Ancient, Medieval and Modern History

Chapter one
The Stone Age
Lower Palaeolithic Age Sites
Stone Age
Sites States
The term ‘Stone Age’ is ! The age when the pre-historic man
began to use stones for utilitarian Belan Valley Madhya Pradesh and
used to describe a Uttar Pradesh
purpose is termed as the Stone Age.
period of human The stone age is divided into three Bhimbetka, Jogdaha Madhya Pradesh
evolution where stone broad divisions: Bagor, Budha Pushkar Rajasthan
was used as the most Pre-History Patne, Nandipalle Maharashtra
hardest material for Renugunta, Kurnool Andhra Pradesh
making tools. The stone Palaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Caves
Age Age Age Singhbhum Jharkhand
age started around 2 to
2.5 million years ago. Sohan Valley West Punjab
Lower Middle Upper (Pakistan)
The transition out of Palaeolithic Palaeolithic Palaeolithic
the stone age occurred
The Middle Palaeolithic Age
between 6000 BC and Palaeolithic Age
(50000 - 40000 BC)
2500 BC. Man is said to Hunters and Food
have appeared on the It’s tool pattern is based upon flakes and
Gatherers (Upto 9000 BC)
!

crude pebble industry. The dominant tool

Earth (first in Africa) in ! The term Palaeolithic was coined by types being blades, points and borers.
the early Pleistocene, archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865 and
with true ox, elephant refers to a pre-historic era distinguished Middle Palaeolithic Age Sites
by the development of the first stone Sites States
and horse. Bori in
tools made of Quartzite. Hence,
Maharashtra gives the Nevasa Maharashtra
Palaeolithic men are also called as
earliest evidence of Bhimbetka,Narmada Valley Madhya Pradesh
Quartzite Men.
man in India, in the ! Traditionally, the Palaeolithic age is Bagor,Karmali Valley, Rajasthan
Didwana
middle Pleistocene divided into three periods: the Lower
Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic and the Singhbhum Jharkhand
period.
Upper Palaeolithic; on the basis of the
nature of stone tools made by human The Upper Palaeolithic Age
beings as well as due to the changes in
(40000 -10000 BC)
the climate.
! It is characterised by burins, scrappers,
The Lower Palaeolithic Age flint industry and appearance of modern
(500000 - 50000 BC) man (homo sapiens).
! It is the earliest sub-division of the ! Animal remains found in the Belan valley
Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age. The tools in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh
of this phase include mainly hand-axes, shows that goats, sheep and cattle were
cleavers, choppers and chopping tools. exploited.
2 Magbook ~ Indian History
Upper Palaeolithic Age Sites Some Important Features of Neolithic Sites
Sites States ! Kashmir Only site where microlith is completely absent.
Kurnool Caves Andhra Pradesh ! Chirand and Kashmir Only sites which has yielded
Belan Valley Madhya Pradesh and UP considerable bone implements.
Nevasa Maharashtra ! Burzahom It is a famous archaeological site in Kashmir. The
Sabarmati Valley Gujarat earliest Neolithic homes at Burzahom were pits dug below
Singrauli Madhya Pradesh ground level using stone tools. The sides of the pits were
plastered with mud. Domestic dogs were buried with their
Kichler Andhra Pradesh
masters in their graves.
Hungsi Valley Karnataka
! Allahabad District Cultivation of rice in the 6th millennium BC.
Attirampakkam Tamil Nadu
Pahalgam Kashmir
Neolithic Age Sites
Hathnora, Narmada Valley, Madhya Pradesh Sites States
Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Burzahom, Gufkral Kashmir
Kortallayar Valley Tamil Nadu Mehrgarh, Kili Gul Muhammad Baluchistan
Daojali Hading Assam
Mesolithic Age Chopani Mando, Mahagarha Uttar Pradesh
Chirand, Chechar Bihar
Hunters and Herders (9000 - 4000 BC) Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu, Narsipur, Karnataka
! It was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic age Hallur, Kupgal, Kodekal, Brahmagiri
and the Neolithic age. Mesolithic period is Nagarjunakonda, Piklihal, Utnur Andhra Pradesh
technologically characterised by microliths or small Paiyanpalli Tamil Nadu
pointed and sharp stone tools.
! Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan Chalcolithic Age (1800 -1000 BC)
provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of ! These people used copper and bronze to make a range of
animals like cows, horses and other poultry and farm utilitarian tools. This phase or period is termed as the
animals. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Partapgarh Chalcolithic age. A number of such sites have been found in
and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. the Chota Nagpur plateau region, the upper Gangetic basin,
Karnataka and near the banks of river Narmada. Neither
Mesolithic Age Sites
plough nor has been found at Chalcolithic sites. They
Sites States practiced Jhum cultivation.
Langhnaj Gujarat ! Ganeshwar It was an archaeological site located in the State
Tilwara, Bagor Rajasthan of Rajasthan. The site was famous for copper artefacts.
Patne, Hatkhamba Maharashtra Ganeshwar site was related with Jodhpura culture.
Damdama, Chopani Mando Uttar Pradesh
Chalcolithic Age Sites
Pachmarhi, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Madhya Pradesh
Sites States
Sanganakallu Karnataka
Ahar-Banas Rajasthan
Gauri Gundam Andhra Pradesh
Kayatha, Malwa, Eran Madhya Pradesh
Neolithic Age Nevasa, Daimabad, Nanyang Maharashtra

Food Producers (4000 -1800 BC) Chalcolithic Culture

! The Neolithic age or the New Stone age was the last ! Ahar Culture The sites of Ahar culture were Ahar (Rajasthan),
phase of the Stone age. It is characterised by the use of Balathal, Gilund etc. The distinctive feature is black and red
polished stone tools and the beginning of cultivation of ware.
crops. An important invention of this time was the ! Kayatha Culture Located in Chambal and its tributaries, the
making of the wheel and the discovery of fire. sturdy red slipped ware with chocolate designs is main
! The four major characteristics traits that represent the feature.
Neolithic culture are as follows : ! Malwa Culture Narmada and its tributaries in Gujarat. One
—Beginning of the practice of agriculture. of the largest Chalcolithic settlements.
—Domestication of animals. ! Savalda Culture The well-known sites are in Dhule district of
—Use of polished stone tools. Maharashtra.
—The manufacture of pottery. ! Prabhas and Rangpur Culture Both of them are derived from
! Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (Pakistan) is the oldest the Harappa culture. The polished red ware is the hall mark
Neolithic site in Indian sub-continent (7000 BC). of this culture.
Chapter two
Indus Valley Civilisation
Geographical Limits
Discovery There are following geographical limits
Thousand year’s ago, ! The archaeological excavations as follows :
people started moving during the early decades of 20th
! Northernmost site Manda (J & K)
century brought to light an
towards the valleys of ! Southernmost site Daimabad
extensive civilisation which
Indus, gradually they (Maharashtra)
flourished in Indian subcontinent. ! Westernmost site Sutkagen Dor
settled there and they ! Till now almost 1400 settlements (Pakistan)
evolved a civilisation belonging to Indus Valley ! Easternmost site Alamgirpur (UP)
called Indus Valley Civilisation. The North-South

Civilisation. The name

spread of this civilisation was 1400 Important Sites
km and the East-West spread was
‘India’ is derived from 1600 kms. Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)
the river Indus, for India ! The most of the Indus Valley ! It was the first Indus site to be discovered and
means the country of Civilisation settlements were excavated under the supervision of Daya Ram
located in Valley of Saraswati river Sahni in 1921, on the river Ravi. The Indus
the Indus. The earliest
system, which is extinct today. The civilisation was originally called Harappan
literary evidence river Saraswati was known as the Civilisation after the discovery of this site.
however, shows that the name of Ghaggar in Punjab and ! The vast mounds at Harappa were first
first Aryan settlers in Chakra in Baluchistan region. reported by Masson in 1826 and visited by
India called the Indus, Cunningham in 1853 and 1873.
the Sindhu.
Geographical Area ! The six granaries here are located outside the
! The Indus or the Harappan culture citadel, but immediately next to it in the West.
is older than the chalcolithic ! Barracks or rows of single-roomed quarters
cultures, but it is far more are situated just below the walls of the citadel.
developed than these cultures. They probably house labourers.
! It arose in the North-Western part ! The location of Harappa has led several
of the Indian subcontinent. Many authors to conclude that it was a Gateway city.
sites in Sindh formed the Central Two types of burial practices, one of typical R
Zone of the Pre-Harappan Culture. 37 type and other H type cemetry are seen.
! The Central Zone of the Mature ! Harayana's Bhirrana oldest Harappan site in
Harappan Culture lay in Sindh and Indian Subcontinent, according to new
Punjab, mainly in the Indus valley. Archaeological Survey of India (report).
It is from here that it spread ! Other findings stone symbol of lingam and
Southwards and Eastwards. yoni, virgin goddess (seal), wheat and barley
! The area formed a triangle and in wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror,
accounted for about 1299600 sq vanity box, dice, log chasing a deer (in
km, which is larger than Ancient bronze), nude male and nude dancing female
Egypt and Mesopotamia. Nearly (stone), naked male Torso (red sand stone)
1500, Harappan sites are known has been found which shows traces of
as so far in the subcontinent. Jainism.
Magbook ~ Indus Valley Civilisation 5
Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan) Name of Years Excavators Regions/Rivers
Sites
! It is one of the largest site and was discovered by RD
Lothal 1955 SR Rao Situated in Gujarat on
Bannerjee in 1922, situated on the river Indus. In Sindhi
"

-1960 the confluence of

language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the
Sabarmati and
dead. Bhogava river near
! Other buildings include an oblong multipillared assembly Gulf of Cambay.
hall and a big rectangular building which must have " It was the only site of
served administrative purpose. Indus Civilisation with
an artificial brick
! Other findings are Pashupati Seal, bronze image of a
dockyard.
dancing girl, 3 cylindrical seals and steatite image of a Alamgirpur 1958 YD Sharma " Situated in Meerut on
bearded man, clay figures of mother goddess, dice, idol of the bank of Hindon
a yogi and a granary. river
! The Great Bath is the most important place of public. It Rakhigarhi 1963 Professor " Drishdavati (Hissar
was used for religious bathing, steps at either end lead to Surajbhan district (Haryana)) on
the surface. There were changing rooms with inlet to the Ghaggar river
tank and outlet to drown water. It measured 39 feet Desalpur or 1963 — " Nakhtrana Taluka
Gunthli Kutch district in
(length) 23 feet (breadth) and 8 feet (depth).
Gujarat near Dhrud
Dholavira river
Balakot 1973 George F Dales " Situated in the
! It is located in Khadir belt in Kutch district of Gujarat. It -1979 Arabian Sea on
was discovered by Archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968. Saraswati river
! It is the only site that is divided into 3 parts as opposed to Surkotada 1964 JP Joshi " Situated in Kutch
the usual two part classification system. It is also well (Bhuj) (Gujarat)
known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and Banawali 1974 RS Bisht " Situated in Hissar
management by building a series of dams and (Haryana) on
Saraswati river
channelising water into connected reservoirs.
! In 2021, it was accorded UNESCO, World Heritage tag.
Major Characteristics of
Major Harappan Sites and their Excavators
Name of Years Excavators Regions/Rivers
Harappan Sites
Sites Town Planning and Structure
Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Sahni " Montgomery district of
Punjab (Now in
! Town planning was not uniform. Common feature was grid
Pakistan) on the left system i.e. streets cutting across one another at right
bank of Ravi river. angles, dividing the town into large rectangular blocks.
Mohenjodaro 1922 RD Bannerjee " Larkana district in ! The towns were divided into two parts : upper part or
Sindh on the right citadel and lower part. The fortified citadel on the Western
bank of Indus (Now in side house public buildings and members of ruling class.
Pakistan).
Below the citadel on the Eastern side lay the lower town
Sutkagendor 1927 RL Stine " Situated in Baluchistan
inhabited by the common people.
on Dask river.
Chanhudaro 1931 N Gopal " Situated in Sindh on ! Houses, often of two or more storeys, generally had side
Majumdar, the bank of left Indus. entrances and no windows faced the main street. There
Mackey was large-scale use of burnt bricks and complete absence
Amri 1929 NG Majumdar " Situated in Sindh on of stone buildings. Round pillars were absent.
the bank of Indus.
Kalibangan 1955 A Ghosh " Situated in Rajasthan Drainage System
on the left bank of ! The drainage system was very impressive. In almost all
Ghaggar. cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and
Kot Diji 1955 Fazal Khan " Situated on the left bathroom. Water flowed from the houses to the streets
bank of Indus. which had drains.
Rangpur 1935 MS Vats, BB Lal " Situated on the left ! Underground drainage system connected all houses to the
and SR Rao bank of Mahar river
street drains, made of mortar, lime and gypsum, covered
(Gujarat).
with either brick or stone slabs and equipped with
Ropar 1953 YD Sharma " Situated in Punjab on
the banks of Sutlej. manhole. This shows developed sense of health and
sanitation.
6 Magbook ~ Indian History

Drains were built of burnt bricks.

!
Economic Life
! The quality of domestic bathrooms and drains is ! The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus
remarkable.
agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency in various crafts and
brisk trade (both internal and external).
Social Life
! It was a highly developed urban way of life. Society Agriculture
principally consisted of middle class urban people. ! Agriculture was the backbone of the civilisation. The soil
Presence of various classes like priests, merchants, was fertile due to inundation in the river Indus and
craftsman, peasants and labourers can be seen. flooding.
! The dress of the men consisted of two garments: the ! They used wooden plough share (ploughed field found at
upper and the lower cotton garments, which were Kalibangan) and stone sickles for harvesting. Gabarbands
generally used. Wool was also used. Different kinds of or Nalas enclosed by dam for storing water were a feature
necklaces have been discovered. Bracelets were used in parts of Baluchistan.
quite commonly. The vanity case found at Harappa ! Crops produced were wheat, barley, dates, peas,
reveals, that the Harappan women knew the art of wall sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, bajra and jowar. At Lothal
painting. and Rangpur, rice husks were found.
First to produce cotton in the world, which Greek called as
Political Life !

Sindon derived from Sindh.

