CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK ‘Exam.style questions and sample answors have boon written by the authors. n examinations, the way marks aro awarded say be different > Coursebook answers Chapter 1 excretion, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, movement, nutrition, respiration ‘See Topie 1.1 for full descriptions of each term, Learners are not likely to be able to describe each one correctly at this stage. Their answers will provide you with an opportunity 10 pick up any misconceptions, There are no ‘correct’ answers to these discussion questions. Learners may suggest these ideas, or you could use them to prompt discussion: Using the same two-word name means that scientists all over the world can be sure they are talking about the same organism, no matter what language they speak. Some learners may say itis not a good idea — for example, because these names look ‘scary’ and unfamiliar, so may put some people off learning about different organisms. In the 18th century, Latin was the language of edueatior not a bad idea to use a language that no one speaks now, as it avoids confusion. If we used English or Spanish or Mandarin, then people speaking those languages might get mixed up between common names and Latin names, But the names ean be a bit difficult to deal with for many people, in Europe. In some ways, itis ‘Yaks belong to the genus Bos and the species Bos grunniens. To belong to the same species, organisms should be able to reproduce to produce fe offspring, but yakolos are infertile Sea anemones do not obviously move. Their tentacles perhaps look like flower petals, ‘You would see that their cells do not have cell walls, and never contain chloroplasts. With a mi cells would have cell walls. Some of them would also have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. ascope, you could see that their Staphylococcus the prokaryote kingdom Any two from: Its cell wall is not made of cellulose. It does not have a nucleus or mitochondria, It has a cireular loop of DNA. It has plasmids, hypha The cells have cell walls. reproduction animal kingdom Amphibians have a smooth skin, but reptiles have scales. Amphibians lay eggs with no shells in water; reptiles lay eggs with soft shells on land ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology - Jones © Cambridge University Prose 2021Chapter 1 continued hair; pinnae; mammary glands diaphragm; sweat glands; uterus; placenta: different kinds of tecth (teeth could also be considered external features) Jointed legs: exoskeleton Myriapods have jointed legs on almost all segments, but arachnids have only four pairs of jointed legs. Myriapods hhave one pair of antennae, but arachnids do not have antennae. Arachnids have a body divided into a cephalothorax and abdomen, but this is not so in myriapods, three pairs of jointed legs; one pair of ‘antennae; body divided into head, thorax and abdomen Ferns do not have flowers, but flowering plants do, Ferns produce spores on the backs of their leaves, but lowering plants do not, Answers will depend on the plants that learners find. Features they can use for identification are: the veins on the leaves ‘monocots have parallel veins, but dicots have a network of veins; the flowers - monocots have flowers with parts in multiples of three, but dicots have flowers with parts in multiples of four or five. ‘The diagram shows that the virus is not made of cells All living organisms are made of cells, Viruses are unable to carry out any of the characteristics of living organisms on their own ~ they do not show movement, ‘growth, excretion, respiration, sensitivity or nutrition, However, they can reproduce, and some scientists consider that this justifies classification as a living organism, But they can only do this inside @ living cell, which suggests that they cannot be considered to be alive themselves. Se es eear eteaiset ered io} a io} (1) A Hex aquifolium (1) ; B Iris germanica IM; C Budaleia davidii (1) ; D Tricyrtis hirta (11; B Fraxinus excelsior (11: 4 group of organisms that can reproduce [1]: to produce fertile offspring 1] binomial arthropods ; Pz arachnids [1] :Q: insects [1] R: myriapods [1] two pairs of wings [1]; body divided into head, thorax and abdomen {1] Commiphora africana and Commiphora ‘angolensis 1]; because they belong to the same genus [1] ; Any two from: net of veins in leaves ; flower parts in multiples of four orfive ; vascular bundles in stem arranged inaring main roots with side roots ; seeds with two cotyledons ; Max. 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 1 continued prokaryote [1] ;and protoctist [1] ; cells with cell walls not made of cellulose [1] ; do not have chloroplasts [1] ; X genetic material (accept DNA or RNA) [1] ; ¥ protein coat [1] Any two from: only organisms are classified into kingdoms viruses are not considered to be ‘organisms because they cannot sarry out the characteristics of living things ; and are not made of cells; [Max. 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 2 You could look for call walls, which all plant cells have, but no animal cell does. You could also look for chloroplasts itisa plant coll. However, i it does not have ‘thom it could stil be a plant cel if the call has these, You could look for a nucleus. If it does not have one, its a prokaryote. ‘They could perhaps look for fossils, as fossil ictoria have been found that date to this age. However, its often difficult to identify fossils of bacteria, us they have no hard parts and are very small ‘There are many possible approaches to this question, and ideas that learners might ‘There are no ‘correet” answers. In some ‘ways, bacteria have been more successful than humans there are far more of them on Earth today than there are humans, and they continue to be very successful in terms Of being able to live in every environment that has ever been investigated. However, ‘humans have brains that allow us to be aware of our environment and change it, Ther is considerable capacity for wide-ranging discussion here. A unicellular organism is made of a single cell for example, bacteria, protoctists. A multicellular organism is made of many cells for example, human, plant The animal cells do not have any coloured parts, which makes them difficult to sce ‘without a stain. The plant cells contain green ehloropkasts. Their coll walls, which are much thicker than cell membranes, also stand out. ribosome nucleus chloroplast cell wall vacuole cll membrane ribosome, nucleus, cell membrane For example: has cell membrane has cell membrane has cell membrane cell wall made of cellulose has cell wall, [no cell wall but not made of cellulose has has cytoplasm gtoplasm has cytoplasm no nucleus [has a nucleus [has a nucleus DNAis circular DNA isnot circular and forms chromosomes DNAis not circular and forms chromosomes has has ribosomes | has ribosomes ribosomes. ‘does has has nothave | mitochondria _| mitochondria mitochondria does not have chloroplasts does not have chloroplasts may have chloroplasts 1000) Actual length in Figure 2.10 83mm, 83mm = 83 x 1000 = 83 000m, Real size = 83000 = 20000 = 4,15 jm 1 mm = 1000 ym. So you could fit 1000 = 4.15 = 240.96, Rounded up, this is 241 mitochondria. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 2 continued nucleus ; 1 Any six from: protein synthesis requires energy ; im Bis a mitochondrion; mitochondria provide energy (do not accept m produce energ)) they have cell walls ; mm by aerobic respiration; which releases energy from glucose they have a nucleus there are many sy Home cells together (1 Cisa ribosome ; chloroplast Mm ribosomes are the site of protein contains DNA / chromosomes syntiesiss (Max. 6) [1] ; which contain information about ‘which proteins the cell makes [1] site of protein synthesis [1] ; using instructions from (DNA in) the nucleus [1]; ‘magnification = image size ~ actual size [1] s correct substitution into equation [1] ; correet statement of magnification, with a sign and no unit [1] 5 Width of jellyfish in the photo is 82 mm. Actual width of jellyfish is 50 mm. ‘So magnification is 82 ~ 50 = 1.64 Round up to 2 significant figures: x1.6 Any three of the following pairs: coll membrane ~ partially permeable / controls what enters and leaves the cell ; cytoplasm — where many metabolic reactions take place ; nucleus - contains, DNA / chromosomes / information about which proteins the cell makes ; ribosome — where proteins are made ; mitochondrion - site of aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose (Max. 6] conduction of electrical impulses; (1] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 3 ‘The particles are far apart and rarely collide with each other ~ gas ‘The particles vibrate on the spot ~ solid ‘The particles are close to one another but can move around — liquid ‘The particles move freely in all directions ~ gas The particles stay in contact and slide past one nother as they move — liquid ‘The particles are in fixed positions, close to ‘one another ~ solid Learners cannot be expected to know any detail about transplants or availability of ‘organs and should be encouraged to put forward any suggestions that they have. The real reasons are: the body will reject an organ that is from a person with a different tissue type, so itis very difficult to find « kidney ‘that will be accepted by the recipient's body: there are never enough donated kidneys to g0 ‘around ~ they need to come from a healthy person who has recently died, or from a close relative who is willing to donate one. This question looks ahead to factors that affect the rate of diffusion, and to the concept of a diffusion gradient. Learners may be able to work out for themselves that keeping the fluid flowing through will make sure that the harmful substances do not build up in the dialysis luid, and may also be able to see that this would stop the substances from diffusing ‘out of the blood and into the fluid, ‘The ‘particles"/people are spread out ‘The ‘particles'/people have diffused to fill the space available ~ by moving around and bumping into each other (or in this case, avoiding bumping into each other). net movement — the overall result of some particles moving one way, but more