Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New

Public Management
Author(s): John M. Bryson, Barbara C. Crosby and Laura Bloomberg
Source: Public Administration Review , JULY/AUGUST 2014, Vol. 74, No. 4
(JULY/AUGUST 2014), pp. 445-456
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Society for Public Administration

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 John M. Bryson
Barbara C. Crosby
Laura Bloomberg
University of Minnesota

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public

Symposium
Introduction
Administration and the New Public Management

John M. Bryson is McKnight

debated, challenged, and evaluated in the emerg
Presidential Professor of Planning and
emerging to move beyond traditional public ing approach. In this regard, the emerging approach
Anew public administration movement is
Public Affairs at the Humphrey School of

administration and New Public Management. reemphasizes and brings to the fore value-related Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota.

He wrote Strategic Planning for Public

The new movement is a response to the challenges of concerns of previous eras that were always present,
and Nonprofit Organizations, and co
a networked, multi-sector, no-one-wholly-in-charge but not dominant (Denhardt and Denhardt 2011; wrote with Barbara C. Crosby Leadership

world and to the shortcomings of previous public Rosenbloom and McCurdy 2006). This renewed for the Common Good. He received

the 2011 Dwight Waldo Award from the

administration approaches. In the new approach attention to a broader array of values, especially to
American Society for Public Administration
values beyond efficiency and effectiveness—and values associated with democracy, makes it obvious for "outstanding contributions to the pro

especially democratic values—are prominent. why questions related to the creation of public value, fessional literature of public administration

over an extended scholarly career."

Government has a special role to play as a guarantor public values more generally, and the public sphere
E-mail: [email protected]
of public values, but citizens as well as businesses have risen to prominence. This essay highlights some
Barbara C. Crosby, associate professor
and nonprofit organizations also are important as of the key value-related issues in the new approach
at the Humphrey School of Public Affairs,
active public problem solvers. The article highlights and proposes an agenda for the future. First, we University of Minnesota, has taught and

value-related issues in the new approach and presents outline what we believe are the main contours of the written extensively about leadership and

public policy. She is author of Leadership

an agenda for research and action to be pursued if the emerging approach. Next, we clarify the meaning
for Global Citizenship and co-author
new approach is to fulfill its promise. of value, public value, public values, and the public with John M. Bryson of Leadership for

sphere; discuss how they are operationalized; and the Common Good. Former academic

Creating public value is a hot topic for both public summarize important challenges to the concepts. We co-director of the University's Center for

Integrative Leadership, she has conducted

administration practitioners and scholars (Shearer then discuss how public value and public values are training for senior managers of nonprofit,
and Williams 2011; Van der Wal, Nabatachi, and used in practice. Finally, we present an agenda for business and government organizations in
the U.S. and abroad.
de Graaf 2013). Why is that? What is going on? We research and action to be pursued if the new approach
E-mail: [email protected]
believe the answer lies with the continuing evolution is to fulfill its promise.1
of public administration thinking and practice. Just
Laura Bloomberg is associate dean at
as New Public Management supplanted traditional An Emerging View of Public Administration the Humphrey School of Public Affairs at

public administration in the 1980s and 1990s as the Public administration thinking and practice have the University of Minnesota. Her teaching,
research and publications focus on U.S.
dominant view, a new movement is underway that is always responded to new challenges and the short
education policy and administration,
likely to eclipse it. The new approach does not have comings of what has come before (Kaufman 1969; cross sector leadership, and program

a consensually agreed name, but many authors point Peters and Pierre 1998). Table 1, which builds on evaluation. Previously she was an urban

to the need for a new approach and to aspects of its a similar table in Denhardt and Denhardt (2011, high school principal and executive director

of the University's Center for Integrative

emergence in practice and theory (e.g., Moore, 1995, 28 — 29), presents a summary of traditional public Leadership. She worked with former U.S.

2013, 2014a; Boyte 2005; Stoker 2006; Bozeman administration, the New Public Management, and the Secretary of State Hilary Clinton to launch

the global Women in Public Service Project.

2007; Kettl 2008; Alford and Hughes, 2008; Osborne emerging approach. The new approach highlights four
E-mail: [email protected]
2010; Talbot 2010; Denhardt and Denhardt 2011; important stances that together represent a response
Fisher 2014; Kalambokidis 2014). For example, Janet to current challenges and old shortcomings. These
and Robert Denhardt's (2011) excellent and widely include: an emphasis on public value and public
cited book The New Public Service captures much of values; recognition that government has a special role
the collaborative and democratic spirit; content; and as a guarantor of public values; a belief in the impor
governance focus of the movement. tance of public management broadly conceived, and
of service to and for the public; and a heightened
While efficiency was the main concern of traditional emphasis on citizenship and democratic and col
Public Administration Review,
public administration, and efficiency and effectiveness laborative governance. These concerns, of course, are
Vol. 74, Iss. 4, pp. 445-456. © 2014 by
are the main concerns of New Public Management, not new to public administration, but their emerging The American Society for Public Administration.

values beyond efficiency and effectiveness are pursued, combination is the latest response to what Dwight D01:10.1111/puar.12238.