! There is no clear idea about the political organisation of ! A fragment of woven cotton cloth was found at
the Harappans. No temple have been found at any site. Mohenjodaro. Indigo was evident from Rojdi, well irrigation
We have no religious structures of any kind except the from Aldinho, dams and irrigation canals from Dholavira.
Great Bath, which was meant for ritual bathing. Sugarcane was not known to Indus people.
Therefore, it would be wrong to think that priests ruled in
Harappa. It must be noted that Harappans were lacking Domestication of Animals
in weapons. ! Animal rearing was practiced. They domesticated buffaloes,
sheep, oxens, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs and cats
Religious Life etc. Camel bones are reported at Kalibangan .
! Chief Female Diety A terracotta figure where a plant is ! They did not know about the horse, except a jaw bone of
shown growing out of the embryo of a women, represent horse which has been recovered from Surkotada in
Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth). Gujarat. However, they did not know about lion.
! Chief Male Diety Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva), Trade
represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low ! Agriculture, industry and forest produce provided the basis
throne and having three faces and two horns. He is for internal and external trade. Trade was based on barter
surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo system. Coins are not evident.
and two deer appear at his feet. ! Weights and measures were made of limestone, steatite
! Numerous symbols of one phallus (lingam) and female etc, generally, in cubical shape. They were in multiples of
sex organs made of stone indicates the prevalence of 16. Several sticks inscribed with measure marks have
lingam and yoni worship. been discovered. It points that linear system of
! Trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and measurement was in use. They had trade relations with
stones were worshipped. No temple has been found Shortughai and Mundigak in Afghanistan, Altyn Depe and
though idolatry was practiced. Namazga in Turkmenistan and Tepe Yahya and
! Indus people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used Shahri-i-Sokhta in Iran. Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan
amulets as protection against them. (Makran coast) were two intermediate stations. Indigo was
exported to Egypt.
Burial Practices ! Indus valley civilisation mentioned as Meluha in sumerian
literature, evidence of trade between Dilmun and Makan
Mohenjodaro Three forms of burial-complete, fractional and post
from sumerian text.
cremation.
Kalibangan Two forms of burial-circular and rectangular grove. ! Seals of Indus valley have been noticed from Ur, Kis, Susa
and Logas towns of Mesopotamia.
Surkotada Pot-burial.
Lothal Double burial.
! Mesopotamian cylindrical seals have been found from
Mohenjodaro. Figure of humped bull on Mesopotamian
Harappa East-West axis; R-37 and H cemetery, coffinburial.
seals. Use of Mesopotamian cosmetic products by the
Harappans.
Magbook ~ Indus Valley Civilisation 7

! Coffin made burials have been a foreign phenomenon ! The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them
which were found in Harappa and Mesopotamia. with a short inscription. Unicorn is the animal most
frequently represented on the seals. The famous Bull seal
Major Imports by the Harappans
was found from Mohenjodaro. Main types are as follows
Materials Sources —The square type with a carved animal and inscription.
Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka —The rectangular type with inscription only. Steatite image of a
bearded man is excavated from Mohenjodaro.
Silver Afghanistan, Iran
—About 2000 seals have been recovered from Harappan sites.
Copper Baluchistan and Khetri (Rajasthan)
Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia
Script and Language
! Script and language are undeciphered, script is pictographic
Agates Western India
in nature. Fish symbol is most represented.
Chalcedony Saurashtra
! Overlapping of the letters show that it was written from right
Lead Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran to left in the first line and then left to right in the second
Lapis Lazuli Badakashan and Kashmir line. The style is called boustrophedon. A signboard
Turquoise Central Asia, Iran inscription bearing 10 pictographs has been found from
Dholavira in Gujarat.
Amethyst Maharashtra
Jade Central Asia Terracotta Figurines
Carnelian Saurashtra ! Fire baked clay was used to make toys, objects of worship,
animals (monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped and
humpless bulls) both male and female figurines.
Art and Architecture
! Chandra Ketugarh is a archaeological site located near the
! The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely Bidyadhari river in Kolkata, West Bengal. The Chandra
devoid of artistic sense. Their most notable artistic Ketugarh site is famous for terracotta art sculptures. It was
achievement was their seal engraving. The major artistic also regarded as one of the important coastal hub in
work of the Harappans were: international trade.
Harappan Pottery Decline of Indus Civilisation : Different Views
! Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly
Cause of Declines Thinkers
sturdy and well baked. Script is also engraved on it. It is
chiefly wheel made and consists of both plain and External Aggression Wheeler, Piggot,
painted ware, the plain variety being more common. Gordan-childe
! Harappan people used different types of pottery such as Inundation MR Sahani
glazed, polychrome, incised perforated and knobbed. Epidemic KVR Kennedy
The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of
Tectonic Disturbances Marshall and Raikes
its kind in the ancient world.
(e.g. Dholavira)
! On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in
Sudden Decline Wheeler
character, though the painted designs on some pieces
show a remarkable artistic touch. Climatic Change RL Stein, AN Ghosh
Deforestation, scarcity of Walter
Harappan Seals resources, ecological imbalances Fairservis
! The seals commonly are made of steatite (soft stone).
The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with Flood (e.g. Mohenjodaro) Marshal, SR Rao, Maickey
white lustre was a unique invention of the Harappans. The destruction due to change GF Holes
in course of river Ghaggar
Chapter three
The Vedic Age
Origin Early Vedic Age
The history of Vedic ! The word Aryan literally means of (1500 - 1000 BC)
high birth, but generally refers to
India is known largely Geography
language, though some use it as
through its religious race. ! According to Rig Veda, Aryans had the
texts, the Vedas, which ! It is difficult to say that, all the knowledge of the Indus valley
gave the period its earliest Aryans belong to one race, (Saptasindhava). Indus is the most mentioned
but their culture was more or less of river in Rig Veda. Saraswati (Naditarna) is
name. Vedas recorded
same type. considered as the holiest river. It is identified
not only the religion of with Hakra Ghaggar channel in Haryana and
! The Boghazkoi inscriptions dated to
the Vedic people, but 1400 BC gives the information of Rajasthan, but in Rig Vedic description, it
also details of their lives peace treaty between the Hittites seems to be the Avestan river Harakhvati, from
where the name Saraswati was transferred to
that gave us a look at and the Mittanis rulers of the
Hittani, in which the names of the India.
their political, social and ! Samudra referred to collection of water and not
Vedic Gods – Indra, Mitra, Nasatya
economic pattern. The and Varuna are mentioned. sea. They had knowledge of Himavat or the
Rig Veda, the oldest snow mountain Dhawa (desert land) and
literary creation not only Reasons Behind Majuvant, from which Aryans got Soma, an
intoxicating drink.
in India, but in the entire Rapid Expansion
Indo-European literature of the Aryans Political Organisation
too, talks of a simple ! Chariot driven by horses.
! The Rig Vedic polity was a tribal polity. Kula
socio-economic, political (family) was the basis of both social and
! Weapons made of good quality
political organisations, starting with Kula, the
set-up and religious life. bronze.
hierarchy in ascending order was Grama
! The use of armour (varman).
(village), Vis (clan), Jana (tribe) and Rashtra
! Use of destructive machine called
(country).
as Purcharishnu.
! The tribal chief called Rajan was the centre of
Origin of Aryans administrative machinery. The kings
(Gopajanasya) position was hereditary. He was
Place Views
protector of tribe and cattle, not the ruler of
Sapta Sindhu Region AC Das any specific territory. Several tribal assemblies
Arctic Region BG Tilak called Vidhata, Sabha, Samiti emerged. They
exercised military and religious functions.
Central Asia Max Muller
Women attended them occasionally.
German Plains Professor Penka
! Doctrine of Divinity was not associated with
Tibet Region Dayanand kingship. Only one king, Purushasukta has
Saraswati been described as Ardhadeva (semi-divine) in
Bacteria Rhodes Rig Veda. Important Officers were Purohita,
Europe William Jones Senani, Kulpati (head of family), Vishpati,
Brajpati, Gramini, Sparsa (spy), Duta
Hungary P Giles
(messenger).
10 Magbook ~ Indian History

The Dasarajna War or Battle of Position of Women

Ten Kings ! Rig Vedic society was patriarchal, so the birth of daughters
was not desired. But once born, they were treated with
In this battle, Sudas, the son of Divodas and the Bharata, kindness. Child marriage was not practiced. Women can
King of Tritsu family won over an alliance of ten tribes (five choose their husband. Monogamy and Niyoga (a variant of
Aryans and five non-Aryans) and killed their leader widow re–marriage) was practiced. Some indications of
Purushasukta emerged victorious and established the polyandry have been found. Women participated in religious
supremacy of the Bharatas. ceremonies and tribal assemblies.
The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) river.
The battle brokeout due to a dispute between Vashishtha Religion
(priest of Bharatas) and Vishvamitra (priest of the alliance).
! Aryans were nature worshippers. Personification of the
forces of nature. Vedic religion was Henotheism or
Economic Life Kathenotheism. Predominance of male God. Very few
! Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral. Cow Goddesses find mention. Aim of worship was material gains.
(Gau) was the most important animal (mentioned 176 Cult of domestic hearth was prevalent. Sacrifice was the
times in Rig Veda). Gomata referred to men prosperous pivot of Vedic religion.
with many cattles. The terms of war were gavisthi or the
search for cows. Rig Vedic God
! The cow seems to have been most important form of ! The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra, who is
wealth. called Purandara or Breaker of Forts. Indra played the role
! Cattle breeding was their main occupation. They of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the
domesticated horse, sheep, goat, dog and ass. Wild demons.
animals known were lion, elephant and bear. ! He is considered to be the rain God and though to be
! Agriculture was secondary occupation. Yava (barley) responsible for causing rainfall. The second position held by
has been mentioned in Rig Veda. Shifting agriculture Agni (fire God).
was practiced. Rivers Mentioned in the Rig Veda
! Panis formed the great trading class. They are
Rig Vedic Names Modern Names
condemned in several texts for their greed and hard
Sindhus Indus
heartedness.
Vitasta Jhelum
! Ayas (copper and bronze) was the common metal in Askini Chenab
use and metal smelters were called Karmar. There were Parushni Ravi
two Ayas: Shyam Ayas and Krishna Ayas. Nishkas, Vipasa Beas
Hiranyapindas and Manas were used as recognised Shatudri Sutlej
pieces of weights and value. Gomal Gomati
! Predominant pottery type was Ochre Coloured Pottery Krumu Kurram
(OCP), though black and red ware types were known to Drishadvati Ghaggar
them. Suvasthu Swat
! Taxation system was not developed and Bali was a form Kubha Kabul
of voluntary contribution to the king. Naditarna Saraswati
Sadanira Gandak
Society
! Tribal society with kingship as the basis of social
structure. Man was identified with his tribe called as
Later Vedic Period (1000 - 600 BC)
Jana. Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under Geography
Vishpati i.e. Vis into Grama (village) under Gramani and
Gramsa into Kulas (family) headed by Kulapa.
! Aryans occupied upper gangetic Doab.
! The tribal society was broadly divided into priests,
! In this period, the Aryans moved into the Eastern areas as is
warriors and the people. Shudra is first mentioned in evident from the story of Videha Madhava in Satpath
tenth books (latest addition) of Rig Veda. The Brahmin, where he moved Eastward Videha.
Non-Aryans consisted of Dasyus and Dasas. Slavery ! The later Vedas gives three broad divisions of India viz,
was rampant at that time. No evidence for child Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and
marriage. Dakshina Patha (Southern India).
Magbook ~ The Vedic Age 11

Increased importance of land triggered, development of

Political Organisation !
urban life, new class of iron smiths, chariot makers and
! King became more powerful with the formation of bigger shipbuilders appeared. Emergence of painted Grey ware
kingdoms called Janapadas. His authority acquired culture.
territorial connotation. Popular assemblies lost power, ! The later Vedic period witnessed the coming up of
importance and were now dominated by nobles and ‘Purushasukta Theory’.
Brahmanas. ! Trading activities were undertaken and coins were used.
! Rig Veda and Atharva Veda refers to election of the ‘Rajan’ Satamana and Krishnala, besides, Nishkas came to be
through peoples approval. Taittiriya Brahmana gives the used as units of value.
‘Theory of Divine’ origin of kingship.
Purushasukta Theory
Five types of State System Purushasukta is a late hymn of X mandal of Rig Veda. It says that
1. Rajya (Central Kingdom) Raja four persons originated from the body of the Purusha or the
2. Bhojya (Southern Kingdom) Bhoja Primeval creator.
3. Swarajya (Western Kingdom) Svarat Brahmana — Mouth Kshatriya — Arms
4. Vairajya (Northern Kingdom) Virat Vaishya — Thighs Shudra — Feet
5. Samrajya (Eastern Kingdom) Samrat Concept of Ashramas
! The number of central officers increased, but a structural ◆
It is mentioned for the first time in Aitareya Brahmana.
bureaucracy did not came into being. King did not ◆
Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male member of the
possess a standing army.
higher caste. It consists of four stages:
Important Ratnins and Other Important Officials (i) Brahmacharya (Student life)
(ii) Grihastha (House holder)
Ratnins Responsibilities
(iii) Vanaprastha (Partial retirement)
Purohita Priest (iv) Sanyasin (Complete retirement)
Senani Commander-in-Chief ! Taxation System was still not completely developed. Bali,
Vrajapati Head of the pasture land Bhaga (oldest tax) and Shulka were the main taxes.
Spasas Spies-cum-messengers —Bali Customary contribution
Bhagadugha Tax collector —Bhaga 1/6 to 1/2 of the produce
Sangrahitri Treasurer —Shulka Additional tax
Gramani Head of the village
Kulapati Head of the family Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
Mahishi Chief queen
The PGW pottery is wheel made, out of well levigated
Takshan Carpenter
clay and has a thin core. It has a smooth surface and is
Duta Messenger grey to ash-grey in colour. The pottery is painted in black.
Suta Charioteer It is also painted sometimes in deep chocolate colour on
Kshatriya Chamberlain outer and inner surfaces. The PGW has 42 designs, bowls
Akshavapa Accountant and dishes being the most common type.
Palagala Messenger
Sthapati Chief Judge
Society
Govikartana Keeper of games and forests
! The society came to be divided into four Varnas called the
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Economic Life Brahmanas emerged as the most powerful class, Vaishyas
! The shift towards Gangetic valley with the use of iron and were the tribute payers. First reference is given in
fire made possible the growth of agriculture. Pastoralism Purushasukta.
was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people, ! The upper three Varnas were entitled to Upanayana or
though cattle rearing was also practiced. investiture with the sacred thread, but Shudras were
! Satapatha Brahmana describes the various stages of deprived of it and were also not allowed to recite the
agriculture such as ploughing, sowing, reaping and Gayatri Mantra.
threshing. Both kharif and rabi crops were grown.
! The Institution of Gotra was established and no marriage
! Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) become the chief crops could take place in same Gotra. The concept of Gotra was
of the later Vedic Aryans, though they continued to
institutionalised.
produce barley (Yava).
12 Magbook ~ Indian History

Position of Women Forms of Marriage

! Degradation of women in this period. The status of women ! The eight forms of marriages (listed below in the
declined, but the right to education was not denied. They were descending order of merit), as provided by the
deprived of Upanayana and religious ceremonies and from Smritis were :
attending assemblies. (i) Brahma Marriage in the same class with proper
dowry.
Aitareya Brahmana
(ii) Daiva Daughter given by the householder to
! Daughter is the source of misery, but son is the protector of family.
the sacrificial priest as part of his fees.
Maitrayani Samhita (iii) Arsa Bridegroom presents a cow and a bull
! There are three evils : liquor, dice and women. to the parents of the girl in this form of
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad marriage.
! Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue proves that some women got higher (iv) Prajapati Girl married without dowry.
education. (v) Gandharva Marriage of a willing man and women
often clandestine.
Religion (vi) Asura Marriage by purchasing the girl from
her custodian.
! Rise of Vishnu alongside Rudra new Gods (Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati
(vii) Rakshasa Marriage by capturing the girl.
etc) came into prominence. Rig Vedic Gods (Indra, Varuna etc) lost
prominence. Sacrifices became more elaborate. Increase in the (viii) Paisacha (Marriage in an inebriated state)
Marriage by abducting the girl when
prestige and importance of priestly class. Emergence of new
she is asleep, drunk, mentally
philosophical concepts. perturbed i.e. not in her full senses.
Sacrifices Performed in Later Vedic Period Marriages were of two types on the basis of Varna
! Rajasuya Consecration Ceremony This conferred supreme power System:
on the king. The Rajasuya sacrifice consists of five major ritual or (i) Anuloma Marriage In which the wife is of lower
ceremonies. Ashwamedha horse sacrifice which was meant to caste. It was permitted, but not encouraged.
establish kings supremacy over his neighbours. The Aitareya and
(ii) Pratiloma Marriage In which the husband is of
Satapatha Brahmana mention the names of some monarchs, who
lower caste, it was not sanctioned.
performed the sacrifice.
! Ratna animasi Ceremony The king had to approach dignitaries who
lived in permanent dwellings. Vajapeya chariot race which was
Various Samskaras
meant to re-establish his supremacy over his own people within the and Rites
kingdom. ! The samskaras or sacraments are believed to
Gods Worshipped During Vedic Age reform and sanctify the person for whom they
are performed. The first systematic attempt at
Indra Also known as Purandhara (Breaker of Forts). Plays the role of describing the Samskaras is found in Grihya
warlord and also considered as rain God and also a warrior and a
Sutras.
king. His white elephant is Airavata.
Agni Known as fire God. Acted as an intermediary between Gods and The Sixteen Important Samskaras
men. Garbhadhana Ceremony for conception.
Varuna Personified water was supposed to uphold the Rita or natural
Punsavana To secure the birth of male child.
order. Called the world sovereign or lord of human morality.
Pushan Protector of cattle in early Vedic period, now became the God of Simantonnayana Parting the hair.
Shudras. Jatakarma Natal rites (ceremony for new born
Soma God of plants, third most important deity in the Rig Veda on the child).
basis of number of hymns. Namakaran Ceremony for naming the child.
Prajapati The creator God. Supreme position during later Vedic Age. Nishkramana First outing (for showing Sun).
Surya Sun God who was worshipped in five forms: Surya, Savitri (God of Annaprasana First feeding with boiled rice in the 6th
Light), Mitra, Pushan (God of Marriage), Vishnu (one who covered month.
Earth in three steps i.e. Upakrama).
Chudakarana Tonsure (arrangement of the hair
Maruts Personify the storm. tuft).
Aditi Goddess of eternity.
Karnavedha Piercing the ear lobes.
Arnayani Goddess of forest.
Upanayana Learning the alphabet.
Usha Goddess of clawn.
Vidyarambha Holy thread ceremony.
Sarma Messenger of Gods.
Samavartana Graduation (ceremony on returning
Vastospati God of settlements.
home after completing studentship).
Magbook ~ The Vedic Age 13

