined remarkably,
external environmental conditions on the middle layer declined remarkably, weakening weakening
the effect
the effect of
of the
the service
service age.
age. However,
However, eveneven with
with the
the protection
protection ofof the
the top
top layer,
layer, aa severely
severely
overweight axle load may still cause performance degradation. Therefore,
overweight axle load may still cause performance degradation. Therefore, for for the
the middle
middle
layer, the
layer, the difference
difference inin the
the overload
overload rate had a more significant
significant impact
impact on FI than service
age. According to the relationship between FI and overload rate presented in Figure 11b,
although there are some fluctuations, the FI generally decreases as the overload rate
increases. When the overload rate was approximately 10%–19%, the FI was highly sensitive
to changes in the overload rate. Therefore, the cracking resistance of the middle layer of
a heavy-traffic highway section with an overloaded rate over 10% declines faster than
that of a light-traffic section with a low overload rate. For this kind of highway section,
asphalt overlay is recommended as a maintenance method. The asphalt overlay shifts the
original middle layer down in the overall structure of the pavement and slows down its
performance degradation.
The air void of the SCB specimens was determined using AASHTO T 166 [42]. This is
the only significant factor affecting the tensile strength of the middle layer. According to
the correlation relationship displayed in Figure 12, the tensile strength gradually decreased
with an increase in air void. The application of the linear fit is based on the relationship
between tensile strength and air void found by previous studies [43,44]. This result is
consistent with the fact that mixtures with low air void are stiffer than those with high air
void, exhibiting a higher peak load and tensile strength in the SCB test [44].
 to the correlation relationship displayed in Figure 12, the tensile strength
creased with an increase in air void. The application of the linear fit is base
tionship between tensile strength and air void found by previous studies [4
Coatings 2023, 13, 384
sult is consistent with the fact that mixtures with low air void are stiffer th
11 of 15
high air void, exhibiting a higher peak load and tensile strength in the SCB

Figure 12. Relationship between tensile strength and air void for the middle layer.
Figure 12. Relationship between tensile strength and air void for the middle layer.
3.3. Effect of Factors on the Bottom Layer
3.3. Effect of Factors
The ANOVA resultson the Bottom
revealed that theLayer
air void was the only significant factor for both
the indices of the bottom layer. In addition, the p-value of the air void for the tensile
The ANOVA results revealed that the air void was the only significant f
strength was significantly smaller than that for the FI (<0.0001 vs. 0.0007). The specific effect
the
of airindices of the
void on both bottom
indices layer.
is analyzed below.In addition, the p-value of the air void f
Compared with the top and
strength was significantly smaller than middle layers, the bottom
that forlayerthehadFI the(<0.0001
lowest position
vs. 0.0007)
on the asphalt pavement surface course, and the environmental and load conditions were
effect of air void on both indices is analyzed below.
relatively tolerant. Therefore, ESALs, service age, and overload rate had slight effects on
Compared
the performance with
of the bottomthelayers,
top andwhich middle layers,
is consistent withthe bottom
the results layer
of the had the lo
ANOVA.
on the Figure 13 illustrates
asphalt pavementthe correlation
surface between
course, the and
indices andenvironmental
the the air void of the bottom
and load co
layer. Kaseer [26] found a strong linear relationship between the FI and air void, which
relatively tolerant. Therefore, ESALs, service age, and overload rate had sli
also existed in other studies [45–47]. Therefore, a linear fit was also performed for the
the performance
values of FI and air voidof inthe
thisbottom
study. Thelayers, whichdecreased
tensile strength is consistent
with anwith theinresults
increase the of
air void, which was consistent with the law of the middle layer.
Figure 13 illustrates the correlation between the indices and the air voidHowever, FI showed an
opposite trend. It is well known that more energy is consumed in the crack initiation and
layer. Kaseer [26] found a strong linear relationship between the FI and ai
propagation phases of denser asphalt mixtures generated with more compaction energy.
also existed
Therefore, in other
the higher the airstudies
void, the[45–47].
lower theTherefore,
fracture energy a [47].
linear fit was also
Furthermore, the perfo
decreaseof
values in the peak air
FI and loadvoid
owingin tothis
the increase
study.inThe the air void yielded
tensile strength a lower absolute with a
decreased
value of m (post-peak slope). When calculating the FI, a decrease in fracture energy will
the air void, which was consistent with the law of the middle layer. Howev
decrease the FI; however, at the same time, a decrease in the absolute value of m will
an opposite
increase trend.
the FI with It is
a more well known
dominant that
effect [26]. more aenergy
Therefore, tentativeis airconsumed
void correctionin the cr
and propagation phases of denser asphalt mixtures generated with more co
factor was used to adjust FI values based on the air void contents of the samples, as shown
in Equation (5) [26]:
ergy. Therefore, the higher the air void, 4% the lower the fracture energy [47].
FI4% = FI× , (5)
the decrease in the peak load owing toAV the increase in the air void yielded a lo
value
where FIof
4% m (post-peak
is the slope).
corrected FI using 4% asWhen calculating
a reference air void andtheAV FI,
is theaair
decrease in fractur
void content.
decrease the FI; however, at the same time, a decrease in the absolute va
3.4. Summary of Factors Influencing the Three Asphalt Layers
increase the FI
According with
to the a more
above analysis,dominant effect
the significant [26].
factors Therefore,
affecting a tentative
the cracking resistance air vo
of the three asphalt layers are summarized in Table 4. It was found that the cracking
performance of the top and middle layers was significantly affected by several factors,
including ESALs, service age, overload rate, and air void. However, the bottom layer
indices were affected only by air void. Regarding the FIs of the three layers, ESALs had a
significant effect on the upper two layers but had no effect on the bottom layer. In addition,
regarding the tensile strength, ESALs had a significant effect only on the top layer.
 factor was used to adjust FI values based on the air void contents of the samples, as shown
in Equation (5) [26]:
4%
FI4% = FI× , (5)
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 AV 12 of 15