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 445

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Waldo (1948/2007) called the periodically changing "material and how to govern, not just manage, in increasingly diverse and complex
ideological background." Whether the new approach can live up to societies facing increasingly complex problems (Kettl 2002; Osborne
its promise—and particularly its democratic promise—is an open 2010; Pollitt and Bouckaert 2011). Natural disasters, failures of
question we explore later. large parts of the economy, unevenly effective health care and edu
cational systems, a stagnant middle class, deepening inequality, and
Traditional Public Administration bankrupt communities offer recent examples that have challenged
Traditional public administration (Waldo 1948/2007; Stokernot 2006)
just governments, but businesses, nonprofits, and civil society
arose in the United States arose in the late 1900s and maturedgenerally. In the U.S., these challenges are occurring at a time of
by the mid-twentieth century as a response to a particular sethistoric
of distrust of a broad range of institutions (Gallup 2014).
conditions. These included the challenges of industrialization,
The Emerging Approach
urbanization, the rise of the modern corporation, faith in science,
belief in progress, and concern over major market failures. Mostly
The responses to these new challenges do not yet constitute a
coherent
successful experience with government responses to World War I, whole, but the outlines of a new approach are becom
ingfor
the Great Depression, and World War II helped solidify support clear in, for example, Janet and Robert Denhardt's (2002;
2011) widely cited framework called the New Public Service, but
traditional public administration and built strong trust in govern
also in Gerry Stoker's (2006) public value management, Barry
ment as an agent for the good of all. In its idealized form, politics
and administration were quite separate (Wilson 1887). GoalsBozeman's
were (2007) managing publicness, Stephen Osborne's new
determined in the first instance by elected officials and onlypublic
secondgovernance (2010), and political theorist Harry Boyte's and
colleagues' (Boyte 2011) new civic politics.. These scholars draw on
arily refined by technical experts in response to political direction.
different theoretical and epistemological foundations than tradi
Government agencies were the primary deliverers of public value
tional public administration or New Public Management. Citizens,
through the way they designed and implemented politically defined
objectives (Salamon 2002). Efficiency in government operations
citizenship, and democracy are central to the new approach, which
harkens back to Dwight Waldo's (1948/2007) abiding interest in a
was the preeminent value. Citizens were viewed primarily as voters,
democratic theory of administration. The approach advocates more
clients, or constituents. Of course, traditional public administra
tion in practice was always more deeply enmeshed in politics contingent,
than pragmatic kinds of rationality, going beyond the formal
its idealized form would suggest (Waldo 1948/2007; Denhardt rationalities
and of Herbert Simon's (1997) "administrative man" and
Denhardt 2011, 6-7), and government agencies were themselves microeconomics' "economic man." Citizens are seen as quite capa
prone to failure (Wolf 1979). ble of engaging in deliberative problem solving that allows them
to develop a public spiritedness of the type de Tocqueville saw in
New Public Management the 1830s American republic when he talked about the prevalence
After a long gestation period, the New Public Management of
(Hood
"self-interest rightly understood" (de Tocqueville 1840/2002;
1991) became the dominant approach to public administra Mansbridge 1990).
tion in the 1980s and 1990s. In the U.S. the change was marked
Scholars arguing for the new approach see public value emerging
by Osborne and Gaebler's (1992) best-selling book Reinventing
Government and the Clinton Administration's National Performance
from broadly inclusive dialogue and deliberation. The conversation
Review (Gore 1993). New Public Management arose out of includes
a con community members from multiple sectors because, as
Beck Jorgensen and Bozeman (2007, 373-374) note, "public values
cern with government failures, a belief in the efficacy and efficiency
and public value are not the exclusive province of government, nor
of markets, a belief in economic rationality, and a push away from
large, centralized government agencies toward devolution andis government the only set of institutions having public value obli
privatization. gations, [though clearly] government has a special role as guarantor
of public values." This aspect of the approach has many precursors,
including for example, the work of Vincent and Elinor Ostrom
In New Public Management, public managers are urged to "steer,
(Ostrom
not row." They steer by determining objectives, or what should be 1973; Ostrom and Ostrom 1971), which also provides
done, and by catalyzing service delivery, or how it should be important
done underpinnings for understanding networked and col
laborative
(rowing), via their choice of a particular "tool" or combination of governance (McGinnis and Ostrom 2012; Thomson
and
tools (e.g., markets, regulation, taxes, subsidies, insurance, etc.) Perry 2006). The approach encompasses what Boyte (2011,
for
632-633) terms "public work," meaning "self-organized, sustained
achieving the objectives (Salamon 2002). Markets and competi
tion—often among actors from different sectors—are the preferred by a mix of people who solve common problems and create
efforts
things, material or symbolic, of lasting civic value," while develop
way of delivering government services in the most efficient and
ing civic learning and capacity as part of the process. This work can
effective way to recipients seen as "customers," not citizens. Public
managers should be empowered and freed from constrictions engage
so thatmany different kinds of people, including public-spirited
managers from across sectors and citizens. Citizens thus move
they can be "entrepreneurial" and "manage for results." In practice,
of course, managers often face the worst of circumstances in beyond
which their roles as voters, clients, constituents, customers, or poll
responders to becoming problem-solvers, co-creators, and gover
they are accountable for results, but not allowed to manage for
results (Moynihan 2006). nors actively engaged in producing what is valued by the public
and good for the public (De Souza Briggs 2008). Budd (2014) cap
tures the importance of work in general for the creation of public
While the challenges that prompted traditional public adminis
value, and the special role that labor unions have often played in its
tration and New Public Management have not disappeared, new
material conditions and challenges have emerged. They centercreation.
on

446 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

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Table 1 Comparing Perspectives: Traditional Public Administration, New Public Management, and the Emerging Approach to Public Administration

The Emerging Approach to Public Administration (e.g.,

Dimension Traditional Public Administration New Public Management Denhardt and Denhardt's [2011] New Public Service)

Broad Environmental and Intellectual Context

Material and ideo- Industrialization, urbanization, rise of Concern with government failures, Concern with market, government, nonprofit
logical conditions modern corporation, specialization, distrust of big government, be- failures; concern with so-called wicked pr
faith in science, belief in progress, lief in the efficacy and efficiency deepening inequality; hollowed or thinned st
concern over major market failures, of markets and rationality, "downsized" citizenship; networked and colla
experience with the Great Depression devolution and devolution governance; advanced information and comm
and WWII, high trust in government technologies
Primary theoretical Political theory, scientific management, Economic theory, sophisticated Democratic th
and epistemologi- naive social science, pragmatism positivist social science theory, plus diverse approaches to knowing
cal foundations
Prevailing view of Synoptic rationality, "administrative Technical and economic rationality, Formal rationality, multiple tests of rationality (political,
rationality and man" "economic man," self-interested administrative, economic, legal, ethical), belief in public
model of human decisionmakers spiritedness beyond narrow self-interest, "reasonable
behavior person" open to influence via dialogue and deliberation
The Public Sphere or Realm
Definition of the Determined by elected officials or techni- Determined by elect
common good, cal experts by aggregating individual prefer- though government has a special role as a guarantor of
public value, ences supported by evidence of public values. Common good determined by broadly in
public interest consumer choice elusive dialogue and deliberation informed by evidence
and democratic and constitutional values
Role of politics Elect governors, who determine policy Elect governors, who determine "Public work," including determining policy objectives via
objectives policy objectives; empowered dialogue and deliberation; democracy as "a way of life"
managers; administrative politics
around the use of specific tools
Role of citizenship Voter, client, constituent Customer Citizens seen as problem-solvers and co-creators actively
engaged in creating what is valued by the public and is
good for the public
Government and Public Administration