Keshanta Cutting the hair. Atharva Veda

Antyeshti Funeral. ! The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae) contains
charms and spells in verse, toward off evils and diseases. It
Vivaha Marriage.
preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed
Praishartha First study of the Vedas. to be work of non-Aryans. It contains 731 hymns.
! Indian medical science called Ayurveda, its origin from
Literature of Vedic Period Atharva Veda.
The Vedas
Upavedas
! The term Veda is derived from the root Vid, which
Upavedas Subjects Related to
means to know, signifying knowledge par excellence. The
Vedas are collection of hymns, prayers, charms and Dhanur Veda Archery or Warfare Yajur Veda
sacrificial formulae. Gandharva Veda Music Sama Veda
! Vedas are called Apaurusheya (not made by man) and Shilpa Veda Sculpture or Architecture Atharva Veda
Ayur Veda Medicine or Life Rig Veda
Nitya (existing in all eternity).
! The Rishis to whom these books are ascribed are known The Brahmanas
as Mantradrashta meaning inspired saints, who received ! They are treatise relating to prayer and sacrificial
the hymns directly from the supreme creator.
ceremony. They are elaborate commentaries on the various
! Apart from its literary significance, the Vedas throw light hymns in the Vedas.
on the political, religious, social and economic aspects of
! The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended for the use of
the Vedic period.
the invoking priest (Hotri). Shatapatha Brahmana is the
Rig Veda lengthiest and the most important of all the Brahmanas. It
! It consists of 1028 hymns and divided into X mandalas throws light on the geographical shift of the Aryans towards
(books). The mandala II to VII are the oldest and known the Eastern Gangetic Plains during the later Vedic period.
as family books composed by Gritsamada Vishvamitra, The story of the prince Videgha Mathava provides clear
Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja and Vashistha. indication towards this geographical expansion.
! Mandal VIII and IX belong to middle time. Vedas Related Brahmanas
! Mandal I and X are the last to be compiled.
Rig Veda Aitareya and Kausitaki
! In IIIrd mandala, composed by Vishvamitra, addressed
Sama Veda Tandya Maha and Jaiminiya
to the solar deity Savitri, we find the famous Gayatri
Mantra. Yajur Veda Taittiriya and Shatapatha
! The IXth Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic Atharva Veda Gopatha Brahmana
God Soma (The Lord of Plants). The X Mandala contains
the famous Purushasukta hymn in which origin of Varna
The Aranyakas
system is discussed. ! Aranyaka literally means the forest and therefore, Aranyakas
are also known as forest books. It deals with mysticism and
Sama Veda symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.
! Collection of hymn taken mainly from the VIIIth and IXth
mandalas of the Rig Veda and set to tune for the The Upanishads
purpose of singing. ! Upanishads literally means “Be seated at the feet of the
! Known as the Book of Chants and the origin of Indian Guru to receive the teachings’’. The Upanishad imparts
music is traced to it. The hymns of Sama Veda were philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. They are
meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the also called Vedanta. There are 108 Upanishads.
Udgatri priests.
Vedas Related Upanishads
Yajur Veda
Rig Veda Aitareya and Kausitaki
! It prescribes the rituals for performing different Sama Veda Chandogya and Kena
sacrifices. It is primarily a guide for the use of the
Yajur Veda Taittiriya, Brihadaranyaka, Katha,
Adhvaryu priests. This Veda is in both verse and
Swetas water
prose. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and
Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. Atharva Veda Mundaka, Prasna and Mandukya
It is divided into two parts ! Brihadaranyaka upanishad provides the first reference of
(i) Krishna Yajur Veda (Black) Contains not only the hymns, the idea of rebirth. Later, the idea appears in a slightly fuller
but also prose commentaries. form in the Chandogya Upanishads. It is one of the oldest
(ii) Shukla Yajur Veda (White) Contains only hymns. upanishads.
14 Magbook ~ Indian History

Satyameva Jayate Indian Schools of Philosophy

Satyameva Jayate was taken from Mundaka Upanishad or There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as
Mundaka Upanishad. Satyameva Jayate is the National Motto Shad-Darshans, they are as follows:
of India and is inscribed at the bottom of the National Emblem
of India in Devanagiri script. Satyameva Jayate literally means Years of Original
Darshans Authors Themes
Beginning Books
‘Truth Alone Triumphs’.
Nyaya Gautama 6th BC Nyaya It is a logical quest
The Vedangas Sutra for God. It tells that
the material power
! The period after 600 BC is called Sutra period. Vedangas Maya with the help of
were compiled during this period. God becomes the
! The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down universe.
by tradition, because they are of human origin. There are Vaisheshik Kanada 6th BC Vaishesh It aims is to receive
six Vedangas which are as follows : ik Sutra happiness in this life
and finally ultimate
S.No. Vedangas Contents liberation through the
1. Shiksha Phonetics or Pronunciation attachment of true
knowledge of the
2. Kalpa Sacrificial ritual divine.
3. Vyakarana Grammar
Samkhya Kapila 6th BC Samkhya It explains that the
4. Nirukta Etymology (explanation of words) Sutra aim of Samkhya is to
5. Chhanda Metrics eliminate all kinds of
6. Jyotisha Astronomy physical and mental
pains and to receive
Kalpa Sutras are divided into three classes liberation.
(i) Srauta sutra deals with the rituals of the great sacrifices of Yoga Maharishi 2nd BC Yoga It has four chapters
agni, soma etc. Attached to Srauta Sutra is the Sulva Sutra, Patanjali Sutra and accepts three
the oldest book on Indian Geometry. kinds of evidences for
(ii) Grihya sutra deals with the domestic ceremonies and determining the aim
of life.
sacrifices to be performed by the householder.
Purva Jaimini 4th BC Purva It is a condensed
(iii) Dharma sutra deals with the laws, manners and customs of
Mimansa Mimansa explanation of Vedic
people in general. It constitute the foundation of the Sutra theme and at the same
Dharmashastras such as the Law of Manu. time, the
Puranas classification of its
issues.
! The contents of Purana seem to be of diverse material.
Vedanta Maharishi 4th BC Uttara It explains that
Much as tales, anecdotes songs, ballads. The change is Vyasa Mimansa Brahma Sutra is for
(Uttara
the mode of worship (from sacrifice to idol worship) and Sutra that person who has a
Mimansa)
visual appeal of deities an against worship of ideas is real deep desire to
evident. know God. True
liberation could only
Epic be attained by lovingly
! Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas is older than surrendering to him.
Ramayana. Originally, Mahabharata consisted of 880
verses, then it was raised to 24000 verses. The final Some Important Vedic Terms
compilation brought the number of verses to 100000. Udumbara and Khadira Wood used to make plough
! Ramayana written by Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 Mudga Moong
verses, which was raised to 12000 and finally 24000
Masa Urad
verses.
Ugra and Jeevgrah Police officers
Smritis Kshirodan Rice cooked with milk
! Dharma Shastra are the other name for Smritis, which are
Tilodan Til cooked with milk
the law books written in Sloka form.
Apoop Cooked mixture of ghee and barley wheat
! The important Smritis are Manav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu
Pad Coin of later Vedic age
Dharma Shastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti and Narad Smriti.
Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and Shattantu Musical instruments of hundred chords
most famous, Manu is supposed to be the first king and Urna Wool
law giver. Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries Virivranti Wife who did not give birth to a son
like the Mitakshara were compiled. Vraty Stoma Yagya Yagya in which a human being was sacrificed
Chapter four
The First Territorial
States
Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas ! Mahajanapada refers to ancient Indian kingdoms that existed between the 3rd and 6th
represent the state centuries BCE. These kingdoms and republics had evolved and flourished in a belt
stretching from Gandhara in the North-West to Anga in the Eastern part of the Indian
system that emerged in
subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region, prior to the rise
6th century BC. The of Buddhism in India. The 6th century BC is often regarded as a major turning point in
process of emergence early Indian history.
of Mahajanapadas were
Literary Sources
initiated by certain
! There were sixteen territories called Shodasha Mahajanapadas.
important economic
! The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya (a part of sutta pitaka) provides the names of
changes and the 16 Mahajanapadas at the time of Buddha.
consequent socio- ! Similarly, the Jaina text Bhagavati Sutra and another Buddhist text Mahavastu also
political developments provides such list of sixteen Mahajanapadas.
witnessed during
that period.
Types of Mahajanapadas
! Mahajanapadas were of two types:
(i) Monarchial States Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandhara, Magadha,
Matsya, Shursena, Vatsa.
(ii) Non-Monarchial/Republican States Kamboj, Kuru, Koliyas, Malla, Moriya, Shakya, Vajji,
Panchal, Licchavis, Bhaggas, Kalamas, Videhas, Jnatrikas.

List of Mahajanapadas and their Capitals

Mahajanapadas Capitals Vital Informations
Kashi (Banaras) Varanasi " It was the most powerful Mahajanapadas.
" Famous for Cotton Textiles and market for horses.
Koshala (Ayodhya) Shravasti " Most popular king was Prasenjit.
" He was contemporary and friend of Buddha.
Anga (East Bihar) Champa " It was a great centre of trade and commerce.
" In middle of 6th century BC, Anga was annexed by
Magadha under Bimbisara.
Vajji (North Bihar) Vaishali " Vajjis represented a confederacy of eight clans of whom
Videhas were the most well known.
" Videhas had their capital at Mithila.
Malla Pavapuri " Buddha died in the vicinity of Kushinagara. Magadha
(Gorakhpur Region) annexed it after Buddha’s death.
Magbook ~ The First Territorial States 17
Mahajanapadas Capitals Vital Informations
Chedi Suktimati " Chedi territory corresponds to the Eastern parts of modern Bundelkhand. A branch of chedis
founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga.
Vatsa Kausambi " Situated around the region of Allahabad.
" Most powerful king was Udayana.
Kurus (Meerut-Delhi Hastinapur " At Buddha’s time Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain named Korayvya.
Region)
Panchala Kampilya " Located in Rohilkhand and parts of central Doab (Western UP).
" Two branches of the panchalas i.e. the Northern Panchala at Ahichhtra and Southern
Panchala at Kampilya.
Matsya (Jaipur) Viratnagara " Located in the region of Rajasthan.
" King Sujata ruled over both the chedis and Matsyas.
Surasena Mathura " It had a republican form of government.
" Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha.
Ashmaka Potana or " It was located on the banks of river Godavari.
Potali " It was the Southern most Mahajanapadas ruled by the Ikshvaku Kshatriyas.
Avanti Mahishmati " Located around the region of Ujjain district in Madhya Pradesh.
" It was divided into two parts. The Northern part had its capital at Ujjain and the Southern
part at Mahishamati.
" Chanda Pradyota was the most powerful king of Avanti.
Gandhara Taxila " Famous for education and learning tradition in Ancient India.
(Peshawar and " Gandhari was the princess of this state.
Rawalpindi) " Panini and Kautilya are the world renowned products of Taxila University.
Kamboja (North- Rajapura " Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Ashoka’s Edict No. XIII attest that the Kambojas followed
East kingdom) republican Constitution.
Magadha Giriv-raja " This Mahajanapadas started the policy of imperialism.
" The founders of the kingdom were Jarasandha and Brihadratha, however real founders were
Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.

Rise of Magadhan Empire ! His three wives belonged to royal family of Koshala
Mahakosaladevi (sister of Prasenjit), Licchavi (Chellana)
! Out of the sixteen Mahajanapadas four were very powerful. and Madra (Khema) clan of Punjab. He sent his personal
They were Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Koshala. physician Jivak (son of Salavati) to his rival
! The period from 4th century to 6th century BC saw the Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of
struggle for supremacy among these four Mahajanapadas. jaundice.
! Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and ! The Gandhara ruler of Taxila Pukkusati, sent an embassy
prosperous kingdom in North India. The founder of to Bimbisara.
Magadha was Jarasandha and Brihadratha. But the growth
Ajatashatru (492-460 BC)
started under the Haryanka, expansion took place under the
Shishunaga and Nanda reached its zenith under the ! He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara, he occupied
Mauryas. throne by killing his father. He adopted an aggressive
policy of expansion. He defeated his maternal uncle
Haryanka Dynasty Prasenjit, king of Kosala and married his daughter Vajjira.
! He destroyed Vaishali (capital of Licchavis) after a
! The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was
protracted war of 16 years by sowing the seeds of discord
called as Girivraja at that time. According to a Chinese
amongst the people of Vaishali. Buddha died during his
pilgrim, Bimbisara founded the city of Rajagriha at the foot
reign and he patronised first Buddhist Council.
of the hills lying North of Girivraja.
! Sunidha and Vatsakar Ajatshatru’s diplomatic ministers.
Bimbisara (Seniya or Sreniya) (554-492 BC) ! Mahashilakantaka A war engine which catapulted big
! He was contemporary to the Buddha and first king to have stones.
a standing army. He defeated Anga king Brahmadutta and ! Rathamusala A kind of Chariot with a mace, helped him
strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances. to defeat Licchavis.
18 Magbook ~ Indian History

Udayain (460-444 BC) Pre-Mauryan Economic System

! Son and successor of Ajatashatru, he built the fort ! In the pre-Mauryan period, thus, we notice for the first time,
upon the confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers an advanced food-producing economy spread over middle
at Pataliputra (Patna), thus, transferred the capital Gangetic plains and the beginning of urban economy in this
from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. He was succeeded by area e.g. Cattle rearing was no longer the primary occupation
weak rulers Anuruddha, Munda and Naga-Dasak. and was replaced by agriculture. Rice was the staple cereal
produced in Eastern UP and Bihar in this period.
Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344 BC)
! Iron played a crucial role in opening the rainfed forests to
! Shishunaga was the Minister of Naga-Dasak and was clearance, cultivation and settlement.
elected by the people. He destroyed the Pradyota ! Rural Economy A strong rural base was necessary for the
dynasty of Avanti. He temporarily shifted the capital to beginning of urbanisation and crafts as taxes and tributes were
Vaishali. required in sufficient measure.
! Kalasoka (Kakavarin) succeeded Shishunaga. He ! This period saw the second urbanisation in India, towns had
transferred the capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra and come into existence as centres of industry and trade. The use
convened the 2nd Buddhist Council in Vaishali of burnt bricks and ring wells appeared in the middle of the
(383 BC). NBPW phase, in the 3rd century BC.

Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BC) Economic Terminology

Terms Meanings
! Mahapadma Nanda, the great conquerer and founder of
the dynasty was also known as Ekarat, Eka- chchhatra Vrihi and Sali New variants of rice.
(sovereign ruler), Sarvakshatrantaka or Ugrasena Karisa, Nivartan and Kulyavapa Units of land measurement.
(possesor of huge army). He conquered Koshala and Sita state lands; Sarthak Caravans; sresti bankers.
Kalinga (from here he brought an image of the Jina as Shali Transplantation.
victory trophy). It is considered to be the first Gahapatis Peasant-proprietors.
non-Kshatriya dynasty.
! Dhanananda was the last Nanda ruler. Alexander ! Specialised craftsmen tended to form guilds because it
invaded North-Western India during his reign (326 facilitated carriage of raw materials and the distribution
BC), but the huge army of Dhanananda deterred of finished articles. We hear of 18 guilds (sreni) of
Alexander from advancing towards Gangetic valley. artisans. The guild at this stage was not the highly developed
He is probably referred as Agrammes or Xandrames mercantile system, which it was to become later. Each
in the Greek texts. guild inhabited a particular section of the town.
! Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Kautilya overthrew ! The introduction of a Monetary System considerably
Dhanananda to establish Mauryan dynasty. facilitated trade. Coins made of metal appear first in the age
of Gautama Buddha. The earliest hoards have been found
Causes for the Rise of in Eastern UP and Magadha, although some have
been found at Taxila. Most probably, they were referred
Magadha as Nishka and Satamana.
! Advantageous geographical location with both Rajgir ! Anathapindaka was a sresthi of Shravasti who denoted
and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations. Jetuvana Vihara to the Buddha. Menduka was another rich
Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, sresthi of Rajagriha. Pre-Mauryan Social System
enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective ! The tribal community had been clearly divided into four
weapons. The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
sufficient rainfall were very conducive for agriculture ! The Dharmasutras laid down the duties of each of the four
produces. Varnas and the civil and criminal law came to be based on the
! Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade Varna division. They condemned Vaishyas for lending money.
and commerce. The princes could levy tolls and ! All kinds of disabilities were imposed on the Shudras. They
accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army. were deprived of religious and legal rights and relegated to the
Use of elephants on a large-scale in wars with its lowest position in society.
proximity to ancient Kalinga. ! Patriarchal tendencies became dominant. Women were looked
! Unorthodox character of Magadhan society. down in comparison to men. They were to remain under the
Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious tutelage of male members and were not entitled to education
rulers and their policies. and Upanayana ceremony.
Magbook ~ The First Territorial States 19

Foreign Invasions Greek Invasion

Persian Invasion ! After the conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander marched to India through
the Khyber Pass in 326 BC.
! Cyrus (558-530 BC) of Persia was ! He constructed a bridge on the Indus river at behind about 24 km.
the first conqueror who penetrated
! After crossing the Indus, Alexander proceeded towards Taxila. The King of
well into India. He destroyed the city
Taxila, Ambhi, readily submitted and offered to help Alexander and recognised
of Capisa (North of Kabul).
him as his sovereign.
! Herodotus, the Greek historian, also
! The most powerful among the North-Western Indians was the ruler of kingdom
known as the Father of History tells
between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Acesines (Chenab) whom the Greeks
us that in 516 BC Darius I
call Porus. Porus fought bravely, but was defeated and was led a captive before
(552-486 BC), grandson of Cyrus,
Alexander.
sent a naval expedition to explore
! Alexander’s advance was arrested on the bank of the Beas, for his soldiers
the valley of the Sindhu river and
mutinied and refused to proceed further after the Battle of Vitasta and Jhelum.
annexed the part of Punjab and
Sind.
! His dream of an Eastern Empire remained unfulfilled. The king who had never
known defeat at the hands of his enemies had to accept defeat from his own
! The Indian soldiers were part of the men. Alexander remained in India for about 19 months.
Archaemenian army that conquered
! While retreat he divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into
Greece in the time of Persian ruler three provinces and put them under the overall charge of three Greek
Xerxes I (465-456 BC) successor of Governors.
Darius I. Darius III also enlisted
Indian soldiers and sent them to Effects of Greek Invasion
fight Alexander. ! The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between North-West India
Effects of Persian Invasion and Western Asia. Europe came into contact.
! Introduction of the Aramaic form of ! The invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlements in this area.
writing, which later developed into ! Opening up of four distinct routes between India and Greek by land and sea
the Kharosthi alphabet. paving way for increased trade and cultural contacts between the two regions.
! Promotion to Indo-Iranian trade. ! Indians learnt from the Greek in the field of astronomy, coinage, architecture
! Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in and sculpture (Gandhara School of Sculpture).
the Mauryan art.
! Impact of Buddhism on the
! Maurya empire had seen something of the working of the military machine of
Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia. Alexander and acquired some knowledge which helped him in destroying the
power of the Nandas.
Chapter five
Religious Movements of
Mahajanapada Age
Jainism Philosophy of Jainism
The origin of Jainism is shrouded in ! It rejected the authority of the vedas and the
The changing features of !
mystery. It is believed that the 24 vedic rituals. According to them, world was
social and economic life not created, maintained and destroyed by a
Tirthankaras were responsible for the
in the 6th century BC development and origin of this personal God, but by a universal law.
were closely linked with religion, but the first twenty two are Thus, it didn’t believe in the existence of God.
of doubtful historicity contemporary It believed in Karma and the transmigration of
changes in religion and
economic and political development soul. It advocated the path of non-violence.
philosophical
helped the emergence of new social ! Other important aspects of the philosophy of
speculation. The conflict groups which acquired considerable Jainism are as follows:
between the established economic power. As Jainism did not —Anekantavada Objects of knowledge is of
give much importance to the notion infinite characteristics.
orthodoxy and the
of birth for social status they —Nayavada An individual understands an
aspirations of the newly objected of knowledge through
attracted the Vaisyas to their fold.
rising groups must have a particular point of view.
! Rishabhdev was the first Tirthankara. —Saptabhanginaya Seven point of view to
intensified this process. Vishnu Purana and Bhagwat Purana understand an object
Numerous religious mention Rishabhdev as the of knowledge.
sects arose in the middle incarnation of Narayana. —Syadvada Understanding of an object of
knowledge is conditional.
Gangetic basin in the 6th Personal History of Mahavira
century BC. Doctrines of Jainism
Real Names Vardhamanas
! Ahimsa (Non-violence)
Titles Mahavira, Nayaputa, ! Satya (Truthfulness)
Nirgrantha
! Asteya (Non-stealing)
Birth 540 BC ! Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
Place of Birth Kundagrama in Vaishali ! Aparigraha (Non-possession of property)
Father’s Name Siddhartha
Mother’s Name Trishala (A Licchavi Five Vows or Principles
Princess, Sister of ! The householder had to observe the following
Chetaka) five vows:
Wife Yashoda (i) Non-injury
Class Kshatriya (ii) Non-stealing
Clan Nyaya (Jnatrika) (iii) Speaking the truth
Enlightenment Jimbikagrama / (iv) Non-possession
Rijupalika (river) (v) Non-adultery
Companion Gosala Makkhaliputta ! The first four principles were given by
Death 468 BC, Pavapuri near Parshvanath while the 5th one was added by
Rajgriha Lord Mahavira.
22 Magbook ~ Indian History

Three Jewels or Three Ways to Attain Kaivalya Decline of Jainism

! Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan) : Understanding of religious
Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism
principles.
in India. The Jainas took the Concept of Ahimsa too far.
! Right faith (Samyak Vishwas) : Belief in Jainas. They advised that one should not take medicine, when one
! Right action (Samyak Karma) : Observance of 5 vows. fall sick, because the medicine killed germs. Such practices
could not become popular with the common man. Moreover,
Jaina Councils there was no patronage from later kings.
Councils Periods Places Heads Consequences
Important Terms (Related with Jainism)
1st About Patliputra Sthulabahu Compilation of 12 Posadha Fasting by a Jaina members on full Moon and new
Council 300 BC Angas to replace the Moon day.
last 14 Purvas.
Avasarpini It is the descending order of the six periods of the
2nd AD 512 Vallabhi Devaradhi Final compilation of
Jaina cosmic cycle.
Council Kshamasramana 12 Angas and 12
Upangas. Theravali The second section of the Jaina Kalpasutra
containing a list of schools (anonas) and then heads.
Jain’s Architecture Ajnanavada The Jaina doctrine of agnosticism or scepticism.
The Jain texts mention 67 kinds or Ajnanavada.
! The image of a Tirthankara from Lohaonipur (Patna) dating
Mahavratas Five principles observed by Jain monks.
back to the Mauryan period is one of the earliest Jaina
figures. Anuvratas These are 5 principles, which are less rigorous in
nature and are to be followed by a follower of Jainism.
! Caves Hathigumpha; Baghagumpha; Udaygiri and Khandagiri
(Orissa). Utsarpini The ascending order of Jaina cosmic cycle.
! Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Vimala Vasahi Susama-Susama The first cosmic cycle of Jainism, people
and Tejapala temples. were considered to be very happy and virtuous.
! Girnar and Palitana temples (Gujarat). Dushama-Dushama Sixth and the last period of Jaina cosmic
! Pavapuri and Rajagriha temple (Bihar).
cycle a very wretched period.
! Statue of Gomateshwara or Bahubali; at Shravanabelagola in Trisastisalaka Purushacharita The longest poem composed by
Mysore (Karnataka). Jaina scholar Hemachandra deals with the deeds of 63
Enlightened men including 24 Tirthankaras.
! The jainas composed the earliest important works in
Apabhramsa and its first grammar. They contributed to the Jaina Councils
growth of regional languages such as Tamil, Telgu, Hindi, There were two jaina councils are as follows:
Kannada and Rajasthani. 1. The First Jaina Council was held at Pataliputra under
Sthulabahu, around 300 BC.
Royal Patrons
2. The second Jaina Council was held at Vallabhi
! South India Kadamb and Ganga dynasty; Amogvarsha
(Gujarat) in AD 512 and it was presided by Devaradhi
(Rashtrakuta dynasty); Siddharaj Jai Sing and Kumar Pala
Kshamasramana.
(Chalukya or Solanki) the last great patrons of Jainism.
! North India Bimbisar, Ajatshatru and Udayin (Haryanka); List of 24 Tirthankaras
Nandas; Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara and Samprati
(Mauryan); Pradyota (Avanti); Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira); S.No. Names Symbols
Kharavela (Kalinga). 1. Rishabha(Adinath) Bull
2. Ajitnath Elephant
Sects of Jainism
3. Sambhav Nath Horse
! After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of Chandragupta
4. Abhinandan Nath Monkey
Maurya, a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jain monk
5. Sumatinath Curlew
from Ganga valley to the Deccan. This migration led to great
Schism in Jainism. 6. Padmaprabha Red Lotus
! Digambaras Followers of Bhadrabahu who accompanied him 7. Suparshvanath Svastika
to South. He insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity. 8. Chandra Prabha Crescent
! Svetambaras Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monk who 9. Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath) Crocodile
remained in North and allowed his followers to wear white 10. Shitalnath Wishing Tree
garments. 11. Shreyamsanath Rhinoceros
Magbook ~ Religious Movements of Mahajanapada Age 23

S.No. Names Symbols Four Noble Truths

(i) Sorrow (Dukkha) world is full of sorrow.
12. Vasupujya Buffalo
(ii) The cause of sorrow (Dukkha Samudaya), is
13. Vimalnath Boar (Shukar)
desire.
14. Anantanath Falcon (Baaj)
(iii) Cessation of sorrow (Dukkha Nirodha), is possible.
15. Dharmanath Vajardanda
(iv) The path leading to the cessation of sorrow
16. Shantinath Deer
(Dukkha Nirodhagamini Pratipad), is Ashtangika
17. Kunthunath He-goat
Marga.
18. Aranath Fish
19. Malinath Water Pot Ashtangika Marga
20. Munisuvrata Tortoise ! This is the great middle path, for it avoids the
21. Naminath Blue Lotus extremes of gross luxury and severe austerity.
This middle path leads finally to nirvana, which
22. Aristnemi Conch
implies not only the extinction of desire, but also
23. Parshvanath Serpent
the attainment of a perfect state of tranguility.
24. Mahavira (Vardhamana) Lion Emphasis is laid on the observance of the Silas
(moralities) Samadhi (concentration) and Prajan
Buddhism (insight).

! Buddhism as a religion and philosophy encompasses a variety of Doctrines of Buddhism

traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings of The Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)
Buddha. include
1. Right views (Samma-Sankappa)
Brief History of Gautama Buddha
2. Right aspiration (Samma-Zditthi)
Real Name Siddhartha 3. Right speech (Samma-Vaka)
Titles Buddha, Shakya Muni 4. Right conduct (Samma-Kammanta)
Birth 563 BC Lumbini in Kapil Vastu 5. Right livelihood (Samma-Ajiva)
Father’s name Shuddhodhana 6. Right effort (Samma-Vayamma)
Mother’s name Mahamaya 7. Right mindfulness (Samma-Sati)
Foster mother Mahaprajapati Gautami 8. Right meditation (Samma-Samadhi)
Wife Yasodhara
Enlightenment Uruvela, under the Pipal tree (known as Bodhi tree) Three Jewels (Triratnas)
Death 483 BC, Kushinagar (i) Buddha (the enlightened)
(ii) Dhamma (doctrine)
Philosophy of Buddhism (iii) Sangha (order)
! The Doctrine of Karma is the essential part of the teachings of Famous Monks at the Time of Buddha
Buddha. It emphasised on the moral life of an individual. It neither
accepted nor rejected the existence of God. It rejected the vedas Monks Related Facts
and vedic rituals and even the caste system. Ananda The constant companion of
The philosophy advocated the observance of middle path. It didn’t Buddha and the most devoted disciple.
believe in the permanence of soul. It also emphasised on ahimsa.
Anuradha The master of right mindfulness.
Symbols Representing Events of Buddha’s Life
Mahakassapa The President of the Buddhist
Events Symbols Council held at Rajagriha.
Birth Lotus and Bull Moggallana He had the greatest super natural
Renunciation (Mahabhiniskarmana) Horse powers.
Enlightenment (Nirvana) Bodhi tree Sariputta Possessed the profound insight into
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Parivartana) Wheel the Dhamma.

Death (Maha Parinirvana) Stupa Upali Master of Vinaya.

24 Magbook ~ Indian History

Buddhist Councils ! Yogachara school was founded by

Maitreyanatha. This school completely
Councils Years Venues Chairmans Royal Patrons Developments rejected the realism of Hinayanism and
1st 483 BC Saptaparni Mahakasyapa Ajatshatru Compilation of maintained absolute idealism.
Buddhist cave, (Haryanka Sutta Pitaka ! Sanskrit, the language of scholars was used
Council Rajagriha dynasty) and Vinaya
by Mahayana Buddhists. Kanishka patronised
Pitaka by
Ananda and Mahayanism. Later, Harsha supported it.
Upali
Vajrayana or Vehicle of
respectively.
Thunder Bolt
2nd 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka Monks were
Buddhist (Shishunaga split into ! Its followers believed that salvation could be
Council dynasty) Sthavirvadins best attained by acquiring the magical power,
and which they called Vajra. The chief divinities
Mahasanghikas of this new sect were the Taras.
3rd 250 BC Pataliputra Mogaliputta Ashoka Compilation of ! It became popular in Eastern India,
Buddhist Tisa (Mauryan Abhidhamma particularly in Bengal and Bihar.
Council Empire) Pitaka.
4th AD 72 Kundalvan, Vasumitra Kanishka Division of Names of Famous Buddhist Scholars
Buddhist Kashmir (Chairman), (Kushan Buddhists into
Council Asvaghosha dynasty) Hinayana and Scholars Related Facts
(Vice-chairman) Mahayana. Asvaghosha He was the contemporary of
Kanishka. He was a poet,
Sects of Buddhism dramatist, musician, scholar and
debater.
! Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced dissension. It was divided into three
Nagarjuna Contemporary of Satavahana
main sects:
kings. He propounded the
Hinayana or Lesser Wheel Madhyamika School of Buddhist
philosophy known as Sunyavada.
! Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha. They sought
Asanga and Asanga was the most important
individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. They did not Vasubandhu teacher of the Yogachara or
believe in idol-worship. Vijnanavada School founded by his
! Hinayana is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God. guru, Maiteryanath. Vasubandhu’s
Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all. greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is
still considered an important
! The oldest school of Hinayana, Buddhism is the Sthaviravada Encyclopedia of Buddhism.
(Theravada in Pali) or the Doctrine of the Elders. Its Sanskrit Buddhaghosha Who lived in the AD 5th century,
counterpart, which is more philosophical, is known as Sarvastivada or was a great Pali scholar. The
the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as commentaries and the
well as mental. Visuddhimaga written by him are
a great achievement in the
! From Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched off another school called post-Tripitakas literature.
Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook.
Dignaga The mighty intellectual of the 5th
! Pali, the language of the masses, was used by Hinayana Buddhists, century, is well known as the
Ashoka patronised Hinayanaism. founder of the Buddhist logic.
! The concept of Bodhi Sattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism. Dharmakirti Lived in the AD 7th century was
another great Buddhist logician.
Mahayana or Greater Wheel
! Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the Literature of Buddhism
salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and ! The Sutta Pitaka A collection of Buddha’s
Bodhisattvas. It believes in idol-worship. It believes that nirvana is not sermon. Divided into 5 groups (Nikayas) i.e.
a negative cessation of misery, but a positive state of bliss. Digha Nikaya; Majjhim Nikaya; Samyutta
—Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools the Madhyamika and the Nikaya; Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka
Yogachara. Nikaya.
—Madhyamika philosophical school was propounded by Nagarjuna. It is a ! The Vinaya Pitaka It contains the rules and
midway between uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and idealism of
Yogacharya.
regulation of monastic discipline for monks.
Magbook ~ Religious Movements of Mahajanapada Age 25