moving in the other direction concentration gradient —a difference in concentration between two solutions; the gradient ‘slopes down’ from the high ‘concentration to the lower concentration random movement — movement in any direction, just by chanee coll membrane Any three from (or other correet examples): ween gus diffusing from outside a cell to inside carbon dioxide gas diffusing from inside call to outside oxygen gus diffusing from inside a photosynthesising cell to outside carbon dioxide gas diffusing from outside a photosynthesising cell to inside glucose or other solutes diffusing through the cytoplasm of a cell. the kinetic energy of the particles ‘The cubes had an alkali in them, As the acid diffused into them, it neutralised the alkali, so the indicator changed colour. ‘The volume was the same. The surface area of the four small cubes was larger than the surface area of the large cube. ‘The time taken for the four smulll cubes to completely change colour was smaller than the ‘one single cube. This is because the surface area of the small ‘cubes was greater than for the single cube. ‘The conclusion will depend on the results but is likely to be: The greater the surface area, the faster diffusion takes place ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 3 continued At higher temperatures, particles have ‘more kinetic energy and move faster. ‘The greater the diffusion gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion, (Some learners may be able to explain this in terms of the larger number of moving particles in the area of high concentration, resulting in a treater net movement towards the area of ow concentration.) Many small tubes have a larger surface area than a single large tube, which speeds up diffusion. This decreases the distance across which the particles have to travel, to get from the blood into the dialysis fluid, so it takes them less time, Water is the solvent, and sugar is the solute The water molecules are small enough to get through the holes in the membrane, but the sugar molecules are too big, From the dilute solution to the concentrated solution, ‘The kinetic energy of the water molecules. The dilute solution has the higher water potential, because it contains more water molecules. Water moved by osmosis from the water into the sugar solution. (It moved from a high water potential to a lower water potential.) ‘The sugar molecules could not move out, because they were too big. The answer will depend on the results. The mean can be calculated by subtracting the original height from the final height and dividing by time taken, Learners may be lucky and find that the movement of water up the tube is faster when there isa greater difference between the concentrations inside and outside the dialysis tubing. However, in practice, itis extremely difficult to take the apparatus apart, thoroughly wash the tubing, refill it and reattach it, without changing numerous other variables that can also affect the results The liquid would move up the tube faster, because the surface area of the tubing would be greater, resulting in a greater rate of diffusion, Use the same apparatus, with the same concentration of sugar solution each time, Use water at a range of different temperatures ‘and measure the rate at which the liquid rises up the tube, You would expect the rate of movement to be faster at higher temperatures. When an animal coll is placed in pure water: water enters the call by osmosis through the partially permeable cell membrane, Plant cells have a strong cell wall surrounding the cell membrane, which stops the cell bursting. Water moves out of the cell through the partially permeable cell membrane. ‘The cytoplasm and vacuole shrink. ‘The cell membrane is pulled away from the cell wall ‘The same solution that the cell is immersed in. ‘The only thing between the external solution and space X is the cell wall, which is fully permeable, The cells will take up water by osmosis, because the water potential of the water ‘outside the cell is greater than the water potential of the solution inside the cell. The vacuole and eytoplasm will inerease in volume, so the cell membrane will be pushed back against the cell wall, into its normal position ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 3 continued Learners should find that they get longer. Each cell in the piece of potato gained water by osmosis, because the solution inside the cell ‘was more concentrated (had less water, oF lower water potential) than the water outside. As cach cell swelled up, this increased the size of the whole strip. ‘Leamers should find that they get shorter. Each cell in the piece of potato lost water by ‘osmosis, because the solution inside the vas less concentrated (had more water, or ‘a higher water potential) than the solution ‘outside, As each coll lost water and shrank, this decreased the size of the whole strip diffusion [1] ; random movement of [1] ; down « concentration to allow time for the dye solution to come to same temperature as the water bath ; [1] Ay ovo from: the concentration of the dye solution ; the volume oF the dye solution ; the volume oF the jelly eubes the surface area of the jelly eubes ; [Max. 2] the value at 20°C, time 4.5 minutes [1] ; because the time is shorter than the time at 30°C [1] ; As the temperature increases, the time to change colour decreases. [1] at higher temperatures, kinetic energy of particles inereases [1]; so, particles fr / diffusion happens faster the net movement of water molecules [1] ; from a higher water potential to a lower water potential / down a water potential gradient [1] through a partially permeable membrane [1] Any six from: both take up water by osmosis because there is a water potential ‘gradient from outside the cell to inside ; the volumes of both eells increase ; the animal cell bursts but the phn cell does not because the phint cell has a cell wall (but the animal cell does not) the plant cell becomes turgid a8 the contents of the cell push ‘outwards on the cell wall Which is called turgor pressure ; [Max. 6] more potassium in the plant cells than in the water [1] ; more sodium in the water than in the plant cells [1]; use of comparative figures [1] active transport [1] : if diffusion then ‘concentrations in the cells and the water would be the same [1] : Any four from cells are using energy: from respiration to move potassium ions into the cell/ move sodium ions out of the cell ; against their concentration gradients ; reference to transport proteins [Max. 4] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Chapter 4 0, molecule an clement carbon, hydrogen and oxysen cH, compound ‘Those questions are for only — there are no ‘right’ answers. ‘The conditions are not right — there is a different mix of chemicals in the atmosphere and the oceans. This isa big and very wide topic, and some learners might like to research further into modern theories about the origin of life Learners will probably first think of dangers that Martian life might cause to humans, but there is very unlikely to be an issue with this. Itis more important that, if we are going to try to find traces of past life on Mars, we do not contaminate it with traces of life from Earth. Discussions could consider how we can avoid this, Similarities: both are made of C, Hand only; both are made of many glucose molecules combined to form long chains Difference: cellulose molecules lie straight. but starch molecules coil into a spiral shape glucose Answers will depend on the foods that learners rested. Learners should find that all the foods containing starch and reducing sugar are of plant origin. If they are processed foods with several ingredients then at least some of these ingredients will have come from plants. Se es eear eteaiset ered Learners should consider the variables that they rced to standardise. In particular, they must use the same mass of food to test, mix it with the same volume of water, add the same volume of Benediet’s solution and heat them to the same temperature (preferably in the same water bath af the same time). They may also say that the ‘dimensions of the test tube should be the same, a this will affect heat transfer from the water bath to the mixture inside the tube. They would then time how long it takes for the first colour change. As this is dificult to judge, they might suggest having sa reference ube with a colour that they ean match their experimental tubes against If time allows, you could provide learners with two glucose solutions of different concentrations and let them try out their planned experiment. This is always a good way of helping them to see any weaknesses in their plans ‘The fat layer acts as an insulator. It reduces heat loss from the animal's body to its environment. Birds don't want to carry any more weight than necessary, or they would waste a lot of energy when they fly long distances, Storing energy in fat allows them to keep their weight much lower than if they stored it as carbohydrate, nitrogen Is not soluble, Keratin is found in hair and nails, and these do not dissolve when we are in the shower or go swimming. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 4 continued starch and cellulose m carbon, hydrogen and oxygen fT made up of many glucose molecules (1] : Joined in a long chain [1] : tadd Benediet’s solution to the liquid [1] ;heat [1] colour change from blue to green / yellow / orange /red indicates lucose [1] The mixture should not be heated. ; [1] ‘The colour change is from blue to purple or violet. m crush the food [1] ; mix with ethanol [1] ; pour some of the ethanol into distilled water [1] ; a milky emulsion ; a ‘Any six from: measure a specific volume of DCPIP ; add fresh lemon juice, drop by drop/ using a burette record the quantity of juice needed to make the DCPIP lose its colour; detail, eg. swirling the mixture repeat with the other juice; using the same volume of DCPIP ; the juice that needs the fewer drops / smaller volume to decolourise the DCPIP has the higher concentration of vitamin C [Max. 6] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 300% [1] : A always pairs with T [1] 20% [1] :if 30% is A and 30% isT, the naining 40% is C and G [1] ‘determines which proteins are made in the cell 1]: the sequence of bases in DNA [1] ; determines the sequence of amino acids in proteins [1];CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 5 The incorrect statements are: Ina chemical reaction, atoms of one element are rearranged to make atoms of other elements. This is incorrect, because atoms do not change in a chemical reaction. Atoms can be arranged ‘to make new compounds, or new substances, but not now atoms Products are changed 10 reactants. This is the wrong way round ~ reactants are changed to products. ‘Making proteins, such as enzymes, uses energy and materials (amino acids). In the past most people did not drink milk or eat dairy products as adults, so there was no advantage in being able to digest luctose. It is only since farming began, and people started to keep cons and goats to produce milk, that dairy produets became part of some people’s dicts. Learners who are interested in this will be able to find more information on the internet. ‘The ability to digest lactose is the result of a mutation, thought to have happened about 10000 years ago, that has spread throughout European populations. This may be because the long, cold winters made it difficult to find fresh food, and having cattle that could supply milk throughout the winter helped people to stay alive Lactose in the solution inside the alimentary canal inereases the concentration of the solution (decreases its water potential). The contents of the cals lining the canal have a lower concentration (higher water potential) so water passes out of the cells, through their partially permeable membranes, by osmosis, (down the water potential gradient). The extra water in the alimentary canal causes diarrhoea. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 Biological because they are made by ‘organisms. Catalysts because they increase the rate of chemical reactions. carbohydrase lactose As temperature increases from 0 to 37°C the rate of reaction increases. The increase is exponential. As temperature increases above 37°C, the rate of reaction decreases und reaches 0 at $8°C. This decrease is steeper than the increase at lower temperatures. 2 between pH 5.6 and 10.4 catalase hydrogen peroxide, ——+ water + oxygen ‘There was catalase on the filter paper, because it had been dipped into the celery extract. When the paper was put into the hydrogen peroxide solution, the catalase made the hydrogen peroxide break down, releasing oxygen, The oxygen collected as bubbles on the paper, which made it rise upwards. Those answers depend on the learners? results. The experiment could be done again, this time using a range of pH values clustered around the valuc that gave the fastest times in this experiment.Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 5 continued Answers will depend on learners’ experience as they did the experiment. They are likely 10 include: variables other than pH affecting the time for the paper to rise to the top — for example, differences in how much celery extract was absorbed onto the paper; differences in the sizes of the pieces of paper; differences in how the paper behaved (it might have flipped round sideways or hit the side of the tube on its way up); these are all very difficult to standardise, and learners may suggest a different method of measuring how much oxygen is released, such as collecting in «gas syringe and measuring the volume collected difficulty in measuring the time precisely Its difficult to improve this, as itis almost impossible to standardise the ‘moment at which the paper is placed at the bottom of the beaker, and also exactly when it reaches the surface of the liquid. Tt was alkaline, and the indicator (thymolphthalein) is blue in alkaline conditions. (Learners may also explain that it is alkaline because sodium carbonate has been, added to it.) Lipase digested the fat in the milk, breaking it down to fatty acids. These are acidic, and so they reduced the pH. This causes the indicator to change from blue to colourless. These answers will depend on the learners’ results, The colour change does not take place instantaneously, It is impossible to judge precisely when the colour change occurs, It is tricky even to judge this to the nearest second, ‘and it certainly cannot be done to the nearest 0.1 or 0.018. ‘This will depend on what the learner experienced as they did the experiment. The most likely suggestions for sources or error ‘and improvements are: difficulty in deciding on the time of colour change ~ it would help to have a set of tubes with different pH values and the indicator, for reference difficulty in measuring volumes of liquids accurately ~ syringes and measuring. cylinders could be replaced by graduated pipettes the possibility of unrecognised anomalous resulls~ the chance of this could be reduced by having replicates, perhaps three at each temperature. Explanations should refer to: the increase in kinetic energy of enzyme and substrate molecules as temperature increases, therefore, an increase in the frequency of collisions the loss of shape of the active site of the ‘enzyme as temperature increases above ‘optimum, so that the substrate no longer fits into it use of the term denaturation. Explanations should refer to: the active site of the enzyme only having its ‘correct’ shape within « narrow range around pH7 the loss of shape of the active site of the enzyme as pH decreases or increases from the optimum, so that the substrate no Tonger fits into it use of the term denaturation. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 5 continued a a a Enzymes are proteins [1]; that function as biological catalysts [1]. ; They are involved inall metabolic reactions [1]. The part of an enzyme where a substrate binds is called its wetive site [1]. : The shape of this site, and the shape of the substrate, are complementary (1].; they increase the reaction rate (of metabolic reactions) [1] : so that these work well enough to sustain life [1] io} the iodine went blue-black at the start because the solution contained starch [1] : it stayed brown after adding amylase because the solution did not contain starch [1] : because it had been broken down by amylase [1] amylase works most quickly at pH7/ its optimum is pIT 7 [1]; 4 minutes is the shortest time [1]: it does not work atall at pH or 11 [1] Any three from: the concentration of amylase solution ; the concentration of starch solution ; the volume of amylase solution ; the temperature 5 [Max. 3] Any five from: the optimum temperature of enzyme Bis higher than enzyme A ; lowest temperature at which activity begins is higher for B than A ; highest temperature at which activity ends is higher for B than A; figures quoted for both (eg. optimum is 70°C for Band 40°C for A); for both, increase in temperature below optimum causes an exponential increase in activity for both, increase in temperature above optimum causes a steeper decrease in activity 5 [Max. 5] Any three from: kinetic energy of enzyme and substrate molecules increases as temperature increases so the frequency of collisions frequency of formation of ‘enzyme substrate complexes 80, rate of reaction increases [Max. 3] Any four from: enzyme molecule begins to lose its shape enzyme is denatured ; so active site no longer ‘complementary shape to substrate ; ‘enzyme substrate complexes cannot form 0, rate of reaction decreases idea that inereasing temperature ‘over this range results in a greater of denaturation ; Max. 4] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 6 carbohydrates and fats (and occasionally proteins) sunlight through photosynthesis in plants: they use energy from sunlight to make carbohydrates Ideas could include: reduced combustion of fossil fuels, which release long-stored carbon into the ‘atmosphere as carbon dioxide use of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for photosynthesis; this will be released again when the fuel is burnt, but overall what is released should match what has been used. Accept any sensible ideas. For example, ‘growing crops for biofuels uses large areas of land, which leads to damage to ecosystems and loss of habitats. Learners may also suggest that biofuels may need to be transported over long distances, which can be costly in terms of energy used and carbon dioxide released. They may also suggest that biofuels are not very “energy dense Artificial photosynthesis could be done under controlled conditions, generating a lot of fuel in a relatively small space ~ this could perhaps be next to facilities that actually use the fuel (such as electricity generating stations). Animals get all of their energy from organic substances, which they are not able to synthesise themselves. Plants synthesise ‘organic substances from inorganic ones, using sunlight as an energy source. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight. (Do not accept ‘atiracts sunlight’.) The enerey enables carbon dioxide and water to react to ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 ‘The model shows that six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water produce ‘one molecule of glucose and six molecules of Accept any sensible suggestions. For example, some pieces of orange card could be used to represent energy in sunlight, and a Jearner could hand some to the learners who are building the glucose molecule, The ceards can be placed in the carton with the glucose molecule, showing that the energy is incorporated into it. ‘The oxygen that is released in photosynthesis comes from water molecules, not carbon dioxide, All the carbon and oxygen in the carbon dioxide becomes part of the glucose molecule, Starch is a storage material, and if you are storing something you need to be able to get it back again when required, Plants need to be able to break down starch to glucose, so that they can use it in respiration to provide energy. Cellulose, however, isa structural material, used to make cell walls. It needs to stay there, not be broken down, or the cell walls would ceasily break apart. slyeogen Not all parts are exposed to light (@2. roots) and not all parts have chloroplasts (e.g. flowers) so they cannot photosynthesise and make their own carbohydrates, nitrogen magnesium nitrate ions | magnesium ions to make to make amino acids, | chlorophyll and then proteins ‘weak growth, | yellowing of leaves, yellow leaves | often especially between the veinsDeed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 6 continued (Learners may differ in the knowledge they already have about plant reproduction; this is covered in more detail in Chapter 14.) Pollination is essential for sexuall reproduction in plants. Nectar attracts insects to the flower, ‘and the inseets transfer pollen to another flower, allowing fertilisation to take place captures more energy from sunlight: increases the rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leat allows sunlight to penetrate to all tissues in the leaf; reduces the diffusion distance for carbon dioxide It has a large number of chloroplasts, where photosynthesis takes place. ‘This means that there is alot of chlorophyll, which transfers energy from sunlight to energy in carbohydrates ‘The cells are tall and thin, so many can be packed into a small area, with few cell walls for sunlight to pass through to reach all of the chloroplasts. ‘They receive less sunlight than other tissues in the leat, ‘The electron micrograph has better resolution (the image is sharper) It provides a three- dimensional image, whereas the light micrograph is in two dimensions. ‘They should find that the leaf becomes blue- black, indicating that it contains starch. Boiling breaks down cell membranes. This is necessary because there are membranes ‘around the chloroplasts and around the cell which need to be broken down to allow the iodine to come into contact with the starch, which is inside the chloroplasts inside the leat cells to allow any change in colour to be seen more clearly ‘They should find that only the green parts contained starch. Chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis. If the plant was not destarched, we would not know whether any starch we found had been ‘made during the experiment or before, ‘To give the plant time to photosynthesise and sake starch. Light is necessary for photosynthesis, Either leaf could be said to be the control ‘One has carbon dioxide and one does not: it is justifiable to say that either one is the experiment, and the other is the control. The essential point is that you need both, in order to compare the results. ‘This was to control a variable. The only difference between the two flasks is that one has a liquid that absorbs carbon dioxide, and the other has a liquid that does not Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis ‘The plant releases oxygen as bubbles, which wwe can see and count As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. ‘The heat shield prevents temperature becoming an uncontrolled variable. ‘The bubbles released may not all be the same size. Iti ulso not easy to count them reliably. Measuring volume will give a more reliable indication of the quantity of oxygen released. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 6 continued Look for these features on the line graph: independent variable (temperature or mass of sodium hydrogencarbonate added) on the x-axis dependent variable (number of bubbles per minute) on the y-axis good scales on both axes, going up in sensible and regular intervals, and using at least half of the grid provided points plotted accurately, as neat erosses lines drawn with a ruler between points ‘These answers will depend on the learner's results, and their experience in carrying out their planned investigation, Learners should obtain these results: tube in the dark with no plant: orange-red, a Tittle carbon dioxide tube in the dark with a plant: yellow, a lot of carbon dioxide tube in the light with no plant: orange-red, a Tittle carbon dioxide tube in the light with a plant: purple, no carbon dioxide tube in the dark with no plant: There was nothing to alter the concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid, so it remained the same colour that it started tube in the dark with a plant: The plant respired, releasing carbon dioxide. tube in the light with no plant; There was nothing to alter the concentration of carbon oxide in the liquid, so it remained the same colour that it started tube in the light with a plant: The plant photosynthesised at a greater rate than it respired, using up the carbon dioxide in the tube. Its likely that learners used an «axis scale showing distance of the lamp from the beaker. ‘This means that, as you go from left to right on their graph, light intensity decreases. This contrasts with the graph in Figure 6.23, where light intensity inereases from left to right. ‘Their curve is therefore likely to be a mirror image of Figure 6.23 ‘There may also be other differences, depending on the learner's results Between 0% and about 0.12%, because over this range the rate of photosynthesis increases as the carbon dioxide concentration increases palisade mesophyll ; Any three from: cells contain many chloroplasts in which photosynthesis takes place; (chloroplasts) contain a lot of chlorophyll which transfers energy from light to energy in carbohydrates ; cells are tall and narrow allowing sunlight to reach chloroplasts without having to pass through many cell walls ; [Max. 3] Any two from: B; E51; (do not allow A, F or H, as these are not cells or tissues). [Max. 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 6 continued it can change shape [1] ; to open or close the stoma [1] water moves up through the xylem vessels in structure E [1]; then into a palisadle cell in layer C and into a chloroplast [1] for photosynthesis [1]; idea that photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts [1] ; A [1]; it does not e chloroplasts [1] B Any two from: it absorbs energy from light (do not allow ‘attracts’); the energy is used to make carbon dioxide and water react together ; chlorophyll transfers energy from sunlight to energy in carbohydrates ; [Max. 2] carbon dioxide and water [1] : react to produce glucose and oxygen [1] ; using energy from sunlight [1] : absorbed by chlorophyll [1] Any 0 of these pairs: ‘glucose — used to release energy in respiration 5 starch — as an energy store ; cellulose - to make eell walls sucrose — for transport ; nectar to attract pollinators to flowers [Max. 4] as temperature increases, rate of photosynthesis increases up to 25°C [1] and then decreases [1]: idea that decrease in rate after maximum is steeper than increase in rate before maximum [1] ; any correct quote of a change between two values, quoting both temperature in °C and yolume of oxygen released per minute (units must be given) [1] curve with more carbon dioxide is above the curve for normal air [1] ; because in normal air earbon dioxide concentration is a limiting factor [1] ; so providing more carbon dioxide allows the plant to photosyathesise faster [1] idea that the optimum temperature depends on enzymes [1]: enzymes are not affected by carbon dioxide ‘concentration / enzymes in both carbon dioxide concentrations begin to be ‘denatured at the same temperature [1]; Any thrce from: enzyme molecules denature and the active sites lose their shape ; so can no longer form enzyme substrate complexes 80, no products are formed idea that the degree to which shape is lost increases with increasing temperature : [Max. 3] independent variable is percentage concentration of sodium hydrogencarbonate / carbon dioxide concentration [1] ; dependent variable is distance moved by meniscus after 30 minutes / rate of photosynthesis [1] Any two from: ‘to ensure that they were all exposed to the same light intensity ; to standardise a variable ; and so that light was not a limiting factor 5 [Max. 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 6 continued axes the right way round [1] ; both axes fully labelled with units [1] : good seales on both axes [1]; points plotted accurately [1] ; lines drawn precisely between points [1] Any to from: it isa limiting factor at all concentrations used ; as sodium hydrogencarbonate concentration inereases, distance moved by meniscus increases : therefore, as carbon dioxide concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis increases; [Max. 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology - Jones © Cambridge University Prose 2021 Accept any two sensible suggestions, for example: leakage of air into or out of the syringes : variation in the plants (size, activity) difficulty in reading the position of scale on the ruler; (do not accept anything that sounds like a mistake made by the learners, such as not ensuring th eye is parallel with the meniscus) [Max. 2] Accept any two sensible suggestions relating to the answers ini, for example: use petroleum jelly to make the syringe plungers airtight : use plant pieees of identical mass ; use a glass tube with a scale on it [Max. 2]CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 7 Starch is a carbohydrate. Itis made of many glucose molecules linked together. Protein molecules are made of amino acids linked together, Lipase digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol Tis an enzyme. All enzymes are protein molecules. ‘Carnivores sueh as lions and hyenas may eat meat that is not fresh, and is therefore likely to contain large numbers of potentially harmful bacteria. The acid in their stomachs helps 10 kill these, preventing infection. It is also possible that the acid helps with the digestion, Of proteins from the meat in the stomach, ‘where the enzyme pepsin requires acidic conditions to work. When there is no food in the stomach, there is no nood for acid to be produced, so this would be wasteful. Also, the acid can damage the stomach wall Fats and oils are needed to make cell membranes. They also form an insulating layer beneath the skin, and a protective layer around some body organs. Starch is a carbohydrate that can be eaten and avoid these risks. For example: Grains and foods made from them =e. rice, pasta, bread; potatoes; sweat foods ‘The alimentary canal is part of the digestive system, Its the tube that food moves through ‘There are also other organs in the digestive system, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, salivary gland mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon, rectum, anus mouth mouth, stomach, duodenum ileum, colon ‘The molars and premolars increase the surface area of food, by grinding it einereases the surface area of the food, making it easier for enzymes to uet on it thas a broad, ridged surface that crushes food as it grinds against the tooth on the other jaw, It has a very strong layer of enamel covering its surface, which is not easily damaged by grinding food. It is attached to the jawbone with fibres, so it can move a little rather than snap off ‘mouth and duodenum stomach and duodenum mouth and duodenum cn the surface of the epithelium lining the small intestine pancreas, duodenum For energy, which is released in respiration. Cooking oil, meat, products, oily fish Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, pulses (peas, beans, lentil), nuts and seeds For energy, released in respiration To make cell membranes. Making new colls, and therefore for growth. Making haemoglobin and antibodies. 