Role of government Rowing, seen as designing and imple- Steering, seen as determining Government acts as convener, catalyst, collaborator;
agencies menting policies and programs in re- objectives and catalyzing service sometimes steering, sometimes, rowing, sometimes
sponse to politically defined objectives delivery via tool choice and partnering, sometimes staying out of the way
reliance if possible on markets,
businesses and nonprofit organi
zations
Key objectives Politically provided goals; implementation Politically provided goals; Create public value in such a way that what the public
managed by public servants; monitor- managers manage inputs and most cares about is addressed effectively and what is
ing done via bureaucratic and elected outputs in a way that ensures good for the public is put in place
officials' oversight economy and responsiveness to
consumers

Key values Efficiency Efficiency and Effectiveness Efficiency, effectiveness, and the full range of democratic
and constitutional values
Mechanisms for Administer programs through central- Create mechanisms and incentive Selection from a menu of alternative delivery mechanisms
achieving policy ized, hierarchically organized public structures to achieve policy based on pragmatic criteria; this often means helping
objectives agencies or self-regulating professions objectives especially through use build cross-sector collaborations and engaging citizens
of markets to achieve agreed objectives
Role of public man- Ensures that rules and appropriate Helps define and meet agreed Plays an active role in helping
ager procedures are followed.. Responsive upon performance objectives; of deliberation and delivery and help maintain and
to elected officials, constituents, and responsive to elected officials enhance the overall effectiveness, accountability, and
clients. Limited discretion allowed to and customers; wide discretion capacity of the system. Responsive to elected officials,
administrative officials allowed citizens, and an array of other stakeholders. Discretion
is needed, but is constrained by law, democratic and
constitutional values, and a broad approach to account
ability
Approach to Hierarchical, in which administrators are Market-driven, in which aggre- Multi-faceted, since public servants must attend to law,
accountability accountable to democratically elected gated self-interests result in out- community values, political norms, professional stand
officials comes desired by broad groups ards, and citizen interests
of citizens seen as customers
Contribution to the Delivers politically determined objec- Delivers politically determined Delivers dialogue and catalyzes and re
democratic process tives and accountability; competition objectives; managers determine zenship in pursuit of what the publi
between elected leaders provides over- the means. Skepticism regard- good for the public. No one sector has a
arching accountability. Public sector ing public service ethos; favors public service ethos; maintaining relation
has a monopoly on public service ethos customer service shared public values is essential
Sources: Adapted principally from Denhardt and Denhardt (2011, 28-29); with further adaptations from Stoker (2006, 44; Kelly, Mulgan, and Muers 2002), and Boyte
(2011).

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 447

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In the new approach, government agencies can be a convener, The emerging approach is partly descriptive of current and emerging
catalyst, and collaborator—sometimes steering, sometimes row practices, partly normative in its prescriptions regarding the role of
ing, sometimes partnering, and sometimes staying out of the way. government and public managers, and partly hopeful as a response
In addition, the way government's key objectives are set changes. to the challenges posed by a "changing material and ideologi
In traditional public administration, elected officials set goals and cal background." In contrast to traditional public administration
implementation is up to public servants, overseen by elected offi and New Public Management, however, the emerging approach
cials' and senior administrators. In New Public Management elected often looks ambiguous, unevenly grounded theoretically, relatively
officials still set goals. Managers then manage inputs and outputs untested, and lacking in clear guidance for practice. Yet, what else
in a way that ensures economy and responsiveness to customers. can one expect in a shared-power, multi-sector, no-one-wholly
In contrast, in the new approach both elected officials and public in-charge world (Cleveland 2002; Crosby and Bryson 2005)? Old
managers are charged with creating public value so that what the approaches have their own problems and the new approach is still
public most cares about is addressed effectively and what is good emerging. One thing is clear, however, and that is the fundamental
for the public is pursued. This change for public managers raises importance in the emerging approach of understanding what is
obvious questions of democratic accountability, an issue to which meant by public value, public values, and the public sphere. Progress
we turn later. On the other hand, the change is essentially simply a must be made on clarifying, measuring, and assessing these concepts
recognition that managers have always played an important role in if the new approach is gain added traction.
goal setting because of the advice they give to elected officials and
the need to act in the face of often ambiguous policy direction. Value, Public Value, Public Values and the Public Sphere
The dictionary definition of value as "relative worth, utility, or
As noted, in the emerging approach the full range of democratic and importance" of something (Merriam-Webster 2014; accessed online
constitutional values is relevant. Policy makers and public managers April 1, 2014) leaves open a number of questions that have troubled
are also encouraged to consider the full array of alternative delivery philosophers for centuries, and reappear in the current debate over
mechanisms and choose among them based on pragmatic criteria. public values, public value, and the public sphere. These questions
This often means helping build cross-sector collaborations and concern at least the following: (1) whether the objects of value are
engaging citizens to achieve mutually agreed objectives (McGuire subjective psychological states, or objective states of the world;
2006; Agranoff 2006; Fung 2006). Public managers' role thus goes (2) whether value is intrinsic, extrinsic, or relational; (3) whether
well beyond that in traditional public administration or New Public something is valuable for its own sake or as a means to something
Management; they are presumed able to help create and guide net else; (4) whether there are hierarchies of values; (5) who does the
works of deliberation and delivery and help maintain and enhance valuing; (6) how the valuing is done; and (7) against what criteria
the overall effectiveness, capacity, and accountability of the system. the object of value is measured. We return to these questions as we
discuss four major contributions to the public value literature and in
The nature of discretion also changes. In traditional public admin our conclusions.