The Abhidhamma Pitaka It ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa,

!
President of the Third Council, it contains the profound
Decline of Buddhism
philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings. Deals with the same ! By the AD 12th century, Buddhism became
subject as the Sutta Pitaka, but in a more scholaristic manner. It practically extinct in India. It became a victim to the
is divided into Dhamma Sagim, Vibhinga, Dhatu Katha, Pulapjafi evils of Brahaminism against which it had fought in
Katha Vatthu, Yamak and Patthan. the beginning. The Buddhist monks were cut off
! The Jataka A collection of over 500 poems, which describes the from the mainstream of people’s life as they gave up
previous birth of Buddha. Pali, the language of people and took to Sanskrit. By
! The Buddhavamsa It contains legends of verses about the 24 the AD 7th century, the Buddhist monasteries had
Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times. come to be dominated by ease loving people and
became centres of corrupt practices, which
! Milinda Panho This discussion between Menander and
Gautama Buddha had strictly prohibited.
Buddhist Monk Nagasena.
! Ceylonese Chronicle Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa.
! The new form of Buddhism was known as
Vajrayana and entry of women into the Buddhist
! Vaipulya Sutras (Sadharma Pundarika)
sanghas.
Buddhist Architecture Similarities between Buddhism and
! Buddhism takes the credit for are as follows: Jainism
—First human statues to be worshipped. ! Founders of both the religions had a common
—Stone-pillars depicting the life of Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and background of Aryan culture.
Bharhut. ! Both the religions were founded by Kshatriyas in
—Gandhara art and the beautiful images of the Buddha. Eastern India.
—Cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in Western India
! Both were against the naturalistic interpretation of
around Nasik.
Vedas and opposed Brahminical domination.
—Art pieces of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
! Both preached truth, non-violence, celibacy and
Buddhist Mudras detachment from material comforts.
! Abhaya Mudra The Abhaya Mudra (mudra of no-fear) ! Both were non-theistic religions.
represents protection, peace, benevolence and dispelling of fear. ! Both believed in Karma and rebirth.
! Bhumisparsha Mudra This gesture calls upon the Earth to ! Both allowed the Surdas and women to follow their
witness Shakyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. religion become monks and attain salvation.
! Dharmachakra Mudra The Dharmacakra Mudra represents a ! Both of them spread as a result of teaching in the
central moment in the life of Buddha when he preached his first language of the common man.
sermon after his enlightenment in Deer Park in Sarnath. ! Both were opposed to the caste system, but could
! Dhyana Mudra The Dhyana Mudra not eliminate it.
(meditation mudra) is the gesture of meditation of the
Buddhist Universities
concentration of the good law and the songha.
! Varada Mudra The Varada Mudra (favourable mudra) signifies Buddhist Locations Founders
offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity. Universities
! Vajra Mudra The Vajra Mudra (thunder mudra) is the gesture Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumaragupta I
of knowledge. (Gupta ruler)
! Vitarka Mudra The Vitarka Mudra (mudra of discussion) is the Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala
gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. (Pala ruler)
! Gyana Mudra The Gyana Mudra (mudra of knowledge) is done Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala
by touching the tips of the thumb and the index together, (Pala ruler)
forming a circle and the hand is held with the palm inward Jagadal Bengal Ramapala
toward the heart. (Pala ruler)
! Karana Mudra The Karana Mudra is the mudra which expels Odantpuri Bihar Sharif, Bihar Gopal (Pala ruler)
demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative
Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka
thoughts. (Maitrak ruler)
26 Magbook ~ Indian History

Difference between Jainism and Buddhism

Basis Jainisms Buddhisms
Method of attaining salvation Extreme Moderate and middle path
Spread Confined to Spread to foreign lands, but
India died in India
Concept of salvation Nirvana was escape from the Nirvana was escape from
body existence
Ascetisism Believed in rigorous asceticism Discarded rigorous asceticism
Self mortification Approved Condemned
Concept of God Atheistic Agnostic

Various Heterodox Sects (600-300 BC)

! According to Buddhist literary sources, there were around 62 heterodox sects in India in the 6th century BC.
Important among them are as follows:

Philosophisesy Founders Meanings

Ajivikas Gosala Maskanriputera He believed in fate called Niyati.
Uchchedavada Ajta Kesakambalin Believed in materialistic philosophy.
Niyativada Nanda Vachcha Everything in the world is pre-determined.
Materialism Brihaspati or Charvaka Nothing existed which could not be
understood by 5 senses.
Akriyavada Purana Kasyapa Soul was distinct from body.
Akrittavada Pakudha Kaccayana Believed in existence of 7 Nikayas i.e. Earth,
water, air, light, sorrow, happiness and life.
Anichchitvada Sanjay Vetiputta Doctrine of non-approval and non-denial of
the existence of anything.
Chapter six
The Mauryan Empire
Origin of Mauryans Sources of Mauryan
The most immediate ! Mauryan empire was originated from
the kingdom of Magadha in the
History
and unexpected result
of Alexander’s invasion Indo-Gangetic plains. Mauryans ruled Literary Sources
from the capital Pataliputra. Both Indian
of the North-West was and classical sources suggest that ! The Arthashastra work, in sanskrit, is a
that, it hastened the Alexander’s retreat resulted in the comprehensive treatise on statecraft and
reaction of a Vacuum and therefore, it public administration. The work is attributed
Mauryan conquest of
was not difficult for Chandra gupta to to Kautilya, the Prime Minister of
the whole country. The Chandragupta. It deals with the kingship,
carve a kingdom for himself.
period of the Mauryan Chandragupta founded the Mauryan government, state, war and peace and
empire marks a new empire by overthrowing the Nanda diplomacy, the systems of revenue,
dynasty with the help of Chanakya, who description of various aspects of espionage,
epoch in the history of
was an important minister in the Court army organisation, laws related to marriage. It
India. It was a period is divided into 15 Adhikaranas or books, 180
of Nanda Rulers.
when politics, art, Prakarnas (chapters) and 6000 verses in all.
trade and commerce Different Views on the Origin of the ! The Jataka stories of the Buddha’s previous
Mauryans lives tell us about the prevalent social and
elevated India to a
Sources Views economic order.
glorious height.
Buddhist Connect with the tribe of ! The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana contain
Sakyas, whose region was information about Bindusara, Ashoka’s
full of peacocks i.e. Moriya. expeditions to Taxila to suppress a rebellion
Jain Linked Chandragupta to and about his conversion to Buddhism.
Moriya tribe of Peacock ! The Dipavamsa (compiled between 3rd
trainers. century BC and AD 4th century) and
Brahmanical Describe Mauryans as Mahavamsa (written in the AD 5th century)
Shudras. are Sri Lankan chronicles, which describe in
Greek They mention that detail the role played by Ashoka in spreading
Sandrocottas Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
(Chandragupta) was born of
humble origin.
! A commentary on Mahavamsa, known as
Mahavamsatika or Vamsatthapakasini
Divyavadana and They concede that the
composed in the AD 10th century, contains
Vamsathapakasini Mauryas are a member of
the moriya clan of information about the origin of the Mauryans.
pippalivana. The Jaina work Sthaviravali Charita or
Romila Thapar Chandragupta belonged to Parisishtaparvan of Hemachandra (A
the Moriya tribe. biography of Chanakya) provides very
Mudrarakshasa Mauryans were connected interesting information on Chandragupta
with Nandas. Mauryan, such as his early life, conquest of
Mauryans were of Vaishya Magadha, famine in Magadha and conversion
Junagarh Rock
Inscription origin. to Jainism.
Magbook ~ The Mauryan Empire 29

Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta (AD 4th century), a drama in

!
sanskrit, gives an account of the prevailing socio-economic
Bindusara (298-273 BC)
conditions. It also mentions Chandragupta Sabha (Council). ! Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son
Bindusara. In a Chinese text, he is mentioned as
! Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Kathasaritasagar of Somadeva and
Bindupala. Bindusara was known as to the Greeks
Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra also provide information about
as Amitrochates (derived from the sanskrit word
the Mauryan.
Amitraghata or slayer of foes) or Amitrakhada
(devourer of foes). Strabo calls him Amitrochates.
Megasthenes
! According to Taranatha, the Tibetan Buddhist
Megasthenes, an ambassador sent by Seleucus, compiled his
monk who visited India in the 16th century,
account about Mauryan India in his book Indica. Some important
Bindusara conquered 16 states, comprising the
information provided by Megasthenes are as follows
land between the two seas (presumably the
◆
King was the pivot of the administrative super structure. Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal).
◆
Megasthenes represents the king as hardworking person. ! Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana or
◆
Criminal law was severe. One of the recognised punishments Susima as Viceroy of Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain.
was mutilation. Death was awarded for injuring the royal The Divyavadana/Ashokavadana tells the story of a
artisans. revolt in Taxila, during the time of Susima.
◆
Megasthenes pays high tribute to the character of the Indian Bindusara deputed Ashoka to restore order.
people. The general honesty of the people was well attested ! Bindusara had contacts with Antiochus I, the
by the fact that theft was a rare occurrence. Seleucid king of Syria whose ambassador,
◆
Megasthenes stated that famine never occurred in India and Deimachus was said to have been at his court.
that there has never been a general scarcity in the supply of Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for some
nourishing food. sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist to be sent to
the Mauryan Court. Antiochus sent all except the
sophist, explaining that Greek law forbid a sophist
Mauryan Dynasty to be sold.
Chandragupta Maurya ! Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt
sent Dionysius as his ambassador to the court of
(321-298 BC) Bindusara. He was a believer of Ajivika sect.
! Chandragupta, at the young age of 25, dethroned the last Nanda
ruler (Dhanananda) and occupied Pataliputra in 321 BC with the Ashoka (273 - 232 BC)
help of Brahmana, Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or ! He succeeded his father Bindusara, but seems to
Vishnugupta (this fact finds mention in Mudrarakshasa of have fought a battle of succession. According to
Vishakhadatta). ‘Divyavadana’, Ashoka was sent to quell rebellion
! In 305 BC, Chandragupta again moved towards North-West for a at Taxila. He was initiated into Buddhist fold by
campaign against Seleucus Nikator, which ended with the treaty Nigrodh, a 7 years old monk. Ashoka reduced the
of 303 BC in favour of the Mauryans. Chandragupta gave 500 land revenue of Lumbini village to first eighth of
elephants to Seleucus and in return, Seleucus gave him Eastern produce. Three different phases of life of Ashoka
Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area West of the Indus. were Kamasoka, Chandasoka, Dhammasoka.
According to Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes,
according to Athenacus. Kalinga War
! The Girnar record refers to Chandragupta Viceroy or Governor, After accession to the throne, Ashoka fought only
Pushyagupta (brother in law of Chandrgupta), who is said to have one major war called as Kalinga War. 100000 people
constructed the famous Sudarsana lake. His title was Simant Raja. were killed, several lakhs perished and 150000 were
! The Sohagura Copper Plate Inscription (Gorakhpur district) and taken prisoner. He was moved by the massacre in
this war. The war had far reaching effect on the
Mahasthan Inscription (Bogra district) deal with the relief
policy of Ashoka. He abandoned the policy of
measures to be adopted during a famine, these inscriptions were
physical occupation in favour of cultural conquest.
probably issued during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
Bhabru Inscription states that after 2 years of the
! Chandragupta went to South India with Bhadrabahu, the Jaina war, Ashoka became an ardent supporter of
saint. At Sravana Belagola, he spent rest of his life and died in the Buddhism.
orthodox Jain way by slow starvation (Sallekhana).
30 Magbook ~ Indian History

Ashoka’s Dhamma Minor Rock Edicts

! The Dhamma according to Ashoka’s edict is not a ! Minor rock edicts are concentrated in the South and
religion or religious system, but a moral law a common Central parts of the empire.
code of conduct. In Pillar Edict II, Ashoka himself put the ! They highlight Ashoka’s activity as Buddhist disciple i.e.
question ‘What is Dhamma’ and then he enumerates the personal history of Ashoka and also represent the summary
basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma. of Dhamma.
! Ashoka’s Dhamma was completely cosmopolitan, capable ! The edict found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed in
of universal application and acceptance as essence of all Greek and Aramaic. Minor rock edict III (Bairat) is
religions. Ashoka wanted conquest through Dhamma addressed to the Buddhist clergy.
instead of war. Replacement of Bherighosa (sound of ! The title most commonly adopted by Ashoka in his edicts is
war drums) by Dhammaghosa (sound of peace). Devanampiya Piyadassi (beloved of the Gods).
! Ashoka’s Dhamma was intended to strengthen social ! Minor rock edicts were located at Bairat (Rajasthan),
solidarity or social relationship. It was to promote Jatinga– Rameshwar (Karnataka), Sahsaram (Bihar),
religious tolerance. It was intended as an ethical concept Rupanath (Madhya Pradesh), Gavimath (Mysuru),
related to the individual in the context of his Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Maski (Karnataka), Gujjara (Madhya
society. Through Dhamma, he further stressed the Pradesh), Palkigundu (Karnataka), Rajula-Mandagiri
paternal concept of monarchy. (Andhra Pradesh), Siddapura (Karnataka), Suvarnagiri
! To the propagation of Dhamma, Ashoka had taken (Karnataka), Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh), Nittur (Karnataka),
several measures through the Dhamma Mahamata, Udegolam (Karnataka) and Kandahar (Afghanistan).
undertaking Dhamma by regulation.
Major Pillar Edicts
Ashoka’a Inscriptions ! The pillar edicts are found at Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut,
! He was the first ruler to issue edicts. Maximum number Ram-Purva, Lauriya-Areraj, Lauriya- Nandangarh and
of inscriptions have been discovered from Mysuru. First Allahabad-Kosam.
Ashokan edict was discovered by Padre Tieffenthaler, ! The Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad contains two later
which was deciphered by James Princep in AD 1837 inscriptions (One of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta—
(Delhi-Meerut Pillar). Most of the inscriptions are composed Prayaga Prasasti written by poet Harisena describing his
in Brahmi script (left to right) and Prakrit language. conquests and another of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The
Maski, Gurjara, Nittur and Degolan inscriptions mention complete set of seven edicts is found at only one place
full name Ashoka i.e. Devanampiya Ashoka Piyadassi. Topra. The pillar edict VII is the last edict to be issued by
! In Kanganahalli relief sculpture inscription ‘Ranyo Ashoka.
Ashoka’ mentioned along with the stone portrait of
Ashoka. This was the very first inscribed panel of King Later Mauryans (232/184 BC)
Ashoka to be discovered in India.
! According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka ruled for 27 years.
Ashokan Edicts The disintegration of the Mauryan empire seemed to have
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts set in immediately after Ashoka’s death. The last ruler was
Brihadratha, who was murdered by his general
! These edicts cover a very large scope, defining the
Pushyamitra Shunga. This was the end of Mauryan
nature and broader application of Dhamma. They were
dynasty.
located at Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar (Gujarat), Yerragudi
(Andhra Pradesh), Mansehra (Pakistan), Sopara
(Mumbai), Dhauli and Jaugada (both in Odisha) and
Mauryan Administration
Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan in Kharosthi). Central Administration
! Two separate Kalinga rock edicts are located in Dhauli ! The state, according to Kautilya, is constituted of the
and Jaugada (Odisha). Sometime called Edicts XV and Saptanga or the seven elements viz Svamin (King), Amatya
XVI, they substitute for three edicts i.e. XI on charity and (Minister or high officials), Janapada (Territory or
kinship of mankind, XII on religious tolerance and XIII on population); Durga (Fort); Kosa (Treasury), Bala (Army) and
the Kalinga War and the change of heart. Girnar seems Mitra (Friend or Ally).
to be an important site for edification as inscriptions of ! The Mauryan empire had major administrative units like
Skandagupta and Rudradaman have also been found the centre and the provinces, which had various sub-units
here. The inscriptions at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi are down to the village and all came under the purview of
in Kharosthi script. Separate edict describes Ashoka’s central administration. Tirthas were the highest categories
paternal concept of monarchy. of officials. They were 18 in number.
Magbook ~ The Mauryan Empire 31

Eighteen Tirthas Revenue Administration

Tirthas Posts ! There were different sources of state revenue cities,
rural areas, mine, pastures, plantation and forests
Mahamantri Purohita Chief Minister and Chief Priest
Samaharta supervised collection for the entire kingdom.
Senapati Commander-in-Chief
Different Types of Taxes
Yuvraja Crown Prince
Tax Names Nature of Taxes
Dauvarika Chamberlain
Prasastri Inspector General of Prison Bhaga Land revenue (first sixth)
Sanidhatta Incharge of Treasury Bali Additional tax