where FI4% is the corrected FI using 4% as a reference air void and AV is the air void
content.

(a) (b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Relationship
Relationship between
between significant
significant factors
factors and
and air void for
air void for the
the bottom
bottom layer:
layer: (a)
(a) tensile
tensile
strength versus air void and (b) FI versus air void.
strength versus air void and (b) FI versus air void.

3.4. Summary
Table of Factors
4. Summary Influencing
of factors the cracking
affecting the Three Asphalt Layers
resistance for three asphalt layers.
According to the above analysis, the significant factors affecting the cracking re-
sistance Layers Cracking
of the three asphalt layers Indices Significant
are summarized in Table 4. It was foundp-Value
Factors that the crack-
Service age affected by several
ing performance of the top and middle layers was significantly 0.0442 factors,
FI
includingTop
ESALs, service age, overload rate, and air ESALs 0.0002layer in-
void. However, the bottom
Tensile strength
dices were affected only by air void. Regarding the ESALs
FIs of the three layers,0.0101
ESALs had a
significant effect on the upper two ESALs 0.0013
FI layers but had no effect on the bottom layer. In addi-
tion, regarding Overload rate
Middle the tensile strength, ESALs had a significant 0.0156
effect only on the top layer.
Tensile strength Air void 0.0029
FI the cracking resistance
Table 4. Summary of factors affecting Air void 0.0007
for three asphalt layers.
Bottom
Tensile strength Air void <0.0001
Layers Cracking Indices Significant Factors p-Value
A multivariate technique was Service age 0.0442
FI used to summarize the degree of linear relationship
between Top
ESALs and the FIs of the three layers. When ESALs 0.0002 exists
an exact linear relationship
Tensile strength ESALs
between two variables, the correlation coefficient is 1 for a positive correlation 0.0101 and −1
ESALs
for a negative correlation. When no linear relationship exists, the correlation 0.0013
coefficient
FI
tends toMiddle
0. Table 5 lists the correlation coefficientOverload ratedegree of linear
matrix. The 0.0156
correlation
between ESAL and FI wasTensile
rankedstrength
as follows: top layer
Air>void
middle layer > bottom layer. This
0.0029
indicates that there is no correlation
FI between ESALs and the
Air void FI of the bottom 0.0007 because
layer
Bottomis close to 0. The correlation results confirmed that traffic load only affects
the coefficient Tensile strength Air void <0.0001
the crack resistance of the two upper asphalt layers.
A multivariate technique was used to summarize the degree of linear relationship
Table 5. Multivariate correlations between ESALs and FIs of the three asphalt layers.
between ESALs and the FIs of the three layers. When an exact linear relationship exists
between two variables, the correlation coefficient is 1 forFI
Correlation a of
positive
Middlecorrelation
FI of and −1 for
Bottom
ESALs FI of Top Layer
a negative
Itemcorrelation. When no linear relationship exists, the correlation coefficient
Layer Layer tends
to 0. Table
ESALs5 lists the correlation
1 coefficient matrix. The degree
−0.67382 −0.30739of linear correlation
0.03645 be-
tween
FI of ESAL and FI was
top layer ranked as follows: top
−0.67382 1 layer > middle layer > bottom
0.179072 layer. This
−0.11837
indicates that there is no correlation between ESALs and the FI of the bottom layer because
FI of middle
−0.30739 0.179072 1 −0.18856
layer
the coefficient is close to 0. The correlation results confirmed that traffic load only affects
the FI of bottom
crack resistance of the two upper asphalt
0.03645 layers.
−0.11837 −0.18856 1
layer