998, dairy ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 7 continued from the stomach wall Pepsin has an optimum pH of 2. As the stomach contents move into the duodenum, bile is added. This is alkali ‘and it raises the pH to just above 7. Pepsin is denatured and stops working. Bile breaks up large drops of fat into tiny droplets which disperse through the water contents of the duodenum, This increases the surface area of fat that lipase can contact, and so lipase can break the fats into fatty acids sand glycerol more quickly a a a a a GG arge intestine / colon [1] J liver [1]; AandD; 2 E a Any six from secretes protease 5 which digests protein to amino acids reference to chemical digestion ; secretes hydrochloric acid which provides a suitable pH for enzymes. kills microorganisms ; churns food ; reference to physical digestion ; [Max. 6] As incisor [1]; B: canine [1] ; C: molar [1] tooth A: ingestion [1]; bites off pices of food [1] : tooth C: physical digestion [1] ‘crushes food / inereases its surface area [1] ‘drawing shows all parts of tooth; correet labels to enamel; dentine; pulp; nerves / blood vessels; cement ; (6) Any two sources, for example: rice, brea potatoes, pasta, maize, any sweet foods ; [1] for energy [1] released by espiation [1] amylase [1]; breaks down starch to maltose [1] : in the mouth and duodenum [1] ; maltase [1] ; breaks down maltose to glucose [1] ; on the surface of the epithelia cells in the duodenum [1] ; small intestine / duodenum /ileum; [1] Any four from: epithelial cell; secretes maltase ; Which digests maltose to glucose ; has microvilli to inerease surface area ref. to absorption (Max. 4] lubrication ; m Any two from: amino acids ; glucose vitamins : mineral ions ; water; [Max. 2] lacteals i ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 8 Possible sentence completions could be: Plants take up water by osmosis through their root hairs / from the soil. Water gets to the leaves of plants through xylem I from the roots The sentences suggested by groups can then be combined to make two sentences summarising what learners should already know about this topic: Learners may suggest osmosis. They will later find that this is also how water reaches individual cells in plants that do have xylem, ‘and how it first enters the plant and maves ‘across the root into the xylem vessels, The purpose of this question is to help learners to appreciate that supplying the leaves of a tree with water purely by osmosis is not 4 possibilty. They ean estimate the time it ‘would take by multiplying 116m x 10 (to convert to em) and then by 10 minutes. This gives a time of 11600 minutes, which is 193 hours or just over & days. support: transport of water and mineral ions lignin transport of sugars and amino acids In roots, xylem and phloem are in the centre. ‘The xylem forms a ‘cross’ or ‘starfish’ shape, with phloem between the ‘arms’; In stems, xylem and phloem are arranged close to the edge. They form roughly triangular areas. In each one, the phloem is closer to the outer edge of the stem, with the xylem closer to the centre; In leaves, xylem and phloem are found in the vascular bundles (veins). The xylem is closer to the upper surface of the leaf, and the phloem is below the xylem, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 Any two from: Lignified walls make the xylem strong ‘enough to support the plant or a leaf; Lignified walls make sure that the vessels stay open and do not collapse inwards Dead cells with no contents and no end. walls provide a continuous tube through which a column of water can flow; Diameter of the vessels is narrow enough, to support the water column, but wide ‘enough to allow plenty of water to flow through casil to absorb water and mineral ions It is long and thin, and therefore has a relatively large surface area. This increases the rate at which it can absorb water and mineral ions, ‘The solution in the soil has a relatively low concentration of solutes compared with the solution inside the root hair cell. These solutions are separated from each other by the partially permeable cell membrane. Water moves into the cell through this membrane by osmosis, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution. Water moves from a high water potential in the soil into the lower water potential inside the root hair cell, down a water potential ‘gradient. It continues to move from cell to cell towards the centre of the root, by osmosis, down the water potential gradientChapter 8 continued xylem the vascular bundles (veins) ‘Temperature is the variable to be changed. A suitable range would be between 0°C and perhaps 80°C, with intervals of 10°C or 20°C. ‘This could be done using water baths. ‘The most important variables to be kept constant include the size of the eelery stalk and the concentration of the dye If the dye can be seen in the stalk without having to cut it, learners could measure the distance travelled by the dye in a set time period for example, every two minutes. If it cannot be seen, they will need to have several stalks at each temperature, and cut one of them across at a set distance (e.g. 10cm) afer a set time ~ say every two minutes — to determine how long it takes the dye to travel this distance, ‘The main safety risk is the sharp blade used to ccut the stalks. Learners should describe how they will avoid cutting themselves or someone else with the bl root hair cells, root cortex cells, xylem, mesophyll cells liquid liquid gas ‘Water evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells, so the larger the surface area the more water can evaporate. The loss of this water from the cells reduces the water potential of their contents, causing water to move from the xylem vessels by osmosis, down a water potential gradient. This loss of ‘water at the top of the xylem vessels reduces the pressure, so that the pressure difference between the water at the bottom and top of the xylem makes water flow upwards through them. ‘The wator molecules are attracted to one ‘another, so they stick together. This keeps the ‘water in an unbroken column, Se es eear eteaiset ered Answers will depend on the learner's experience as they used the potometer Water moves into the cut end of the shoot because water evaporates from the leaves. ‘This causes a transpiration pull, so that water moves up the xylem vessels in the stem ‘The line graphs should: have time / minutes on the x-axis, with a suitable scale that uses at least half of the graph paper provided have distance moved by meniscus / mm (or em) on the y-axis, with a suitable scale that uses at least half of the graph paper provided have points plotted as neat crosses or encircled dots hhave lines drawn from point to point with ruler or best fit lines have lines clearly labelled, either directly oon the graph or using 2 key. ‘Transpiration happens faster when temperature is higher and wind speed is oreater Ona hot day, water molecules have more kinetic energy, so water evaporates faster from the surface of the mesophyll cells and diffuses faster through the stomata. The plant therefore loses water faster. If it cannot increase the rate at which it absorbs water from the soil to the same extent, then water loss will eause it to wilt The leaves are folded, exposing less of their surface to the air. This will reduce the rate at which water vapour is lost from them, which helps the plant to conserve water. Leaves are a source, and the trunk and roots are sinks, ‘Trunk and roots are sources, and the growing buds and leaves are sinks. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 8 continued ‘Transpiration happens at the top of the xylem vessels, so this is where the pressure is reduced in the xylem vessels. The pressure is always lower at the top than the bottom, so the water will always flow upwards. xylem Any two from: ‘water was lost from the leaves ; by transpiration 5 pulling water up the capillary tube [Max. 2] total distance moved in 10 minutes is 34-10 = 24mm; so mean distance per minute 24=10= 2.4mm per minute; (2) temperature; higher humidity; lower ; 2 cortex 1] : ¥ = phloem [1] Z=xylem{1] into root hairs [1]; by osmosis [1] through root cortex cells [1] ; then through xylem [1]; then to mesophyll cells [1] ‘number of stomata in 0.6mm is 20 (allow 18, 19 or 21) (1] ;80, number in I mm is 333 (1o nearest whole number) [1] 5 root hairs absorb water from the soil [1] : large surface area increases the rate at which this happens [1] this means that the mesophyll cells hhave a large surface area [1]; from which water evaporates [1]; filling the air spaces with water vapour that can diffuse out through stomata [1] ; water can flow up xylem as continuous column (1] ; pulled up by. transpiration pull / difference in pressure at top and bottom [1] phlocm transports sucrose and amino acids but xylem does not [1]; phlocm transports in both directions but xylem transports only upwards [1] for photosynthesis / to make glucose / to make carbohydrates [1] ; carbon dioxide reacts with water [1] ; it evaporated from the surfaces of mesophyll cells (1]; into the air spaces [1] ; Any five from: percentage hydration decreases (over time) from 100% at day 1 to 30% at day 5; uctuates each day ; drops during the day and