City Constable Chorarajju Tax collected for the search of thief

Nayaka
Pranaya Emergency tax
Vyavaharika Chief Judge
Pindakaras Collected annually from the entire village
Mantri Secretary Incharge of the Office of Ministers
Praveshya Import duty
Parishadadhyasha Ministers
Nishkramya Export duty
Duvara Pala Chief of the Home Defence i.e. warden of the
palace to control entrance and exit Senabhaktam Tax for army, from the region
through which it passed
Antarvesika Chief of the Harem
Sulka Custom duty
Samaharta Tax Collector General
Vishti Forced labour
Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner
Hiranya Probably a tax paid in gold
Paura Governor of the Capital
Udaybhagokal Irrigation tax
Karmantika Chief of the Industries
Udayabhanu Income tax
Dandapal Police Chief
Antapal Chief of the Frontier Defence Judiciary
Important Adakshas The sources of law as mentioned by Kautilya were as follows
—Dharma
Adhayaksha Posts —Vyavahara (current legal codes)
Akshapataladhyaksha Accountant General —Charitra (customs)
Sitadhayaksha Incharge of crown lands —Rajasasana (Royal Decree)

Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines ! The Chief Justice called the Dharmadhikarina and he
presided over the Supreme Court : There were two types
Lavanadhyaksha Salt Superintendent
of courts
Navadhyaksha Incharge of state boats (i) Dharmasthiya Civil Court, headed by Dharmastha.
Panyadhyaksha Controller of state trading (ii) Kantaksodhan Criminal Court, headed by Pradeshika.
Sulkadhyaksha Collector of custom or tolls
Army
Suradhyaksha Superintendent of excise
! According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta had at his
Tright Pauta vadhyaksha Superintendent of weight and measure
disposal, a formidable army numbering about 600000.
Bandhanagaradhyaksha Superintendent of jails The army consisted of foot soldiers, elephants and
Ayudhagaradhyaksha Ordinance Superintendent horses. It had 30000 cavalry and 900 elephants.
Kosthagaradhyaksha Incharge of warehouse
Espionage Network
Pattanadhyaksha Superintendent of ports ! The spies were of two types Sansthan and Sanchari, the
Devatadhyaksha Incharge of religious institutions former worked by remaining stationed at a public place
Samsthadhyaksha Superintendent of market and the latter by moving from place to place, they were
Suvarnadhyaksha Superintendent of gold also known as Gudhapurshas.
Hastyadhyaksha Incharge of elephant force City Administration
Kosadhyaksha Incharge of treasury ! Nagarika was the city of Superintendent assisted by two
Kupyadhyaksha Incharge of forest producer officials. According to Megasthenes, the city council was
divided into 6 boards of 5 members each.
Madradhyaksha Passport incharge
32 Magbook ~ Indian History

Mauryan Society The Mauryan Art

! There was well developed ‘caste’ system as per the Pillars and Sculpture
accounts of Megasthenes and this caste system was ! The best example is the Sarnath Pillar, the four lions
based upon ‘occupation’ rather than birth. The marriage
standing back to back and the figure of four animals (lion,
and polygamy both were present. Polygamy continued
elephant, horse and bull) in relief on the abacus, the
to royal classes. Women enjoyed high status. There was
inverted lotus and the sacred Dharma Chakra (with 24
no slavery in the sense that people used to work as
spokes), all indicates a highly advanced form of art.
dasa, out of their own compulsions.
There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (doctors) Stupas
appointed alongwith a team of midwives nurses etc. ! The main purpose of building a Stupa was to enshrine some
According to Megasthenes, there were seven castes in relics of Buddha or some great Buddhist monk. The best
India : example of the Stupa is the Stupa at Sanchi. He enlarged
(i) The Philosopher the Stupa of Kanakamana a ‘former Buddha’.
(ii) Peasants
(iii) Herdsmen and Shepherds Caves
(iv) Artisans and Traders ! The caves primarily served as residence for monks or
(v) Soldiers and Warriors churches and assembly halls. Caves in Barabar hills are the
(vi) Magistrates or Superintendents finest examples. Lomas Rishi and Sudama caves were
(vii) Councillors and Assessors denoted by Ashoka to Ajivikas.

Palaces
Mauryan Economy ! Excavations have revealed a royal palace in ruined condition
! Chief source of revenue was ‘land tax’. It was the total near Kumrahar.
produce and it was collected by the revenue officers.
Foreign trade by means of the land and sea was Terracotta Objects
prevalent and regulated by passports kind of ! Mother Goddesses in clay have been discovered at
documents. Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded Ahichatra.
commodities. The trade routes were called vanikatha. ! Terracotta of Mauryan period consists of primitive idols or
! Punchmarked coins mainly of silver and copper, Pana images, toys, dice, ornaments and beads.
was the silver coin, gold coins were absent.
Folk Art
Agriculture ! The examples include Yaksha of Parkham and Yakshini of
! In some parts of the empire, the Gana Sangha System Besnagar. These statues are made of stone.
with communal ownership of land continued.
! There are also references to state-owned lands called The Decline of Mauryan Empire
Sita lands. ! The decline was completed within half a century after the
death of Ashoka. Most historians agree on the following
Public Welfare
major causes are as follows :
! The state took considerable interest in irrigation,
—The partition of the Mauryan empire in two halves is supposed to
encouraged people for repairing dams and construction be an immediate cause for the decline of the Mauryan empire.
of a water reservoir.
—Later Mauryan rulers were considered to be weak.
! A reservoir (Tadaga) was probably built in Saurashtra —Ashoka’s pacifist policies were held to be undermining the
region during Chandragupta time as indicated by an strength of the empire.
Inscription of Rudradaman. There are many references —Strained Mauryan economy is also held as the major cause of
to medicine men of various kinds during this period like the decline.
ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah), midwives —The weakening of the central control under the later Mauryans,
(Garbhavyadhi) etc. led automatically to the weakening of administration.
Chapter seven
The Sangam Age
Coins
The Sangam Era ! The Tamil kings of the Sangam period
! The first detailed description of the South issued gold and silver coins, but they are
The word sangam is a Indian states is found in Sangam not found in large numbers. Roman
sanskrit word which literature. coins made of gold and silver are found
means an association, a ! Tamil is the oldest among the spoken all over Tamil Nadu. These coins further
sangam of poets.’ The and literary languages of South India. confirms the trade relations between
Sangam is the Tamil version of the Tamil country and Rome, during the
age of the sangam is the !

sanskrit word Sangha, meaning a group Sangam age.

age to which the
of persons or an association. The term
sangam literature Sangam was an academy of poets. The Early Kingdoms
belonged. The three three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas,
! The AD 1st century witnessed the
empires that ruled the the Pandyas and the Cheras combined
formation of three states respectively
were known as Tamilakha or the Tamil
South of India during under Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.
Realm.
Sangam age were that of
Cholas, Cheras and the Sangam Age Sources Important Factors
Pandyas. Inspite of being ! Literary Source works like Tolkappiyan,
Behind their Rise
involved in conflict, they Ettuthogai/Ettuhogal and Pattuppattu ! Spread of iron technology.
were promoters of provide valuable information to know the ! Monetisation of economy.
history of the Sangam age. Development of North-South trade.
literature and other !

Archaeological ! Flourishing trade with the roman empire.

classical works.
! The archaeological sources for the
Sangam period are limited. They may be
The Chola Kingdom
classified into (i) Epigraphy, ! Capital of the Chola kingdom was at
(ii) Excavation, (iii) Coins. Kaveripattinam.
Epigraphy ! The kingdom which later came to be
known as Cholamandalam was situated
! The Ashokan edicts refers to the Chera,
between the Pennar and the Vellar rivers.
Chola and Pandya kingdoms. The
Their chief centre of political power was
Kalugumalai inscriptions help us to know
at Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton
about ancient Tamil script called Tamil
trade.
Brahimi.
! Earlier their capital was at Uraiyur.
Excavations ! In the middle of the 2nd BC a Chola king
! During the excavation at Adhichanallur, named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and
large number of articles made of iron, ruled over it for nearly 50 years.
bronze and gold were found, which ! The real foundation of the kingdom was
depicts the life of the ancient Tamil. A laid down in AD 2nd century by their
Buddhist vihara was found at kilaiyur famous king Karikala. He founded the
near kaveri poompattinam. It belonged to city of Puhar and constructed 160 km of
the Post-Sangam period. embankment along the Kaveri river.
Magbook ~ The Sangam Age 35

! He defeated a confederacy of about a dozen of rulers Three Sangams

headed by Cheras and Pandya kings in the Great
Sangams Venues Chairmans
Battle of Venni, near Tanjavur. Karikala maintained a
powerful navy and conquered Sri Lanka. 1st Thenmadura Agastasya
! Puhar has been identified with Kaveripattanam, 2nd Kapatawaran Agastaya (founder) Tolakappiyam
(later chairman) Nakkirar
which was the Chola capital. It was a great centre of
trade and commerce. 3rd North Madura Mr. Justice V.Khalid

! The successors of Karikala were weak. The Chola

kingdom declined under them. Sangam Administration
! One of the main reasons for the decline was attack ! The king was the centre of administration. Avai was the court of
by the neighbouring territory of the Cheras and crowned monarch. Some officials were as follows :
Pandyas. —Armaichhar (Ministers) —Purohitar (Purohits)
—Dutar (Envoys) —Senapatiyar (Senapati)
The Chera Kingdom —Orrar (Spies)
! The Kingdom was divided into Mandala mandu (province), Ur
! Cheras were also known as Keralaputras. They were
(town), Sirur (small village), Perur (big village).
situated to the West and North of the Pandya
kingdom. Social Life
! The capital of Chera kingdom was at Vanji or Karur. ! The society was divided into Brahmins and Non-Brahmins. The
The kingdom covered the portions of modern Kerala Tamil Brahmins were a respectable and learned community,
and Tamil Nadu. Udiyanjeral is one of the earliest who lived apart in their streets most of the kings treated them
known as Chera rulers. with great courtesy.
! This title of Udiyanjeral was given to him because it ! Trade was common to vaishyas and villas. It appears that
is said that he served both the armies of Kurushetra learning, agriculture, performing sacrifice where the prescribed
war. duties of a vausya.
! The romans are said to have set-up two regiments in
! We have no positive evidence of slavery, but there were low
the Cheras country at Muziris, (identified with the servants or labourers. Untouchability was practiced, they were
modern Cranganore) to protect their trade interests. known as parriyas.
There is reference that indicates that roman built a ! The Tamil society was an advanced and civilised society during
temple of Augustus at Muziris. age. Education was not merely known and encouraged, but
was a widespread social activity.
! The greatest king of the dynasty was Senguttuvan
(The Red or Good Chera). It is said that he crossed Economic Life
the Ganga and invaded the kingdom of Northern ! The sangam economy was self-sufficient. Land was classified
India. He is remembered for building a Temple of as Vanpulam (the non-Agrarian region) and Menpulam
‘Kannagi’ the Goddess of chastity and founded the (Agrarian) sangam texts refer to ulavar and toluvare as the
famous Pattini cult. tillers of menpulam. Tank irrigation (ayam and minor dam
(sinai) irrigation was employed. Some taxes were as follows :
The Pandya Kingdom —Karai Land tax
! The Capital of Pandyas kingdom was at Madurai. —Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected
References of Pandyas are found in the Sangam in war
—Ulgr Custom duties
literature and the text of Megasthenes, who speaks of
—Iravu Extra demand or forced gift
it being ruled by a woman.
! Barter system as a medium of exchange was prevalent.
! It had flourishing trade contacts with the roman
Pattinam were the centres of long distance trade.
Empire and sent embassies to the roman Emperor
Augustus. ! The main agricultural products were paddy, ginger, turmeric,
pepper, sugarcane. The chola capital Uraiyur was famous for
! There are references that Pandyan king’s
trade in cotton cloth. Spinning and weaving were most
performed vedic sacrifices. Mudukudumi was the
important and widely practiced craft.
earliest known as Pandyas ruler.
! Taniyurs were developed out of major Brahmadeyas and temple
! Nedunjeliyan was the most important king of
settlements and can include several hamlets and revenue
Pandya. He accused kovalon of theft. As a result, the
villages. Eripatti was special category of land. The revenue from
city of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi
these lands was set apart for the maintenace of the village
(Kovalan’s wife).
tank.
36 Magbook ~ Indian History

Religious Life
! The religion was influenced by rituals and animism. A planted log of wood called kandu was an object of worship. There
was a special festival instituted in puhar dedicated to the vedic God Indra. Deties like Korravai Goddess of victory and
murugan were worshipped.
! Three stands of religion, clearly marked off from each other are discernible during the sangam period.
(i) The indigenous Gods and systems of worship.
(ii) The exotic Hindu Gods and systems of worship.
(iii) The exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions.

Arts
! Musicians stage artists and performers entertained the kings, the nobility, the rich and the general population. Groups of
performers included :
—Thudian players of the thudi, a small percussion instrument.
—Paraiyan who beat maylam(drums) and performed kooththu, a stage drama in dance form, as well as proclaiming the king's
announcements.
—Muzhavan who blew into a muzhavu, a wind instrument, for the army indicating the start and end of the day and battlefield victories.
They also performed in kooththu alongside other artists.
—Kadamban who beat a large bass like drum, the kadamparai and blew a long bamboo, kuzhal, theri thuthi (similar to the present
naagasuram).
—PaaNan who sang songs in all pann tunes (tunes that are specific for each landscape) and were masters of the yaazh, a stringed
instrument with a wide frequency range. Together with the poets (pulavar) and the academic scholars (saandror), these people of
talent appeared to originate from all walks of life, irrespective of their native profession.

Sangam Literature
Earliest Grammar Works Ettuthogai Pattuppattu Pathinenkilkanakku Epics
Tolkappiyam oldest (8 Anthologies) (10 Idylls) 10 long poems: most (18 Minor Works) Silappadikaram by ilango
surviving Tamil text by Aingurunuru important is Murugarruppadal by Pathinenkilkanakku adigal.
Tolkappiyar. (Gudaliar Killar) largest a person known as Nakkirar. (not minor in
collection of 500 poems. significance preceptine in
nature, stock of adages
and aphorisms.
Aggatiyam by saint Padirruppattu Maduerai-Kanchi by Mangudi Most important work Manimegalai by
Gatiyan. (8 poems) smallest (Nedujeliyan II) Marudan written Tirukkural by Sattanar.
collection of poems deals with Madurai city. Thiruvalluvar referred to
praising Chera kings. as the Bible of Tamil
land.
Pattinappalai by Kannan deals Sivaga Sindamani by
with the city of Gcuhar or Tiruttakkadevar
Modern Kaveripattnam.
Chapter eight
Post-Mauryan Period
(200 BC-AD 300 )

Sources The Indigenous

The period which began Archaeological Ruling Dynasties
in about 200 BC did not Sources Sungas
witness a large empire ! For the first time during this ! Capital Patliputra and Vidisha.
like that of the Mauryas, period, coins were associated with
the kings and Indo-Greeks were
! Information about the Sunga dynasty is found in
but was able for intimate Garga Samhita, the Mahabhasya of Patanjali,
the first Indian kings, who issued
and widespread contacts coins in their names. They were Divyavadana, Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa and
between Central Asia and first to issue gold coins.Some the Harshacharita of Bana.