istration, public managers have limited discretion; New Public

Management encourages wide discretion in meeting entrepreneurial The public value literature distinguishes among: (1) public values,
and performance targets. In the emerging approach, discretion is which are many (e.g., Van Wart 1998; Bozeman 2002, 2007; Beck
needed, but is constrained by law, democratic and constitutional Jorgenson and Bozeman 2007; Meynhardt 2009; Andersen et al.
values, and a broad approach to accountability. Accountability 2012); (2) creating public value defined as producing what is either
becomes multi-faceted, and not just hierarchical (as in traditional valued by the public, is good for the public, including adding to
public administration) or more market-driven (as in New Public the public sphere, or both, as assessed against various public value
Management), since public servants must attend to law, community criteria (Benington and Moore 2011; Stoker 2006; Alford 2008;
values, political norms, professional standards, and citizen interests Alford and O'Flynn 2009); and (3) the public sphere or public realm
(Mulgan 2000; Dubnick and Frederickson 2010; Romzek, LeRoux within which public values and value are developed and played out
and Blackmar 2012). In the emerging multi-sector collaborative (Benington 2011).
environment, no one sector has a monopoly on public service ethos,
although government plays a special role; in addition, there is less Barry Bozeman on Public Values
skepticism about government and a less strong preference for mar Bozeman (2007, 17), a leading voice in the public value literature,
kets and customer service. focuses on the policy or societal level. He writes, "A society's public
values are those providing normative consensus about: (1) the rights,
Finally, in this emerging approach public administration's contribu benefits, and prerogatives to which citizens should (and should not)
tion to the democratic process is also different. In both traditional be entitled; (2) the obligations of citizens to society, the state, and
public administration and New Public Management managers are one another; and (3) the principles on which governments and poli
not very directly involved in the democratic process, viewed mainly cies should be based." Although public values in a democracy are
as elections and legislative deliberation. In contrast, in the emerging typically contested, a relative consensus is discernible from consti
approach government delivers dialogue and catalyzes and responds tutions, legislative mandates, policies, literature reviews, opinion
to active citizenship in pursuit of what the public values and what is polls, and other formal and informal sources (Beck Jorgensen and
good for the public. The extent to which it is possible for dialogue Bozeman 2007).
and deliberation to do so in practice remains unclear, however, in
systems that favor elites and are stacked against ordinary citizens What Bozeman terms public values failure occurs when neither the
(Dahl and Soss 2014). market nor the public sector provides goods and services required

448 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

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to achieve public values, which are operationalized in terms of a set arbiter of public value when collectively owned asset
of eight criteria, e.g., political processes and social cohesion should are being deployed. Second, collectively owned asse
be sufficient to ensure effective communication and processing of only government money, but also state authority. Th
public values; and sufficient transparency exists to permit citizens the value of government production relies on an agg
to make informed judgments (Bozeman 2002, 2007; see also costs and benefits broadly conceived; but also on co
Kalambokidis 2014). Public value creation is the extent to which minations concerning the welfare of others, duties t
public values criteria are met, where these are some combination conceptions of a good and just society. Moore (201
of input, process, output, and outcome measures. Public values these philosophical premises to develop a public val
for Bozeman thus are measureable, although clearly there can be the benefit side is the achievement of collectively v
disagreements about how the values are to be conceptualized and while on the cost side are the costs of using public a
measured. One implication is that analysts, citizens, and policy collectively owned assets.
makers should focus on what public values are, and on ways in
which institutions and processes are necessary to forge agreement Moore argues that public managers should use the st
on and achieve public values in practice (Davis and West 2009; (1995, 22-23). Strategy must be (1) aimed at achiev
Moulton 2009; Jacobs 2014; Kalambokidis 2014). that is substantively valuable (i.e., must constitute p
(2) legitimate and politically sustainable; and (3) op
Note that Bozeman's approach is both positive, when he asks what administratively feasible (see also Alford and O'Fly
the normative consensus on values is, and normative, when he "equates managerial success in the public sector with
argues that public values failures should be corrected. Note, too, reshaping public sector enterprises in ways that incr
that Bozeman (2007) is silent on the role of the nonprofit sector to the public in both the short and the long run" (
and, to a lesser extent, on the public sphere more generally; on the requires a "restless, value-seeking imagination" (Beni
rights, responsibilities, or weights to be given to non-citizens; and Moore 2011, 3).
on the role and importance of power in contests over public values.
Regarding the effects of political power, Jacobs (2014) believes that Moore is speaking primarily to current and prospect
in the U.S. context Bozeman severely underestimates the extent of managers in a democratic society and secondarily to
dissensus, the disproportionate influence of affluent citizens and leaders. Like Bozeman, an implication of Moore's w
organized interests, and the extent to which governing structures for a healthy democracy with supporting institution
favor inaction and drift. esses necessary to forge agreement on and achieve pu
practice.
Mark Moore on Creating Public Value
Whereas Bozeman focuses on the policy or societal level, Mark For Moore, like Bozeman, public value generally refers to objective
Moore (1995, 52-55), another important voice in the literature, states of the world that can be measured. Also like Bozeman, Moore
focuses on public managers. He, too, is concerned about devaluing sees public value as extrinsic and also intrinsic to the functioning
of government and public managers in an era of economic individu of an effective democratic polity. Again, like Bozeman, something
alism and market ascendency, and he initially conceived of public being evaluated may be deemed to hold inherent value or may
value as the public management equivalent of shareholder value. be seen as a means to something else. Unlike Bozeman, Moore
He seeks both a persuasive rhetoric and an approach to discern does assume a hierarchy of values in which public organizational
ing, championing, and achieving public value—or what he calls effectiveness, efficiency, accountability, justness, and fairness in the
creating public value. Public value primarily results from government context of democratic governance are prime values. For Moore, ulti
performance, so his view of public value creation in this early book mately elected officials and the citizenry do the valuing, but public
is narrower than in much of the later literature. managers also play an important role. The valuing can be shown via
the public value account.
Moore believes that citizens want from their governments some
combination of the following that together encompass public Rhodes and Wanna (2007) in particular have criticized Moore and
value: (1) high-performing service-oriented public bureaucracies, his supporters. Not clear, they say, is whether their approach is "a
(2) public organizations that are efficient and effective in achieving paradigm, a concept, a model, a heuristic device, or even a story...
desired social outcomes, and (3) public organizations that operate [As a result,] it is all things to all people" (408). They believe Moore
justly and fairly, and lead to just and fair conditions in the society downplays the importance of politics and elected officials, overly
at large. While Moore's definition of public value is vaguer than emphasizes the role of public managers, and trusts too much in
Bozeman's, it highlights reasonably specific public values: efficiency, public organizations, private sector experience, and the virtues of
effectiveness, socially and politically sanctioned desired outcomes, public servants (409-412).
procedural justice, and substantive justice. Like Bozeman, Moore's
definition of public value can encompass input, process, output, and
Alford (2008; see also Alford and O'Flynn 2009) mounts a spir
outcome measures. ited defense of Moore and offers refutations of each of Rhodes and
Wannas points, ffe emphasizes Moore's strategic triangle that sees
Moore (2014a) develops the philosophical foundations of his as placing "a legitimate limit on the
the authorizing environment
public managers
approach to public value as a prelude to establishing what autonomy to shape what is meant by public value"
he calls
"public value accounting." He makes three assertions: First,
(177). Alford also believes a public
Rhodes and Wanna operate out of an
collectively defined through democratic processes is the
"old" public appropriate
administration paradigm that draws a sharp distinction