increases at night ; [ee Te © | indented | indented © | indotes | smoown all offspring genotypes correct [1] ; phenotypes correctly matched to genotypes [1] expected ratio of 3:1 indented to smooth matched to actual numbers of 99:302 [1] ; (C®C® black feathers; (C8C grey feathers; C*C” white feathers; (two correct for one mark, all correet for ‘two marks) [Max. 2] they are codominant [1] ; capital letter would be used to represent a dominant allele and small letter for a recessive allele (11 ; parents’ genotypes correct [1] all gametes correct and shown inside circles [1] ; genotypes of offspring correct (could be ina Punnett square) [1] ; phenotypes of offspring correctly associated with genotypes [1] ; would expect, 1:1 grey: white / 50% grey and 50% white offspring [1] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 there are four colour-blind males but only one colour-blind female [1] ; the male who marries out of the family does not have colour-blind sons [1] person 2 X°X*[1] person 3 N*Y [1] ; person 11 X®X*(1] person 13 X'Y [1] person 19 X*Y [1]; parents’ genotypes correct (1] ; all gametes correct and shown inside circles [1] (could be in a Punnett square — see below); genotypes of offspring correct [1] ; phenotypes of offspring correctly associated with genotypes [1] ;50:50/ cone in two, chance that any son will be ccolour-blind [1] @ & xx colour-blind carrier female | Sour NY NY ® | mtewits | cour bine the allele for colour blindness is om the X chromosome [1] ; man passes on a Y ‘chromosome to his sons (1] 5CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 17 These answers will depend on the learners’ results, Learners should recognise that finger length could be affected by both genes and the cnvironment. Possibly genes could determine the maximum length to which fingers can grow, while environment could affect whether ‘or not they reach this potential length, discontinuous continuous continuous discontinuous genes alone genes and environment genes und environment genes alone discontinuous It is caused entirely by genes. The recessive allele codes for green seeds — call tg. The dominant allele codes for yellow seeds — G. Seeds with the genotype gg tare green and are therefore homozygous. sand pure-breeding. Yellow seeds ean be heterozygous, Gg, and can therefore produce some yellow seeds when they are crossed. discontinuous It is approximately 3:1. Note that some learners may see that there are some dark brown kernels and some light brown ones, and not be sure whether to count these as brown or white. Accept either interpretation. If learners consider that all the brown kernels are the same, then they are likely to suggest that the allele for white is dominant, and the allele for brown is recessive. Accept any symbols that u upper case for white and lower case of the same letter for brown — for example Band b. The parents could have had the genotypes Bb and Bb, which would give a 3:1 ratio of white: brown in the offspring phenotypes, If learners consider that the light brown Kernels are different from the dark brown ones, they may suggest that this is an ‘example of codominance. In that case, their symbols for the alleles should use «capital letter to represent the gene, and superscripts for the alleles. Suitable symbols could be C™ for white and C* for brown. Itis, however, not then possible to suggest a cross that would produce the ratios shown on the cob, By mutation. (Learners studying the supplement will probably give a more extended response and explain that mutation is a random change in the base sequence of DNA.) mutation, meiosis, random mating and random fertilisation example: large eyes, to capture as much light as possible, which will help the tarsier to see in the dark to help it to find insects, and to escape predators long fingers, o help it to grip branche: and to capture and hold its prey large ears, to help it to detect insects by sound, and to hear approaching predators. Different species of xerophytes und hydrophytes vary quite considerably, so learners’ tables are likely to reflect the ones that they have seen and studied. Features that they may compare include: Teaves — generally very small in xerophytes (may be reduced to spines); larger in hydrophytes, where they may be broad (where the plants Ieaves are above water) or feathery (if they are under water) waxy cuticle - thick in xerophytes; thinner in hydrophytes stomata — on underside of leaves in xcrophytes; on upper surface or both surfaces in hydrophytes. Tend to close in xerophytes when conditions are hot and dry; rarely close in hydrophytes. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 17 continued 1 Variation — In the peppered moth population, most peppered moths were pale but a few were dark; 2 Overproduction ~ Peppered moths produce many offspring, most of which do not survive. Only a small proportion survive long enough to reproduce; 3 Best-adapted individuals more likely to survive and reproduce - When the environment is polluted, dark moths are better camouflaged than pale ones on tree trunks. The ppale moths are more likely to be eaten by birds, while the dark ones have a better chance of evading capture, surviving and reproducing; 4 Allele that confer useful adaptations more Tikely to be passed on ~The allele for dark wings is therefore more likely to be passed on to the next generation than the allele for pale wings. With less air pollution, more lichen grows on tee trunks. Now the pale moths are better camouflaged than dark moths, so they are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their alleles for pale wings. Over time, the pale wing allele gradually becomes the most common one in the population of peppered moths, so most ‘moths now have pale wings and few have dark wings ‘The breeder should measure the methane ‘output of all the sheep. Seleet a fermale and ‘a male with low methane output and breed them together. Measure the methane output Of the lambs and select a male and a female with the lowest methane output to breed together. Continue for many generations. (Choose an individual wheat plant from a variety that has some resistance to rust, and another that has high yield. Transfer pollen from one to the stigms of the other. Collect the seeds and sow them and grow the plants to their full size, Expose them all to rust, aand select those that are most resistant, sand that have the highest yield, to breed Continue for many generations. You could also bring in new individuals at some stage, for example a different high-yielding parent could be used to breed with the best rust- resistant offspring in generation 2 or 3. ‘Tho rust undergoes natural selection. There will be variation among the rust individuals, sand some may have alleles that allow them to infect the resistant wheat plants, These individuals have a selective advantage — they sare more likely o survive and reproduce, tas they have access to more food than the rust individuals that ean only grow on non= resistant wheat plants, The alleles for the ability to infect resistant wheat plants are therefore more likely to be passed on to the next generation of rust fungus Overtime, more and more rust fungi in a population are likely to have these alleles and be able to infect previously resistant wheat plants. species [1] ; discontinuous [1] ; genes [1] continuous [1] ; mutation {1} ; adapted [1] ; mean milk yield increased [1] ; no change in the first two years [1]; relatively steady ‘change from then on [1] ; total change is 366kg per cow [1] ; select cows that produce most milk and bulls whose female relatives produce most milk [1] ; breed them together [1] ; select offspring that produce most milk [1] ; repeat for many generations [1] breeder can simply choose animals that produce most milk [1] ; selection is done ‘on phenotype, not genotype [1] breeder was not selecting for protein content / pethaps cows that produce more milk have always had less protein in their milk ; 1 ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 17 continued they rise and then fall [1]: maximum number is in 2006 [1]; overall change is from about 40 cases in 1993 to about 260, cases in 2012 [1] ; 1650 cases out of 2150 = 76.7% [2 marks for correct answer] Any two pairs for two marks each: reducing use of antibiotics — reduces selection pressure on the bacteria better hygiene when treating patients / description of this (eg. washing hands more carefully after touching one patient before touching another) avoiding transmission of bueterium between individuals finding new antibiotics that kill MRSA - so, people infected with it less likely to die (allow other suitable and biologi correct suggestions) change in base sequence in DNA [1] 5 random [1] ; ionising radiation / named example of ‘onising radiation (1] ; chemicals / named ‘mutagenic chemical [1] : Any three from: change in base sequenee in DNA. ccauses change in amino acid sequence in the protein that is synthesised so, structure of the protein is different 80, function of the protein is different example eg. shape of active site of protcin is no longer complementary to substrate [Max. 3] random mating / any male ean mate with any female [1] ;s0, alleles from any male ‘can be combined with those from any female [1] : meiosis [1] : produces gametes with different combinations of alleles [1] ; random feriisation /any male gamet ‘can fuse with any female gamete [1]; $0, alleles from any of the make’s gametes can bbe combined with those from any of the female's gametes [1] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 18 ereosote bush + kangaroo rat — kit fox = coyote creosote bush Primary consumer: kangaroo rat Secondary consumer: kit fox Tertiary consumer: coyote Kangaroo rats are herbivores. Kit foxes sand coyotes are carnivores. gresshopper —» tarantule kenge kit at % fox \ / Look for a correct and plausible food chain. ‘with arrows in the correct direction. Producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer and so on should be correctly labelled Enorgy is lost to the environment as it is passed along a food chain. By the time it reaches the fifth step in a food chain, there is not enough to support a population of consumers at this level theres | moans that the relative sizes of the bars in the pyramid may be completely wron; because the information that we are usin to construct itis incomplete. For example, if kangaroo rats eat other plants, then we should include all of those in the diagram. If other herbivores eat these plants, then we should also include those ‘The pyramid should look similar to the diagram in Figure 18.11 People can eat soya beans. A great deal of energy is lost as it is transferred from soya beans to cattle, so humans pet less energy than they would have done by eating the soya directly. (Some learners may also appreciate the high energy costs of transporting the soya beans to this area, and also supplying water to the cattle in a desert region.) Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the air, Respiration and combustion add carbon dioxide to the air ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology - Jones © Cambridge University Prose 2021CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 18 continued For example: The lion dies. Its body is decomposed, and some of the carbon atoms in it become part of the decomposers. They respire, and some of the carbon atoms return to the air as carbon dioxide. This is taken into fa grass plant and used in photosynthesis to make glucose in the plant cells Nitrogen fixation converts inert nitrogen 2s, which most organisms cannot use, Into more reactive ammonium or nitrate lions, which they can use. Nitrification converts ammonia into nitrate, which plants can absorb and use to make amino acids and proteins. Nitrogen fixation: nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules or the soil convert inert nitrogen into more reactive forms Nitrification: nitrifying bacteria in the soil convert ammonia into nitrate, Denitrification: denitrifying bacteria, especially in waterlogged soils, convert nitrate into nitrogen gas. Decomposition: decomposers convert dead bodies and organic waste material to Deamination happens in the liver of animals, Itconverts excess amino acids to urea, In a waterlogged soil, there is very little nitrate, because most is converted to nitrogen {gas and lost to the air. Carnivorous plants can get nitrogen in a similar way to animals, by digesting proteins in insects to amino acids and absorbing them. These plants are not able to compete with ‘normal!’ plants in soils where there is plenty of nitrate, as they do not have adaptive features that allow them to grow as well in those conditions. A population is all the organisms of one species that live in the same place at the same time, but a community is all the organisms of every species that live in the same place at the same time, food supply, predation and disease ‘The left-hand axis, for hares, goes up to 160000. The right-hand axis, for lynx, only _goes up to 6000. This is because energy is lost along the food chain, so the total quantity of energy available to support a lynx populition is less than is available to support the snowshoe hare population the transfer of energy grass /ladysmock ladysmock — caterpillar = robin kestrel Iadysmock + caterpillar = short-tailed field vole + kestrel ladysmock + caterpillar > short-tailed field vole + fox ‘one mark for the organisms, one mark for the arrows ; (2) Tess grass eaten by voles [1] ; so, more food for rabbits and their population Increases [1]; fewer voles for foxes to eat [1] ; so, foxes eat more rabbits and the rabbit population decreases (1] Approximately 0.04% of the air is earbon dioxide. This gas diffuses into plants through their stomata and is used to make glucose in the process of photosynthesis, Animals eat plants, and some of the carbon atoms in the glucose become part of molecules such as glycogen in their bodies, When the animals die, their bodies are broken down by decomposers Plants, animals and decomposers return carbon dioxide to the air through respiration. (6) ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 18 continued dead plants / microorganisms / organisms tare not fully decomposed [1] ; buried deep in the Earth [1] ; subjected to high pressure / high temperatures [1] : carbon returned to air as carbon dioxide when they undergo combustion [1] ; three bars stacked centrally on one another [1] : widest bar at the bottom [1] ; middle bar a litle smaller than the bottom ba tand the top bar much smaller than the middle bar [1] ; each bar correctly labelled as producers, herbivores or carnivores, with the numbers 22000, 7009 and 4 respectively [1] quantity of energy within cach individual organism is not the same in each type [1] there may be other organisms in the food web that are not included in this able [1]; energy is lost as itis transferred along a food chain [1] ; by respiration / heat lost to the environment [1] ; not all organisms {not all parts of organisms, eaten by the next trophic level [1] ; not as much energy to support carnivores as there is to support herbivores [1] carbon, hydrogen and oxygen nm Any six (in a suitable sequence) from: nitrogen fixation by, lightning / bacter produces nitrate ions: taken up through the root hairs of plants used to make amino acids / proteins; human eats the plant ; proteins digested to amino acids ; absorbed from the small intestine and taken up into cells used to make proteins on ribosomes ; (Max. 6] axes the right way round: i. time on the x-axis and number of plants, ‘on the y-axis [1] ; x-axis labelled: time and y-axis labelled: number of plants (no need for scales) [1] ; S-shaped ccurve drawn (no need for scales) [1] : no death phase included [1] ; log, lag and stationary phase labelled (1] ; shortage of nitrate ions is a limiting factor [1] ; reducing the rate of population growth [1] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Chapter 19 fertilisers herbicides selective breeding agricultural machinery insecticides Farmers can use machinery to cultivate large areas of Tand in the same way at the ssame time, increasing efficiency. They can use the same pesticides and/or herbicides over the whole erop. They can harvest the crop efficiently, because all the plants will ripen at the same time and be a similar They reduce biodiversity, because the variety of habitats that would otherwise be available is lost, They allow the populations of some species (e2. insect pests) to become very large. They disrupt natural food webs. For example: Wellure issues: chickens may be stressed, and disease is more likely to spread. Pollution: large quantities of waste from the chickens is concentrated in a small area ‘and may pollute the surrounding land and. ‘waterways Large inputs are needed: chickens need to feed on food that is given to them, rather than foraging naturally, and provided with water that must be transported to the farming area, ‘The chickens’ food might be made from food that we could eat ourselves. Transporting food hhas energy costs. Each species has adaptive features that increase its ability to survive and reproduce in its habitat. If that habitat is destroyed, the species may not be able to survive and reproduce in another habitat. Coral reofs and rainforests provide a very wis variety of different habitats, which means that many different species can live there. A monoculture provides a very narrow range of habitats, so only a few species can live there. Se es eear eteaiset ered Habitat loss; risk of extinetion of plant and animal species; increased soil erosion; increased risk of flooding; increased carbon dioxide concentration in the air; decreased transpiration so less water vapour in the air. The greenhouse effect is a natural and nevesssiry phenomenon; carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps infrared radiation from the Earth’s surface, which keeps the Earth warmer than it would otherwise be. This is essential for life The enhanced grcenhouse effect isa result of increased concentrations of carbon dioxide ‘and methane in the atmosphere, which traps more infrared radiation and makes the Earth Climate change is a result of the increase in the mean temperature on Barth, caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect. It involves long- term changes in weather patterns, including ‘changes in the times and intensity of rainfall, ‘and increases in extreme weather events. This could reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted in ear exhausts. ‘This could reduce the time cars and trucks are on the road, reducing the emissions of ‘carbon dioxide from their exhausts. ‘This could reduce the amount of fuel that is burnt, either in the home itself or in power stations generating electricity that is used for heating the home. Burning fuels produces carbon dioxide, ‘This could reduce the amount of fossil fuel that is burnt in power stations, ‘Nuclear power stations do not produce carbon dioxide. ‘This could reduce the amount of fuel used in factories where the materials in the rubbish are made, or in the generation of electricity to supply these factories. untreated sewage, fertilisers (containing nitrate ions) ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 19 continued not able to be broken down by decomposers or other living organisms They remain in the environment for a very long time. Plastics discarded at sea, or carried into the sea by rivers, can be carried over large distances and be washed up shores a long way from the point of disposal. Biodegradable substances bbreak down, and do not persist in the environment for very long. The curve for bacteria shows a high level at the point at which the untreated sewage is discharged. The sewage contains futrients that the bacteria can feed on, so their population is high. As you go downstrcam, the quantity of nutrients because the bacteria have been using them up, so the population of bacteria also decreases. The quantity of dissolved oxygen is affected by the population of bacteria The bacteria respire aerobically, taking oxygen from the water, 0 the quantity of oxygen in the water just downstream from where their population is highest drops. As the bacterial population falls, oxygen levels begin to rise again, Fish are absent from the area where the untreated sewage enters the stream, and only appear some distance downstream, They are affected by the