India. In Eastern India, inscriptions were as follows Pushyamitra Sunga

—Junagarh inscription of
Central India and the Rudradaman
! He was the founder of Sunga dynasty, who
Deccan, the Mauryas assassinated the last Mauryan king Brihadratha
—Hathigumpha inscription of
in 184 BC. This is corroborated by Bana.
were succeeded by a Kharavela
—Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva ! Pushyamitra also faced an invasion of Kharvela,
number of native rulers the king of Kalinga as well as.
—Nasik inscription of Gautami
such as the Shungas, the Balashri ! The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, credits
Kanvas and the —Kanheri inscription of Vasishtaputra Pushyamitra with the performance of two
Satavahanas. In Puluamai Ashwamedha sacrifices.
North-Western India, the ! The Buddhist tradition as is preserved in the
Literary Sources Divyavadana depicts Pushyamitra as a destroyer
most famous empire was ! Divyavadana of Buddhist monasteries and places of worship.
of the Kushanas. ! Lalitavistara However, Sanchi Stupa was repaired and
! Arya Manju Shri Mool Kalpa Bharhut Stupa was constructed fully in the time
of the Sungas. Patanjali author of Mahabhasya
! Milinda Panha
was his contemporary.
! Gargai Samhita
! Bhagbhadra was another important king of this
! Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa dynasty.
! Mahabhasya of Patanjali ! Sungas soon came to be confined to Magadha
! Periplus of the Erythraean-sea and Central Indian territories only.
! Geography of Strabo ! Devabhuti was the last Sunga king, who
! Natural History of Pliny according to Banabhatta (author of
! History of Tibet by Lama Harshacharita) was murdered by his Brahmana
Taranatha minister Vasudeva (75 BC).
Magbook ~ Post Mauryan Period (200 BC-AD 300) 39

Dynastic History of Satavahana

Heliodorus
! Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty. We
He was the ambassador of the Greek king Antialias and
know Kanha (Krishna) from an inscription at Nasik. He
stayed in the court of Bhagbhadra. Heliodorus constructed a
pillar at Vidisha in honour of God Vasudeva (Krishna) extended the kingdom upto Nasik in the West. Kanha
synonymous with Vishnu. The pillar is also known as was succeeded by Simuka’s son Sri Satakarni I.
Garudadhwaja. ! The 6th king was Satakarni II, who ruled for 56 years
and who wrested Eastern Malwa from the Sungas.
`
Satakarni II had to face the invasion of Kharvela.
Kanvas (75-30 BC) Satakarni II was succeeded by his son Lambodara, who
was followed by his son Apalka.
! Vasudeva was the founder of the dynasty known as the
! Hala’s reign of 5 years (AD 20-25) was a period of great
Kanvas or Kanvayana in Magadha.
prosperity. Hala himself composed Gatha Saptasati (also
! Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva, who was followed by his
called the Sattasi), an anthology of 700 erotic verses in
son Narayana. He was succeeded by his son Susharman.
Maharashtri or Paisachi Prakrit.
! According to Puranas, the Andhrabhrityas overthrew this ! During this time, the Satavahanas suffered set backs
dynasty.
when the Saka’s invaded the empire from all direction.

Chedis ! The Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra

Satakarni (AD 80-104), who is also called Ekabrahmana.
! Chedis Capital was Kalinganagara. He is regarded as the greatest king of the Satavahanas
! The greatest and the most powerful king of the dynasty was dynasty.
Kharvela. His capital was Kalinganagara. ! His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the
! The only source of information about the king Kharvela is the Nasik Prasasti by his mother Gautami Balashri. This
Hathigumpha inscription written in Prakrit language and inscription was engraved after his death and in the 19th
Brahmi script. In the 9th year of his reign Kharvela built regnal year of his son and successor Pulamayi I.
Mahavijaya Prasad (place of Great Victory) on both the ! Vasishtaputra Pulamai I ruled for 24 years whose coins
banks of the river Prachi, in order to commemorate his have been found in Godavari and Guntur districts. The
victories in the North. old stupa at Amravati was repaired and was
! In the 13th year of his reign, Kharvela undertook many ornamented with marble slabs during his reign.
welfare schemes like building caves for the Jaina monks in ! Puranas mention Siva Sri Satakarni as the successor of
the Udaigiri hills i.e. Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha caves. Pulamai I, who is also known as Vasishtiputra Siva Sri
Satakarni
Satavahanas (230 BC - 220 AD) ! The last great king of the dynasty was Yajna Sri
! The Satavahanas appeared as the successors of the Satakarni.
Mauryas in Deccan. The Satavahanas were known as ! But during the closing years of Yajna Sri’s reign, the
Andhras, Andhrajatiyah and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranic Abhiras captured the territory around Nasik. He issued
list. coins bearing fish, boat known as Ujjain type of coins.
! The Aitareya Brahmana refers about Andhras as the ! After him, the Satavahana empire disintegrated and
degenerate sons of Vishvamitra. In the Nasik inscription of many royal princes ruled at different places. The last
Balashri, Gautamiputra Satakarni is called Ekabrahmana, Satavahana king of the main line was Pulamai IV.
which means either unrivalled Brahmin or the only protector
of the Brahmins. Two inscriptions of the Satavahanas i.e. Significance of Satavahana’s Rule
Nanaghat and Nasik have been discovered in Maharashtra. ! They issued many coins in various denominations in
! Recent excavations in Telengana resulted in the discovery of gold, silver, copper, lead, potene and thus, contributed
a large number of Satavahana coins and seals. in the growth of currency and coinage.
! These discoveries testify to the fact that Telengana was the ! Position of women improved in the society. Inter-caste
nucleus of the Satavahana empire. The description of marriages and marriages with foreigners were
Satakarni I as Dakshinapatha Pati in the Nanaghat permitted, Growth of Art - Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,
inscription proves that the Satavahana dominion included Nasik, Karle etc flourished as great centres of art. They
other areas of the Deccan and beyond. constructed Southern gateway of Sanchi Stupa.
40 Magbook ~ Indian History

The Foreign Ruling The Shakas (90BC - AD 100)

The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a much
Dynasties !
greater part of India than the Greeks. There were five branches
Indo-Greeks of the Shakas with their seats of power:
(i) Afghanistan (ii) Punjab (iii) Mathura
! Greek expansion in India was definitely, the work of
(iv) Western India (v) Upper Deccan
Demetrius I. He was perhaps the first foreign king
after Alexander, who carried Greek arms into the Rudradaman I
interior of India. ! He was the most famous shaka ruler.
! He made Sakala his capital. Demetrius I soon took ! The Junagarh inscription testifies that Rudradaman twice defeated
control of Gandhara and Taxila. He made Taxila his Satakarni, the lord of the Deccan, but spared his life because of
advance base. family relation.
! Demetrius II was put incharge of territories between ! The same inscription makes a mention of repair of Sudarsana
the Hindukush and the Indus. lake of Saurashtra by Rudradaman Governor in Saurashtra,
! Demetrius I sent two sections of his armies for Sutivashakh, the expense was borne completely by the king’s
further conquest. One section was sent to Patliputra exchequer.
and the other section Southward down to Indus. ! His Junagarh/Girnar inscription, AD 150 is the first inscription in
chaste sanskrit. According to Junagarh inscription, Rudradaman
Menander (165 -145 BC)
had matrimonial alliances with the Satavahanas of the Deccan,
! He was the most famous Indo-Greek king. He had
the Ikshvakus of Andhra and the Lichchhavis of Vaishali.
his capital at Sakala and during his rule, the
! Rudradaman was succeeded by Damaghsada I, Rudrasimha I,
Indo-Greek power extended from the Swat valley to
Jivadaman, Rudrasena I, Sanghadaman and Damasena.
Punjab as far as the Ravi river.
! Menander is best known from the Pali work Milinda Parthians (247 BC - AD 224)
Panho (Question of Milinda), which is in the form of ! The rule of the Saka and Parthians was simultaneous in different
a dialogue between Milinda, the king of Sakala pockets of North-Western and Northern India. The Parthians
(Sialkot) and Nagasena (Buddhist scholar). originated in Iran. The first member of this line was Vonones.
Gondophernes was however the greatest Indo-Parthian monarch.
Scythians !
He ruled from AD 19-45 (based on Takht-i-Bahi inscription).
! The Satrapal form of government received a fresh
impetus during the Scythian rule in India, the chief
feature of which was the system of joint rule of a
Shaka Era
Shaka Era, was adopted by the Indian Government as the Indian
Mahasatrapa and a Satrap i.e., joint rule of Rajan
national calendar. Its zero year begins near the vernal equinox of
and Yuvaraja.
the year 78. Shaka calendar begins on 22nd March every year
! The title Satrap means (protector of the kingdom). except in leap years when it starts on 23rd March.
It was the Achaemenid conquerors of
North-Western India, who first introduced the
Satrapa system of government. However, it was Archaeological Sources of the
under the Kushanas that this system of government Shaka-Parthian Rule
got well established. ! Rajawul’s Mathura lion capital pillar inscription
The Kshaharata Family ! Shoddas Mathura land grants inscription
! Nahapana’s Nasik cave inscription
! Bhumaka was the first Satrap of the Kshaharata
family.
! Ushavadatta’s Nasik cave inscription
! Nahapana’s Junagarh inscription
! Nahapana succeeded Bhumaka.
! Rudradaman’s Andhra inscription
! It appears from the Nasik inscription that the power ! Rudradaman’s Girnar inscription
of Nahapana was crushed by the Satavahana ruler, ! Gondophernes Takht-i-Bahi inscription
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
! The Kshaharata were succeeded by the Saka family Kushanas
of the Kardamakas with its centre at Ujjain.
! In the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Yuehchis gave up
The Kardamaka Family their nomadic habits and divided themselves into 5 groups or
! Chastana was the first ruler of this line. principalities.
Magbook ~ Post Mauryan Period (200 BC-AD 300) 41

! Kujula Kadphises I (King one of the 5 principalities) Rome, the Greek Heracles and several Zoroastrian deities.
organised the other 4 groups under his leadership. He transferred the capital from Purushapura to Mathura.
Kadphises I only issued copper coins which show roman ! Vasudeva was the last king of the dynasty. He assumed
influence. the title Shaono Shao Vasudevo koshana. His coins bear
! Wima Kadphises also known as Yen Kao Chan, the image of Shiva and his bull Nandi.
succeeded his father. He adopted the title Maheshwar and
ruled from AD 64-78.
Impact of Central Asian Contact
Kanishka The Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins in India on a
! Kanishka is usually regarded as the successor of Vima wide scale. The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on
Kadphises. Kanishka is regarded as the greatest king of numerous petty native princes; this led to the development of a
his dynasty. He is credited for starting the Saka era. This feudatory organisation. The Shakas and the Kushanas
era beginning AD 78 also came to be described as the strengthened the idea of the divine origin kingship.
‘Sakakala’ or ‘Saka-Nripa-Kala’. Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child.
! His Sarnath inscription suggests that his rule was based Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule were introduced,
on Satrapa system. Kanishka ruled from his capital implying less of centralisation. The Greeks also introduced the
Purushapura or Peshawar. This has been testified by practice of military governorship called strategos.
Hiuen Tsang. Kanishka established a city named
Kanishkapura in Kashmir.
! On the advice of Parsva, he convened the fourth Council Post-Mauryan Economy
of the Buddhists at Kundalavana vihara in Kashmir whose ! The period 200 BC-AD 300 was the most flourishing period
President was Vasumitra and Vice-President was in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India.
Asvaghosha. The council prepared an encyclopedia of ! The chief articles of export from India were spices,
Buddhist philosophy called Mahavibhasa.
perfumes, pearls, copper and sandalwood. The principal
! Kanishka got a stupa, a matha and a town constructed at imports were cloth, glass, silver and gold. India’s most
Peshawar, in which relics of Buddha were kept. lucrative foreign trade was with the roman Empire.
! Kanishka was a great patron of art and letters. The reign Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a
of Kanishka witnessed the execution of the best work in special type of cloth, Shataka other centres were Bengal,
Gandhara style. Varanasi, Gujarat and Gandhara.
! The great tower at Peshawar (400 ft high) was chiefly ! Artisans of this period were organised into at least 24
made of wood and constructed under the supervision of a guilds. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and
Greek engineer Agesilous. Kanishka built a tower near trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread
Taxila also. profession.
! During his reign, the images of Bodhisattvas began to be ! The gold dinars and suvarna of Kushanas were of 124
erected in Gandhara style. At Mathura, we have a grains and were based on roman denorices.
headless image of Kanishka, in which he is represented in ! A Greak sailor, Hippalus discovered the monsoon sea
the uniform of a warrior. route to India from West Asia in AD 46-47.
! The Buddhist writer : Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva and
Vasumitra lived at his court. Charaka, the exponent of Coins by Vima Kadphises
Ayurveda was his court physician and Matara was his He proclaimed himself as Mahishvara on his coins. He
minister. was probably the first king to introduce coins of gold in
India. All his coins show unmistakable signs of his Shiva
Successors of Kanishka affiliation. The reverse side of his coins depicts Shiva with
! Kanishka’s successor was Vasishka (AD 101-105). his long trident, sometimes accompanied by his bull. The
! Huvishka succeeded Vasishka and according to Kalhana’s obverse of his coins represent him on a couch or standing
Rajatarangini, Huvishka ruled simultaneously with Vasishka at sacrificing altar or even riding a chariot drawn by two
II or Vajheska (Father of Kanishka II) and later with horses.
Kanishka II. Abundance of coins issued by him indicated large extent
! Huvishka founded the town of Huvishkapura in Kashmir of his empire and economic prosperity. The abundance of
(reference from Rajatarangini). gold and copper coins issued by Vima Kadphises
! His coins contained figures of Skandakumara, Visakha,
represents the monarch riding a chariot drawn by two
Mahasena and Uma, the Alexandrian Serapis, personified
horses.
42 Magbook ~ Indian History

Post-Mauryan Society and Religion Mathura School of Art

! Social laws were becoming rigid. Manusmriti was ! The chief patron of this art form were Kushanas and chief
composed in 2nd century BC. Varna system existed in material was white spotted red sandstone. Some distinctive
theory only. Brahmins continued to corner many features of this art were as follows :
privileges. Untouchability and slavery continued. —Images were grand and solid, the masculine beauty was discernible
Sudras were divided into Nirvasita and Anirvasita. and body was firm.
Position of women was low. There are references of —The eroticism is discernible in the images which was given beautiful
Sati in Ramayana and Mahabharata. Increased expression through physical features.
commercial activity led to proliferation of art and craft. —The images also show a religious influence. Spirituality was
expressed in the images. Halo was used which represented a
! Buddhism tend to decline in this period. The
spiritualistic feelings.
Buddhist order moved away from the common
—We also find images of the Brahmanical God and Goddesses such
people and isolated itself.
as Shiva, Lakshmi, Surya, Balrama, Vishnu, Kubera etc.
! Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian
—The earliest images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas are found in this
food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack school. The Buddha was portrayed as head and face shaven; right
that some even left the Sangha and resumed the hand in Abhaya posture and tight dress. Image started getting
householder’s life. By the beginning of the Christian fashioned in round, so that they could be seen from every side.
era, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. —Various images of Jaina Tirthankara such as crossed legged naked
! Brahmanism period saw the revival of Brahmanism Tirthankara like Rishabhaatha, Parshavanath etc are associated with
this school.
and it assumed the features which today are
—The Kushanas king such as Kanishka and Vim Kadphises were
recognised as Hinduism.
shown in Central Asian dress. Important finding is the headless
! The concept of trinity of Gods–Brahma, Vishnu, image of Kanishka from Mathura.
Maheswara; epic heroes Rama, Krishna; doctrines of —This art form to some extent influenced Amravati School of Art.
Karma and transmigration, gained importance. Many —Mathura school also produced the beautiful images of Yaksha and
interpolations were made, the most important being Yakshini, produced beautiful female figure and these figure’s being
the ‘Bhagawad Gita’. very remarkable. Hellenistic/Greek influence was absent.
! Jainism maintained itself as a parish religion with Amravati School of Art
more determination than Buddhism, hence survived
! Its patrons were Satavahanas and Ikshvakus. The main centres
in India.
were Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Amravati, Jaggayyapeta etc.
! Christianity entered into India during the AD 1st Chief material used was white marble. The principle influence in
century by way of the trading ships from the West. this case was of Buddhist themes. Physical beauty was elegantly
St. Thomas led two Christian Missions to India. expressed in images. Images shows sensual expressions.
Post-Mauryan Art ! It focuses upon human beings, but representation was
narrative rather than individualistic. The kings, princes etc were
! Besides, the sculptural art form, the construction of
represented through images. But this representation does not
Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas assumed popularity.
focus upon the individual presence of kings or princes. Rather
Gandhara School of Art king was associated with various activities and shown in a
group. Notable achievements were the female figure in
! The influence of this art was mainly hellenistic in
different moods and poses.
context of style and Buddhist in context of religion.
Certain distinctive features of this art were as follows: Scholars of the Period
—Realistic representation of human figure (it is the
Ashvaghosha ‘Saund Aranand’, ‘Buddhacharita’, ‘Sariputra’,
hallmark of this art form) clearly indicating limbs and
other organs of body, i.e. the representation was ‘Prakarana’ and ‘Vijrasuchi’.
prototype of human body. Nagarjuna Also known as Indian Einstein for propounding the
—In realistic representation, the anatomical accuracy was Theory of Relativity in his book ‘Prajana Paramita Sutra
emphasised. Sastra’.
—Distinguished muscles constituted a distinctive part of Vasumitra Book on Buddhist philosophy titled ‘Mavibhasa Shastra’.
the images made under this art. Charak ‘Charak Samhita’.
—The hairstyle was curly, which represents Greek Patanjali Book on grammar ‘Mahabhasya’.
influence.
Gunadhya ‘Brihat Katha’ in Paisachi dialect.
—The drapery was transparent and here we find a
Hala ‘Gathasap tasati’.
beautiful harmony between the drapery and physical
features of human body. Sarvaraman ‘Katantra’. (Sanskrit Grammar)
—One excellent example was the Bamiyan Buddha of Bhasa Swapna Vasavadatta’, ‘Ravanabadh’, ‘Vrubhanga’.
Afghanistan. (Sanskrit play).
Chapter nine
The Gupta Age
(AD 320-500)
Historical Sources Gupta Dynasty
Literary Sources Srigupta
The Gupta dynasty ! Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta, ! The Gupta dynasty was founded by
came to power in India literary works of Kalidasa, Srigupta in the AD 3rd century. He used
Mrichchakatikam of Shudraka, the title of Maharaja.
in AD 320 and ruled
Kamasutra of Vatsyayana and Nitisara of
until 550. The Gupta Kamandaka throws light on the Gupta Ghatotkachagupta
empire gave power to empire. ! He succeeded Srigupta. He also took the
local leaders, united Fa-Hien’s Account
title of Maharaja.
much of the Indian
subcontinent and
! Fa-Hien was a Chinese Buddhist monk. Chandragupta I
! He visited India during the reign of (AD 319-335)
ensured peace and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. He wrote
! Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son
prosperity. It was his experiences in his book named
Chandragupta I (in about AD 320), who
Fu-Kuo-Ki. He gave detailed description
defined by creativity, assumed the title of Maharaja Dhiraj. Like
of the administration of the Gupta empire.
flourishing arts, Bimbisara he strengthened his position by
! Fa-Hien tells us that the Chandalas lived
fabulous literature and matrimonial alliance with the
separately from the other people. When
Lichchavis-then controlling portions of
stupendous scholars are they entered a city or a bazar, they were
Bihar and Nepal. He married Lichchavi
just a few of the things required to strike a piece of wood as
princess Kumaradevi. Special Kumaradevi
warning of their approach so that other
that marked the period. type coins were minted to commemorate
people may not be polluted.
The Gupta age is also her marriage to Chandragupta I.
! He was impressed by the city of
called as the ! Chandragupta I started the Gupta Era in
Patliputra and the palace of Ashoka.
AD 319, which marked the date of his
Classical Age. accession.
Archaeological Sources
Inscriptions Samudragupta
! Prayaga Prashasti of Samudragupta (AD 335-375)
composed by Harisena mentions the ! Samudragupta has been called the Indian
military campaigns of Samudragupta. Napoleon by VA Smith because of his
! Junagarh rock inscription of Skandagupta extensive military conquests. He assumed
mentions repairs carried out for the the titles of Vikramanka and Kaviraja.
Sudarsana lake and construction of ! Virasen was his commander in chief
Vishnu Lakshmi temple. during Southern campaign. Vasubandhu,
! Eran inscription of Bhanugupta provides a famous Buddhist scholar was his
first evidence of Sati. minister.
Magbook ~ The Gupta Age (AD 320-500) 45