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 449

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between politics and administration and thus ignore the fact that as: situated in relationships between the individual and society;
political appointees and civil servants often have considerable leeway founded in individuals; constituted by subjective evaluations against
to influence policy and decisions. basic needs; activated by and realized in emotional-motivational
states; and produced and reproduced in experience-intense practices.
Dahl and Soss (2014) also level sharp criticism at Moore's concep
tion of creating public value. In their view, by posing public value In contrast to Bozeman and Moore's approaches, Meyhnardt's is
as an analog to shareholder value, seeing democratic engagement in non-prescriptive; is far more psychologically based; and emphasizes
primarily instrumental terms, and viewing public value as some more the interpénétration of public and private spheres. Unlike
thing that is produced, Moore and his followers actually mimic the other two authors, he pays little attention to the institutions
the very neoliberal rationality they seek to resist and run the risk of and supra-individual processes involved in public value creation.
furthering neoliberalism's de-democratizing and market-enhancing However, like Bozeman and Moore, Meynhardt also sees public
consequences. Public managers might unwittingly be agents of value as measurable, in his case against the dimensions he outlines.
"downsizing democracy" (Crenson and Ginsberg 2002). The cau
tions Dahl and Soss raise are serious and should be addressed by John Benington on the Public Sphere
those seeking to advance the public value literature. Beyond public values and creating public value, there is the
public sphere. John Benington (2011) sees the public sphere as "a
In addition, Jacobs (2014) believes Moore's hopeful view of public democratic space" (31) that includes the "web of values, places,
management can be Pollyannaish, at least in the U.S., given sharply organizations, rules, knowledge, and other cultural resources held
divided public opinion on many issues, intensely partisan poli in common by people through their everyday commitments and
tics, the power of organized interests, and the many veto points behaviors, and held in trust by government and public institu
built into governance arrangements. Clearly, public managers are tions." It is "what provides a society with some sense of belonging,
constrained in a democratic society—and rightly so—but there are meaning, purpose and continuity, and which enables people to
also many examples of enterprising, public value-producing activi thrive and strive amid uncertainty" (43). Like Dewey (1927/1954),
ties that demonstrate public managers can in fact be active agents he believes that the public is not given, but must be continuously
in creating public value. The public value literature thus will need constructed. Public value is necessarily contested, and is often estab
to explore much further the conceptual, political, organizational, lished through a continuous process of dialogue. For Benington,
managerial, and other limits on public managers seeking to create the public sphere is thus the space—psychological, social, political,
public value in particular circumstances. institutional, and physical—within which public values and public
value are held, created, or diminished. Public value includes what
Timo Meynhardt on Public Value adds to the public sphere. While Benington himself is committed
Timo Meynhardt (2009, 206), in an important but far less well to democracy, note that his extended definition of the public sphere
known approach, believes that public value is constructed out of can apply to other forms of government.
"values characterizing the relationship between an individual and
'society,' defining the quality of the relationship." The relationship's Operationally, for both practitioners and scholars, determining who
quality is assessed subjectively by individuals, but when there is and what the "public" is can be problematic (Frederickson 1991).
inter-subjective weight attached to these assessments, they become Nonetheless, Meynhardt (2009, 205) sees the "public" is an "indis
objective and might reach Bozeman's requirement of a reasonable pensable operational fiction necessary for action and orientation in a
normative consensus. Meynhardt believes that public value is for complex environment." In other words, as complexity increases the
the public when it concerns "evaluations about how basic needs of more "the public" becomes a social construct "necessary for acting,
the individuals, groups, and the society as a whole are influenced in but hard to pin down" (204).
relationships involving the public" (212). Public value is also about
value from the public, when it is "drawn from the experience of the In practical terms, the public may already be known, may need
public." Public value for Meynhardt, too, can refer to input, process, to make itself known, or may need to be created. For example,
output, and outcome measures. Moore's normative approach requires public managers to look to
their "authorizing environments" for direction, although they may
Meynhardt posits four basic dimensions (or content categories) conclude that the public can be best served by working to change
of public value closely connected to a widely cited psychological aspects of the authorizing environment. Moore also asserts that
theory of basic needs (Epstsein, 1989, 1993, 2003) and related elected officials and the citizens (often via elections) are the arbiters
to categories in traditional welfare economics. The categories are: of public value (1995, 38), even when political decision making
moral-ethical, political-social, utilitarian-instrumental, and hedon is deeply problematic on moral grounds. In democratic societies,
istic-aesthetical. The "value" an individual attaches to an experience citizens and managers can challenge these questionable decisions,
is based on how well the experience satisfies his or her basic needs but not ignore them (54—55). For Dewey (1927/1954), a public
as assessed against these dimensions. Note that the assessment is is "created" when citizens experience the negative consequences
a subjective, emotional-motivational, and valenced reaction to an of situations beyond their control (resulting, for example, from
experience of some sort involving the "public," such as an encounter market or governmental activities). In other circumstances, public
with a government program, an election, or visit to a public space. administrators may need to "call a public into being" (Moore
Inter-subjectively equivalent assessments are a broad measure of 2014a), for example, when designing and managing a public
the extent to which public value has been created or diminished. participation process (Fung 2006; Cooper, Bryer, and Meek 2006;
To summarize, Meynhardt (2009, 212) sees public value creation Nabatchi 2012).