The following Table 6 compares the effects of these five factors on cracking resistance
at an intermediate temperature revealed by this study and previous studies in recent years.
The current results on the effect of air void and mix type are consistent with previous
studies. In the past, there was a lack of studies on the effects of external factors on different
asphalt layers in the field.
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 13 of 15

Table 6. Comparison of effects of factors on cracking resistance with previous studies.

Cracking Resistance at Intermediate Temperature

Factors
Current Results Previous Studies
Air void (↑) 1 FI (↑) Tensile strength (↓) 2 FI (↑) Tensile strength (↓) [26,38,44,45]
Mixture type Non-sensitive Non-sensitive [26,45]
Service age (↑) ↓ (top layer only) Not found
ESALs (↑) ↓ (not for bottom layer) Not found
Overload rate (↑) ↓ (middle layer only) Not found
1 ↑ indicates an increase in value, 2 ↓ indicates a decrease in value.

4. Conclusions
In this study, the intermediate-temperature cracking resistance of asphalt field mixtures
from 16 freeway sections in Jiangsu Province, China was evaluated based on the SCB test.
Five material properties and external conditions were considered in the statistical evaluation
to reveal significant factors affecting the FI and tensile strength of the three asphalt layers.
The key findings of this study are summarized below.
1. Regarding the top asphalt layer, ESALs had a significant effect on both indices, while
service age only had a significant effect on FI. The FI declined with increasing ESALs,
while the rate of decline gradually decreased. The most rapid decline in crack resis-
tance with age occurred on medium-traffic-level sections that served for over 14 years.
2. For the middle asphalt layer, the FI was significantly affected by ESALs, followed by
the overload rate. The FI was highly sensitive to an overload rate of approximately
10%–19%.
3. For the bottom asphalt layer, FI and tensile strength were only affected significantly
by the air void.
4. Comparing the five factors, the effect of the traffic load decreased with the depth of the
pavement structure. The air void gradually becomes a crucial factor with increasing
depth. The current results on the effect of air void and mix type agree with the ones in
previous studies. The effect of external factors on the cracking performance of different
asphalt layers in the field was revealed, which has rarely been studied in the past.
5. Indicating the overall ductility of the asphalt mixture, the FI was more sensitive to the
traffic load than the tensile strength. The tensile strength was more sensitive to the air
void as a stiffness index. When the traffic load was a significant factor, both FI and
tensile strength decreased as the traffic load increased. When the effect of the air void
was dominant, the tensile strength decreased as the air void increased, whereas FI,
counterintuitively, exhibited the opposite trend.
This study can be expanded by field samples from a broader array of freeway sections.
In addition, it is of interest to establish a correlation between SCB cracking indices and
real-world pavement cracking performance data. All these analyses will contribute to
further investigations into the effects of various factors on the cracking of long-term-service
asphalt pavements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.N. and D.X.; methodology, D.X., H.D. and Z.Z.; formal
analysis, D.X. and H.D.; investigation, D.X., J.W. and S.C.; resources, F.N.; writing—original draft
preparation, D.X.; writing—review and editing, H.D. and Z.Z.; supervision, F.N.; funding acquisition,
F.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Jiangsu Communications Holding Co., Ltd., under several
projects (No. 8521009107, No. 8521008990) and a Jiangsu Province Construction System Technology
Project (No. 2022ZD099).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data are included in the article.
Coatings 2023, 13, 384 14 of 15

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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