oxygen levels in the water, They are unable to live in the parts of the stream where levels of aerobic bacteria are high, because there is not enough oxygen for the fish to respite aerobically, They are only found in the areas where the oxygen levels are rising, and their largest population is found where the oxygen level is highest climate change; habitat destruction; hunting; pollution; introduced species (some learners may also have other suitable suggestions) ‘The new species may be a predator of some Of the native species, or it may compete with them for scarce resources such as food or nesting sites, Captive breeding is breeding animals in captivity, such as in 200s. If the eaptive breeding programme is successful, numbers Of the endangered species cun be increased. Eventually, it may be possible to return some of them to the wild Genetic diversity increases the chances that 4 population of organisms will be able to ‘adapt to changes in their environment, such as climate change, It also reduces the chances of two harmful recessive alleles being brought together in the offspring of a breeding pair biodiversity [1]; carbon dioxide [1] ; endangered [1] : greenhouse effect [1] erosion [1]; likely to become extint : Any ive from Joss of habitat peopl use sandy beaches for pleasure: pollution (ofthe sea or beueh) (pollution) could reduce food supply / poison the turtles / increase risk of disease ; ‘causing sea level rise so beaches now covered by wate turtles do not begin to breed until they are 30 years old 80 unable to quickly inerease the population i it starts to fall alternative valid points; [Max. 5] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Deed cin taal TeKely aco cia:100) 4 Chapter 19 continued Any three from: increase death rate non- biodegradable plastics do not break down : remain in the turtles’ digestive system cause illness / blockage / prevent absorption of nutrients from food ; [Max. 3] Lynx fo} Any 10 from: deforestation ; use of land for mining use of land for building roads ; use of land for building homes / factories ; pollution : (Max. 2] (avcept any two reasonable suggestions) so that proper care can be provided [1]; example of suitable care, for example, providing 2 suitable place to give birth / isolating from other animals / providing suitable food [1] Any three from: idea that you cannot tell she is pregnant until the Sth / 6th week of pregnaney concentration of PGFM rises at week 5 can predict birth as likely to three weeks after the ccan predict birth as likely to take place when the level reaches 1.4 arbitrary units : [Max. 3] Any three from: to prevent closely related animals breeding together ; to maintain genetic diversity Which reduces chances of harmful rocessive alleles coming together in offspring increases ability of the population to adapt to changes in their environment [Max. 3] store seeds (in controlled conditions) for long periods of time [1]; maintain a population of a species that is threatened in the wild [1] ; some (stored) seeds germinated to provide fresh seeds [1] ; collect seeds from different places to censure genetic diversity [1]: maintain / increase, genetic diversity by breeding individuals with different alleles together (Go produce more seeds for storage) [1]; iT habitat is restored then plants can be returned to the wild [1] ; Any six from: quota is a limit on how much of the resource ean be used 5 logging companies allowed only to, take certain quantity of trees / log a certain therefore, enough trees remain to be able to maintain their populations ; some old trees kept in place to provide habitats for different species fishing vessels allowed only to take a certain amount of fish of particular species ‘enough fish remain to be able to breed and maintain the population ; alternative valid point [Max. 6] (Note: answers must be related to quotas, not other aspects of conserving these resources.) ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 20 ‘They reproduce quickly. They are able to synthesise complex molecules. ethanol carbon dioxide It broaks down the pectin that holds cell walls together. This makes it easier for the ells to separate from one another, so the juice is more easily squeezed out enzymes, generally protease, lipase and amylase ‘The enzymes would be denatured in hot water. Natural variation in the bacteria meant that some of them had enzymes (and other proteins) that were able to keep their shape and function at higher temperatures. These individual bacteria ‘were able to survive in warmer water than others, ‘They reproduced, passing on their alleles to their offspring. This continued over many generations, until whole populations of bacteria had enzymes able to function at higher temperatures, Most people stop making the enzyme lactase in their digestive system when they are adults. They are therefore unable to digest lactose and may feel ill if they eat foods containing it. Lactose. free milk, and products made from it, are safe for them to eat Any living organisms in the fermenter must be destroyed before the microorganism that is to be grown in the fermenter is added. Otherwise, jeroorganisms could compete with the required one, reducing its growth. Even more importantly, they could produce substances that are not wanted, or are possibly even toxie, that could get into the required product and contaminate it contaminati If you want the microorganism to respire ‘anacrobically —for example, if using yeast to make ethanol, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021 Iisa drug that is taken to kill pathogenic bacteria, without harming human cells Carbohydrates will be used by the microorganism in respiration, to release ‘energy for its growth, Amino acids will be used by the microorganism to make proteins, again needed for growth, but also to produce the enzymes that the microorganism uses to make the required product. Rotating paddles would break up the hyphae or get tangled up in them. ‘There are numerous ways in which this table ‘could be completed. One possible way is shown here modifying bacteria to produce human proteins GM bacteria | This provides synthesise | large quantities human —_| of insulin that insulin can be used by people with type 1 diabetes. Farmers can Kill weeds with glyphosate without harming the soya plants modifying crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides GM soya is resistant to glyphosate. GM cotton is resistant to attack by cotton boll weevils Farmers do not need to spray insecticide on the crop to kill insect pests. modifying crop plants to confer resistance to pests Golden Rice | Carotene is contains | converted to large vitamin A in the amounts of | body, so children carotene. _ | eating this rice will not suffer from vitamin A deficiency. modifying crop plants to improve nuttitional qualities to cut DNA, leaving sticky ends to join two DNA molecules togetherSe es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 20 continued Restriction enzymes cut DNA to leave a length of unpaired bases on one of the strands, called sticky ends If the same restriction enzyme is used, then the same lengths of unpaired bases are left. This means the sticky ends of each piece of cut DNA ‘are complementary to one another and will bond together when they are mixed with cach other. It is therefore possible to insert DNA into a cut plasmid, a a a a anaerobic [1]; respiration [1] carbon dioxide ; i ethanol 5 fo} ethanol made from plant material [1]; mixed with petrol (gasoline) [1] ; ‘waste plant material / sugarcane, is used to produce sugar [1]: yeast uses the sugar in anaerobic respiration to produce ethanol [1] sumed protein (¢g. insulin, human growth hormone, other correct) [1] gene for making this protein inserted into bucteria [1]; bacteria use the instructions oon the gene to make the protein [1] ; Any one from: bacteria reproduce quickly 80a Tot of protein can be made oF protein will always be of the same quality / product is predictable; (or an alternative valid point). [1] ; Any two from: selective breeding can be done by , but GM requires laboratory selective breeding does not require a gene to be identified but GM doe: selective breeding does not involve the insertion of genes from another organism, but GM does selective breeding takes place over alternative valid points; [Max. 2] Tactove dissolves in water [1] ; decreases the water potential in the lumen of the gut [1] ; water moves out of the cells Iining the gut down its water potential sgradieat [1] ; by osmosis [1] : Any three from: absorbed into capillaries in villi transported to heart via, hepatic portal vein / hepatic vein / vena cava ; transported to lungs in pulmonary artery ; diffuses across wall of capillary and. wall of alveolus ; [Max. 3] Any six from maintain pH of 6.5; using buffers / using a pH probe and adding acid or alka maintain temperature of 35°C using cold or hot water flowing through water jacket harvest after 48 hours provide nutrients / carbon souree and nitrogen souree ; provide oxygen for respiration ; stir (o mix nutrients with bacteria ; [Max. 6] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021Se es eear eteaiset ered Chapter 20 continued Any four from: both increase throughout the period ; herbicide-resistant soya starts at 8%, pest-resistant herbicide-rosistant soya re use around 2011 and then levels off, but pest-resistant maize reaches peak at about 2012 by 2019 about 94% of soya was herbicide resistant, but only 83% of maize was pest resistant increase in use of herbicide-resistant soya was more rapid in early years than inerease in use of pest-resistant maize ; Max. 4] (farmer) obtains higher yields [1] without having to pay for pesticides (1] fewer pesticides mean less harm to rnon-pest insects 1} Any four from; Advantages: can spray crop with, herbicide / ‘lyphosate, without harming the soya plants : Kills weeds and reduces competition with the crop plants higher yields / saves time ; Disadvantages. GM seeds more expensive to buy than ordinary seeds some consumers may not want to buy food containing GM soya so may be difficult to sell the crop; [Max. 4] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Biology — Jones © Cambridge University Pross 2021