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Public values scholars look to a variety of sources for evidence of common foundations of public life are more closely related to the
what the "public" is, wants, or is good for it. Sources include, for idea of the public sphere.
example, literature reviews, legislation, rules and regulations, and
opinion polls (Beck Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007; Bozeman 2007; How the Ideas of Creating Public Value and Policy-Level
Jacobs 2014). Meynhardt (2009, 2014), as noted, relies on psycho and Societal Public Values Are Used in Practice and
logical theory to derive the dimensions against which public values Research
can be assessed; he has developed and published results from the The different strands in the public value literature clearly can be
use of psychological questionnaires based on this work. Moulton linked. Specifically, Moore's managerially focused idea of creating
(2009) looks to "public values institutions," which can be of three public value involves producing what the public values or is good
types, with the three types presumed to differentially affect how for the public, the merits of which can be assessed against a set of
public values are realized in practice. Regulatory institutions are more specific public values. These can include Bozeman's and others'
legally sanctioned and can establish rules, surveillance mechanisms, societal or policy-focused public value criteria, Meynhardts' psycho
and incentives to influence behavior. Normative-associative institu logically focused criteria, Benington's idea of enhancing the public
tions help create expectations or norms that influence social life sphere, and other important values in the public administration
via prescriptive, evaluative, or obligatory guidance. Finally, cultural field and literature. All may or should be considered when assessing
cognitive institutions help create shared conceptions of the nature of value creation in specific instances.
social reality and the frames used to create meaning. The three kinds
of institutions are analytic constructs and can and do overlap in Uses of the Creating Public Value Idea in Practice and Research
practice. Andersen, et al. (2012) look to archetypal forms of govern The idea of creating public value has been used as a paradigm, rhet
ance to derive the content of public values; the forms are hierarchy, oric, narrative, and kind of performance (Alford and O'Flynn 2009,
clans or professions, networks, and markets. 178-185). Stoker (2006) has proposed "public value management"
as a new paradigm better suited to networked governance than tra
How Public Value Relates to Other Concepts ditional public administration or the New Public Management. He
Part of public value's importance is that it encompasses and goes is thus moving beyond Moore's primary focus on public managers at
beyond several other venerable concepts that highlight the proper the top of a public bureaucracy delivering services or obligations to
ends and means of government and broader public action. Among a focus on networked inter-organizational and cross-sector relations
these are the public interest, the common good, public goods, and and governance.
commonwealth. Public interest originally was associated with the
state, not with the public sphere more generally (Gunn 1969), and Stoker makes the case that traditional public administration and
thus typically refers to the reasons for, or consequences of, govern New Public Management are not up to the job of managing in a
ment action (Alexander 2002, 226-227). Beyond that, attempts networked public environment, but he only vaguely considers how
to operationalize the public interest have proved difficult (Sorauf leaders and managers in specific instances would achieve efficiency,
1957; Mitnick 1976), although not necessarily in the case of apply accountability, and equity, along with broader democratic values
ing relatively clear public laws and regulations to specific decisions (Williams and Shearer 2011; O'Flynn 2007). Nor does he explain
(Alexander 2002). Vagueness and difficulties of operationalization how leaders and managers should cope with a democracy having
also plague related terms such as the common good. problems with low voter turnout, divided government, compet
ing organized interests, and competing conceptions of what public
Public goods refers to production of non-rival, non-excludable value might be in any situation (Davis and West 2009; Jacobs
goods and services. Public value differs in three ways: First, it 2014).
includes remedies to market failures beyond inadequate provision of
public goods, along with the institutional arrangements that make Critics of public value argue that it has been used as a rhetorical
the remedies possible. This fits clearly with Bozeman's (2007) view. strategy to protect and advance the interests of bureaucrats and
Public goods are outputs and public value includes the outcomes their organizations (Roberts 1995). The criticism unquestionably
made possible by public goods. This fits well with Moore's (1995) has merit in particular cases. As noted above, Dahl and Soss (2014)
view. Finally, public value has value for the valuer, which accords also highlight the potential of public value rhetoric to undermine
well with Meynhardt's (2009) approach. democratic processes. Smith (2004, 68—69), however, believes
that a "focus on public value enables one to bring together debates
Probably commonwealth comes closest to capturing the meaning of about values, institutions, systems, processes and people. It also
public value, since the term originally meant "common well-being." enables one to link insights from different analytical perspectives,
In the U.S. from the colonial era through the World War II era, as including public policy, policy analysis, management, economics,
Boyte (1989) points out, commonwealth meant two things. First, it and political science." Similarly, Fisher (2014) offers a narrative
meant a republican or democratic government of equals concerned that contrasts an oppositional approach to public decision mak
with the general welfare and an active citizenry throughout the year. ing (public-private, black-white; right-wrong; mine-yours) with an
Second, the term "brought to mind the touchstone, or common "opposable" or integrative approach wherein public managers can
foundations, of public life—the basic resources and public goods link seemingly unrelated, or contradictory, and sometimes para
of a community over which citizens assumed responsibility and doxical constructs to achieve a higher level of public value across
authority" (4-5). Thus, while similar to public value in meaning, sectors. The stories managers create thus can be self-serving rheto
commonwealth is not the same. The identification with a repub ric, but also can be a public-regarding story about what should be,
lican or democratic government narrows the definition, while the or has been, created.

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 451

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Finally, as performance, public value can serve as a performance graphically represent relationships between public value failures and
measurement and management framework. A key advantage market failures (Welch, Rimes, and Bozeman 2014). The approach
of the public value idea is that there is no single bottom line has been used primarily in the science and technology field (e.g.,
(Kalambokidis (2014). Moore (2013, 2014a, 2014b), for example, Bozeman and Sarewitz 2011), but increasingly in other fields
proposes that managers look at costs and benefits, but also at less (Bozeman and Moulton 2011, i367).
tangible aspects when they assess public value creation. Bozeman
(2002; 2007) and Talbot (2010) argue for using a variety of public Meynhardt (2014) has developed a public value assessment instru
value criteria to discern how much public value has been created ment called the public value scorecard (not to be confused with
or diminished. A focus on public value also stimulates attention to Moore's 2013, 2014b public value scorecard). The scorecard is an
the long-term viability and reliability of public investments (Fisher aggregated summary based on individuals' rankings of the value of
2014). something related to the public along the dimensions mentioned
earlier—moral-ethical, hedonistic-aesthetical, utilitarian-instru
A number of governments have made explicit or implicit use of the mental, and political-social—as well as a fifth dimension related to
public value framework. Kernaghan (2003), for example, exam financial performance (Meynhardt 2014). The scorecard has been
ines the values statements of four Westminster-style governments; used in a variety of situations for both formative and summative
each contains a range of values beyond efficiency. The "joined-up purposes.
government," "whole-of-government," and collaborative governance
initiatives that developed in many countries in response to the frag Andersen, et al. (2012) have developed a third instrument for
mentation caused by New Public Management were about coordi assessing public values that relies not on public value criteria or
nation and also about recovery and pursuit of public values beyond psychological assessments, but instead on what they call "organi
narrowly defined results and efficiency (Christensen and Ltegreid zational design principles" derived from four archetypal modes of
2007). Unfortunately, some of these efforts have used excessively governance (hierarchy, clan, network, and market) (717). For each
narrow interpretations of public value. For example, the British of the four they articulated the role of public organizations, role of
government under Tony Blair made explicit use of public value as citizens, organizational context, control forms, and central values.
a way of thinking about performance, but operationalized Moore's From these values they developed an instrument they tested on
strategic triangle by focusing on services (for operational capabil Danish public managers by asking them to what extent the values
ity), outcomes (for public value), and trust and legitimacy (for applied to their organizations. After a variety of analyses, seven
the authorizing environment) (Kelly, Mulgan, and Muers 2002). dimensions of public value emerged: the public at large, rule abid
Accenture consultants Cole and Parston (2006) further dimin ance, budget keeping, professionalism, balancing interests, efficient
ish the meaning of public value. Their approach just repackages supply, and user focus. Their work highlights tensions among the
existing approaches to performance measurement and management values and the complexity of public managers' values environments
under a different label (Afford and O'Flynn 2009, 185). Dahl and (723-724).
Soss's (2014) cautions about the ease with which the public value
approach can be hijacked for purposes not intended by its principal Conclusions
authors is on clear display. Scholars and public professionals are making important theoretical,
practical, and operational strides in developing a new approach to
The various approaches to creating public value can be used public administration as an alternative to approaches that preceded
positively or normatively—and have been. Williams and Shearer it. They need to do more, however, before the new approach is
(2011, 1374) observe, however, that "the most striking feature is widely understood, appreciated, and used to advance important
the relative absence of empirical investigation of either the norma public values underplayed by traditional public administration
tive propositions of public value or its efficacy as a framework for and New Public Management. In this final section we offer some
understanding public management." They do note, however, some tentative conclusions about where things stand and then outline an
exemplary studies. For example, O'Toole, Meier and Nicholson agenda for research and practice.
Crotty (2005) found in a large-N study of Texas school superintend
ents that the superintendents saw the points of Moore's triangle as Where Things Stand
constitutive of their roles. And Meynhardt and Metelmann (2009) While there clearly is an emerging new approach to public admin
in a study of the German Federal Labor Agency also found evidence istration, it does not have a consensually agreed name. Among the
that middle managers think in much the same way as Moore's pub various possibilities, however, the Denhardts' (2011) label the New
lic value entrepreneurs would. Public Service certainly appears to be the leading contender based
on citations. Whatever the name, attention to issues of public value,
Uses of Policy-Level and Societal Public Values in Practice and public values, and the public sphere are central to the new approach.
Research

Policy-level and broader public values have also been used in a The concept of creating public value is popular within both aca
demic and practice settings (Williams and Shearer 2011). Even crit
variety of ways. For example, public values feature prominently in
the approach Bozeman and his coauthors have developed called ics note the broad interest in the idea among practitioners (Rhodes
and
"public value mapping." The approach incorporates a broad range of Wanna 2007). Similarly, Van der Wal, Nabatchi, and de Graaf
(2013) assert that the study of public values is gaining in impor
value considerations in policy decision-making processes by helping
(1) identify public values; (2) assess whether or not public value tance in public administration and may well be one of the field's
failures have occurred; (3) map relationships among values; and most
(4) important current themes. Finally, for several decades scholars

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and political commentators have devoted increased attention to the values; who does the valuing; how the valuing is done; and against
public sphere, including debates about the limits and role of govern what criteria the object of value is measured.
ment, the why and how of public engagement and active citizen
ship, and the need for a strengthened democracy. The public value literature does provide a broader sense of public
values than typically found in traditional public administration
This growing interest is in part due to the importance, urgency, and New Public Management. As the emerging approach to public
scope, and scale of public problems facing the world; the pragmatic administration unfolds, the public value literature should be explic
recognition that governments alone cannot effectively address many itly incorporated, since the issues it addresses are so fundamental.
of these problems; and a concern that public values have been and For example, too many performance measurement and management
will be lost as a result of a powerful anti-government rhetoric and regimes and models focus principally on efficiency and effective
a host of market-based and performance-based reforms. Following ness directly related to the mission (Radin 2006; 2012; Talbot
Dewey, the public value literature and the emerging approach to 2010; Moynihan et al. 2011), and disregard what Rosenbloom
public administration represent the products of a practitioner and (2007) terms non-mission-based values, such as equity, due process,
scholarly "public called into being" over these concerns. freedom of information, and citizenship development. As a result,
too many performance measurement and management schemes may
In the emerging approach government clearly has a special role actually weaken public value creation (Kroll and Moynihan 2014).
to play as a creator of public value and guarantor of public values Practitioners thus should work to ensure performance measure
and the public sphere, but in a market-based democracy, govern ment and management approaches do include non-mission-based
ment is not the owner of all the processes and institutions having values and at the very least do not diminish democratic engagement
public value potential or obligations (Peters and Pierre 1998). The and citizenship behavior. Rosenbloom's (2007) contribution has
literatures on cross-sector collaboration, integrative leadership, been noted. Moore (2013, 2014b) has also made a start on some
and networked governance are all responses to the new context, in of these concerns with his proposed public value account, as does
which public managers frequently must collaborate with nonprofits, Meynhardt (2014) with his very different public value account.
businesses, the media, and citizens to accomplish public purposes. A Bozeman and his colleagues' public value mapping model also
major contribution of the public value literature is the way it draws makes a contribution. Similarly, public participation processes
attention to questions about: (a) the public purposes that are or can be designed to enhance democratic behavior and citizenship
should be served by organizations in all sectors, by intra- and cross (Natachi 2012; Bryson, et al. 2013). Finally, policy analysis as well
sector collaborations, by more general governance arrangements, should include a broad array of values beyond its traditional focus
and by public leadership broadly defined; and (b) how public man on efficiency, effectiveness, and sometimes equity (Radin, 2013).
agers and leaders do and should accomplish these purposes. These
are important normative and research-related questions needing to Practitioners and scholars also should follow Australia's lead, for
be pursued in the new context. example, and draw attention to the expected and actual public value
created by policies, programs, projects, and other efforts (Kernaghan
Of course, the concern with purposes and values is hardly new to 2003). As Jacobs (2014) demonstrates in a U.S. context, the public
public administration; what is different are two different parts of the is "pragmatically liberal"; that is, the public is quite willing to sup
context. The first is that traditional public administration and the port particular public undertakings when the value is clear and the
New Public Management—while they both have strengths—are not cost is reasonable. Moore's public value account offers a way of mak
up to the tasks of networked governance, leadership, and manage ing the case in specific circumstances. Kalambokidis (2014) provides
ment when a variety of public values should be served, including, practical advice on some of the ways in which this public value-clar
but hardly limited to, efficiency, effectiveness, and equity. The ifying work can be done in relation to fiscal and spending policy.
second is the view that terms such as the public interest and com
monwealth are too narrow, other related terms such as the common Given the complex networked and collaborative arrangements
good are too vague, and the language of public value provides a practitioners now often find themselves in, they have a heightened
helpful way forward, as Jacobs (2014) suggests. need to cultivate what Moore calls a "restless, value-seeking imagi
nation" in a democratic context; and public affairs scholars and
A Research and Practice Agenda educators should help them in this effort. That imagination also
Right now the new approach is enmeshed in often vague defini should incorporate attention to government's special role in assur
tions, conceptualizations, and measurements of public value and the ing concern for important values and standing firm against efforts
public sphere. While public administration scholars and practition to diminish them (Dahl and Soss, 2014). Again, the need for
ers may ultimately agree on these public value-related matters, they imagination is not new to public administration, where creativity,
are unlikely to reach full consensus (Davis and West 2009). That innovation, and strategic thinking and acting have always found
is not necessarily a bad thing. In order to make progress, however, a place (Osborne and Brown 2013; ffartley 2014; Bryson 2011).
scholars should address the challenges to current formulations, in Such imagination often involves bridging the politics-administra
part through further conceptual refinement, the development of tion divide (Gulick 1933; Appleby 1945), but also knowing when
suitable typologies and measures, and rigorous empirical testing. to defer to elected officials (Afford, Hartley, and Hughes 2014). In
Research should attend to both subjectively held public values and all these cases, public administrators have a special obligation to
more objective states of the world; whether a specific public value turn their imaginations to enhancing democratic governance and
is intrinsic, extrinsic, or relational; whether something is a prime or citizenship. As noted, policy analysis also can help foster imagina
instrumental public value; whether there are hierarchies of public tive responses and attention to the array of public values (Radin

Public Value Governance: Moving beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 453

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2012). Clearly, however, the public value literature should explore Beck Jorgensen, Torben, and Barry Bozeman. 2007. Public Values: An Inventory.

much further the conceptual, political, organizational, managerial, Administration & Society 39(3): 354—381.

and other limits on public managers seeking to create public value Benington, John. 2011. From Private Choice to Public Value? In Public Value: Theory

in particular circumstances. and Practice, edited by John Benington and Mark Moore, 31—49. Basingstoke,
UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Institutions and processes matter for the creation of public value, Benington, John, and Mark H. Moore. 2011. Public Value in Complex and

the realization of public values, and the preservation and enhance Changing Times. In Public Value: Theory and Practice, edited by John Benington

ment of the public sphere (Talbot 2010; Benington and Moore and Mark Moore, 1-20. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
2011; West and Davis 2011; Radin 2012; Dahl and Soss 2014; Boyte, Harry. 1989. CommonWealth: A Return to Citizen Politics. New York: Free Press.

Jacobs 2014; Moore 2014a; Kalambokidis 2014; Budd 2014). The Boyte, Harry. 2005. Reframing Democracy: Governance, Civic Agency, and Politics.

research on performance management regimes makes this clear. Public Administration Review 65(5): 536-546.

Such regimes and the institutions and processes that produce and Boyte, Harry. 2011. Constructive Politics as Public Work: Organizing the Literature.

sustain them and what the consequences are for public value should Political Theory 39(5): 630—660.
be the focus of much additional work. The same is true of collabora Bozeman, Barry. 2002. Public Value Failure: When Efficient Markets May Not Do.

tive, networked governance processes. Work thus should continue Public Administration Review 62(2) : 145-161.

on linking managerial behavior attempting to create public value Bozeman, Barry. 2007. Public Values and Public Interest: Counterbalancing Economic

with institutions and processes and policy-level and other important Individualism. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

public values related to democratic and collaborative governance Bozeman, Barry, and Stephanie Moulton. 2011. Integrative Publicness: A

(Beck Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007). Framework for Public Management Strategy and Performance. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory 21 (Supplement 3): i363—i380.

Another part of that work is to bring in scholarship from other Bozeman, Barry, and Daniel Sarewitz. 2011. Public Value Mapping and Science

fields to help enrich the conversation at a time when the public Policy Evaluation. Minerva 49: 1-23.

administration can be viewed as too insular (Wright 2011). We look Bryson, John. 2011. Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, Th

forward to continued research and learning that will determine Edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

whether the public value literature will override the challenges and Bryson, John M., Barbara C. Crosby, and Melissa M. Stone. 2006. The Design

take a permanent place in the ongoing development of the field of and Implementation of Cross-Sector Collaborations: Propositions from the

public administration scholarship and practice. Literature. Public Administration Review upplement 1): 44-55.
Bryson, John, Kathryn Quick, Carissa Schively Slotterback, and Barbara C. Crosby.
Notes 2013. Designing Public Participation Processes. Public Administration Review

This introduction and the symposium articles stem from an international 73(1): 23-34.
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conference on "Creating Public Value in a Multi-Sector, Shared-Power World"
at the University of Minnesota, September 20—22, 2012. The conference was Outcomes: The Importance of Work and the Contested Role of Labor Unions.
co-sponsored by three units of the University of Minnesota: the Hubert H. Public Administration Review 74(4): 506-516.

Christensen, Tom, and Per Lasgreid. 2007. The Whole-of-Government Approach to

Humphrey School of Public Affairs, the Carlson School of Management, and
the Center for Integrative Leadership. The Minnesota Humanities Center was aPublic Sector Reform. Public Administration Review 67(6): 1059—1066.
cosponsor. Cleveland, Harlan. 2002. Nobody in Charge: Essays on the Future of Leadership. New
York: John Wiley.
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