He subjugated five kingdoms in lower Bengal, upper

!
Assam, Nepal and the territories farther West as well
Kumaragupta I (AD 415-455)
as number of republican clans. ! He performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice. But in the last
years of Kumara Gupta I, the peace and prosperity of the
! Samudragupta also advanced through the forest tract
empire was disturbed due to internal dissensions and
of Madhya Pradesh to the coast of Orissa and then
external invasions. Among the chief enemies were the new
moved up to Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas.
invaders called Hunas. His son Skandagupta managed to
! Some coins of the Samudragupta represent him as
defeat the Hunas as this mentioned in Bhitari inscription and
playing on the Veena. He also performed Asvamedha
Junagarh inscription of Skandgupta. Kumara Gupta I is said
sacrifice.
to have founded Nalanda University.
! He was a devotee of Vishnu though a follower of the
Brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths Skandagupta (AD 455-467)
he granted permission to the Buddhist King of Ceylon,
! He repulsed the ferrocious Hunas attacks twice. The Heroic
Meghavarman, to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
Act gave him the title Vikramaditya. (Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
The empire continued but central control weakened and local
Chandragupta II (AD 380-412)
Governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights. To
! Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II the West of Varanasi, the Gupta emperors now exercised little
around AD 375. However, some historians put more than titular control. In his religious outlook, Skanda
Ramagupta between Samudragupta and Gupta was a Vaishnava, but followed the tolerant policy of his
Chandragupta II. predecessors. He repaired the Junagarh lake in Gujarat.
! In the play Devichandraguptam of Visakhadatta,
Ramagupta is the elder brother of Chandra Gupta II. It Successors of Skandagupta
was during the rule of Ramagupta that Shakas ! The line of succession after Skandagupta is uncertain.
attacked Gupta Empire. Finding his position Purugupta, a son of Kumaragupta by the chief queen, ruled
precarious, Ramagupta agreed to surrender Queen for sometime and was succeeded by his son Budhagupta
Dhruvadevi to a Shaka ruler. whose earliest known as date is AD 477 and the latest AD
! Chandragupta II objected to it and saved the honour of 495. But, a king named Kumaragupta II is known as to have
the family by killing the Shaka chief and rescuing reigned in AD 474. This indicates internal dissension which
Dhruvadevi. He later on married her. However, the continued after the end of Budha Gupta’s reign.
Gupta records do not refer to Ramagupta. Narsimhgupta and Kumargupta III were the last two Gupta
! Political marriages occupied a prominent place in the kings.
foreign policy of the Guptas. Chandragupta II followed Titles Adopted by Gupta Kings
the same policy when he conciliated the Naga
Kings Titles
chieftains of the upper and central provinces by
accepting the hand of the princess Kubernaga and Srigupta Maharaja
allied himself with the powerful family of the Vakatakas Ghatotkacha Maharaja
of the Deccan by marrying his daughter Prabhavati
Chandragupta I Maharaja Dhiraj
with Rudrasena II.
! He issued silver coins (first Gupta ruler to issue silver Samudragupta Kaviraja (Prayag Prasasti), Aswamedha
Prakaraman (on coins) Vikram (on coins)
coins) and adopted the title Vikramaditya and Sakari in
Param Bhagvat (Nalanda copper plate);
memory of his victory. Sarva-raj-ochh chetta i.e. Uprooter of all kings
! The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription near Qutub Minar (on coins only ruler with this title) and
enumerates the exploits of a king called Chandra. Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention the title
Dharma Prachar Bandhu i.e. he was upholder of
! During his reign the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein (399-414)
Brahmanical religion.
visited India.
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Sakari Devagupta or Deva Shri or
Devaraja, Narendra Chandra Singh Vikram,
Navratnas in Chandragupta II’s Court Param Bhagvata etc.
Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court 9 Kumaragupta Mahendraditya, Shakraditya
Luminaries or great scholars viz., Kalidas, Amarsimha,
Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Karamaditya, Param Bhagvat,
Dhanvantri, Varahamihira, Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on
(on coins); Shakropama (Kahaum Pillar
Ashtadhyayi), Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Velabhatt and inscription); Devaraja, (Arya Manjushri Mula
Shanku. Kalpa).
46 Magbook ~ Indian History

Hunas Rule in India Provincial and Local

For some 30 years, from AD 500 onwards, Western India was in the Administration
hands of the Huna kings, two of whom, Toramana and his son ! The empire was divided into Bhuktis headed by
Mihirakula, were apparently mighty monarchs and had advanced up to
Uparika, Bhuktis into districts called Vishayas
Gwalior and Eran (Madhya Pradesh).
head by Vishyapati, Vishayas into Vithis and Vithis
Mihirakula is remembered by Hiuen Tsang as a fierce persecutor of into villages.
Buddhism. In Kashmir, one of the centres of his power, memories of his
sadistic tyranny were still alive in the 12th century, when they were City Administration
recorded by the historian Kalhana.
! Paura was the council responsible for city
administration. It included President of the city
Gupta Administration corporation, chief representative of the guild of
merchants, a representative of the artisans and the
Central Administration Chief Accountant. Unlike the Mauryas, city
! Though, the king possessed extensive powers, he did not rule in committee was not appointed by the government
a tyrannical manner. A Council of Ministers and several civil under the Guptas. It comprised of local
officials assisted the king. The most important officers in the representatives.
Gupta empire were the Kumaramatyas.
! The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda. Started in the Deccan Judiciary
by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and ! For the first time civil and criminal law were clearly
fiscal administrative concessions to priests and administrators defined and demarcated. The king acted as the
became regular affairs in the Gupta times. fountain head of justice and decided all disputes in
! A new office of Sandhivigrahaka first appears under the Gupta general, punishments were light and mild.
ruler Samudragupta. He was the minister of peace and war. ! The supreme judicial power was vested to the king.
Harisena held this title. He was assisted by the Mahadandanayaka (Chief
Justice).
Important Officials at the Central Level
Officers Departments Army
Mahabaladhikrita Commander-in-Chief ! The king’s standing army was supplemented by the
Maha-dand-anayak Chief Justice forces occasionally supplied by the feudatories.
Senabhakta was a form of tax i.e. the army was to
Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace be fed by the people whenever, it passed through
Mahasandhivigrahak/ An official for post-war conciliation the countryside. Forced labour or Vishti was also
Sandhivigrahak practiced in royal army.
Dandapashika Head of the police department ! Horse archery became prominent in military
Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the Royal Treasury tactics.
! Chariots receded into background and cavalry
Mahapaksha-Patalik Head of the account department
came to the forefront.
Vinaysthitisansathapak Head of the education department
Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for all the central departments Gupta Economy
Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry ! Land revenue which was the chief source was
Mahamaipilupati Controller and executor of elephant force generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce.
Vinaypura Official to present different guests at king’s court
Compared to the earlier period, we notice a decline
in long distance trade. South-East Asia gained
Yukta purusha Office to keep account of war booty importance as a centre for Indian trade. Ports on
Khadyatpakika Inspector of royal kitchen West coast to trade with Mediterranean and West
Ranabhandagarika Officer-in-charge of Army stores
Asia were Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.
Ports on East coast to trade with South-East Asia
Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (Infantry) were Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura.
Mahakartakrtika Department of works and building ! Vishti (Forced Labour) was considered a source of
income for the state.
Magbook ~ The Gupta Age (AD 320-500) 47

Taxes Levied During the Guptas Coins Issued by Gupta Kings

Tax Names Tax Specifics Kings Types of Coin
Klipta/Upkilpta Sales tax and Purchase tax Chandragupta I Kumaradevi type
Halivakara/Halidanda Tax on ploughing Samudragupta Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud; Axe;
Bali An additional oppressive tax on people Ashvamedha; Vyaghra-anam (tiger killing
type); Veenavadan (playing flute).
Pratyaya Toll tax
Chandragupta II Ashvarohi, Chhatrahari, Chakra-Vikram type
Bhog King’s share of produce etc.
Bhag Bhagkar Combination of Bhog and Bhaga Kumaragupta Gajarohi, Kadgadhari, Sinh-nihanta,
Bhatta Police tax Khang-nihanta (i.e. rhinocerous slayer),
Chat Security tax Kartikeya and Apratighmudra type.
Chakrasana Grazing tax Skandagupta Archer, Standard, Lion slayer, Swordsman,
Horseman.
Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in cash
Udakabhaga May be water tax
Uparikara Tax collected from all subjects
Gupta Society
Taradaya Tax on navigation ! The Brahmanas became richer because of land grants
and claimed many privileges which are listed in the
Rajju Tax for measurement of land
Narada smriti AD 5th century). There was a great increase
Sarvarishtia Forced tax
in the number of castes and sub-castes with the
Bedakbhog Irrigation tax large-scale absorption of foreigners and tribal’s.
Uparnik Tax taken from border area ! The position of the Shudras improved slightly; they were
Bhoga General tribute permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas, to worship a
new God called Krishna and to perform certain domestic
Agriculture rites such as probably paying fees to the priests.
! According to Paharpur, copper plate inscription of ! Shudras were now considered as agriculturists rather than
Buddhagupta, state was the exclusive owner of land. servants and slaves.There were four types of retired forest
Poona plates of Prabhavatigupta refers to the land survery life in this period:
conducted during this period. (i) Audambara Men who took their wives along with them, but
! Pustapala was the officer incharge for maintaining records observed strict celibacy.
of all land transactions. During Gupta, land grants (ii) Vaisanchi Men who did not accompanied with their wives.
(Agarhara and Devagrahara grants) also included transfer (iii) Balakhilya Life free of mental attachments to the world.
of royal rights over salt and mines, which were earlier (iv) Hermits Who led a very strict life?
states monopoly during Mauryas.

Types of Land Position of Women

Land Namess Land Uses
! In the Gupta period, women were also allowed to listen to
the epics and the Puranas and to worship Krishna. But
1. Kshetra Bhoomi Cultivable land
women of higher orders did not have access to
2. Khila Wasteland
independent sources to livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta
3. VastuBhoomi Habitable land times.
4. Charagah Bhoomi Pasture land
! They lacked property right. However, the gifts of jewellery,
5. Aprahata Bhoomi Forest land ornaments, garments and similar other presents made to
the bride on the occasion of her marriage were considered
Coinage System her property. Gupta and post-Gupta law books
! The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, substantially enlarged the scope of these gifts which were
which were called Dinaras in their inscriptions, but they known as Stridhana.
were not a common currency. After the conquest of ! Katyayana, a law-giver of the 6th century, holds that she
Gujarat, the Gupta issued a good number of silver coins, could sell and mortgage her immovable property alongwith
mainly for local exchange. her Stridhana. This clearly implies that women received
! Cowries, according to Fa-Hein, became a common shares in landed property, but generally a daughter was
medium of exchange. In contrast to those of the not allowed to inherit landed property in the patriarchal
Kushanas, the Gupta copper coins are very few. communities of India.
48 Magbook ~ Indian History

Religious Life Famous Temples of the Gupta Age

! Buddhism no longer received royal patronage. Importance Temples Locations
of Vishnu increased. Idol worship in the temples became Vishnu Temple Tigawa (Jabalpur)
a common feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period Shiva Temple Bhumara (Nagaud)
onwards. Religious toleration was, however, prevalent. The
Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to Gods and Goddesses Parvati Temple Nachna Kuthara
like Lakshmi, Parvati and Durga and etc appeared. Dasavtar Temple Deogarh (Jhansi)
Tantricism also became popular in the 5th century. Shiva Temple Koh (Nagaud)
! The schools of Hindu philosophy were enunciated in this Bhitargaon Temple Bhitargaon
period. By the AD 4th century Bhagavad-Gita was finally
Lakshman Temple Kanpur (Brick made)
compiled, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna and
stressed the performance of the functions assigned to Lakshman Temple Sirpur (Raipur)
each Varna. Hence fourth, the concept of Bhakti Mukund Darra Temple Kota
developed; worship superseded sacrifice. Jarasangh’s Sitting Rajagriha (Bihar)

Gupta Art and Crafts Literature of Gupta Period

! In art, architecture, sculpture, painting and terracotta Subjects Writers Works
figurines, the Gupta period witnessed unprecedented Drama Kalidasa Vikramovarshiya
activities and development all over India. That is why, the Malavikagnimitram
period is also referred to as the Golden Age of Ancient Raghuvamsa
India. Ritusamharam
Meghadutam
! The brick temples of the Gupta period include those of
Abhigyan Shakuntalam
Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in
Jhansi. The Buddhist University at Nalanda was set-up in Bhasa Swapnavasavadatta
the 5th century. Charudatta
Pratignayaugandharayana
! An over 2m high bronze image of the Buddha has been
recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. Of the stupas Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa
built during this period, the one at Mirpur Khas in Sind Devichandraguptam
and Dhamekh at Sarnath deserve mention. Of the tall Shudraka Mrichchakatika
Stupa of Sarnath near Varanasi, now little more than the Ecology Harisena Prayag Prasasti
inner core remains.
Grammar Dandin Kavyadarshana
! The rock-cut architecture of the period is represented by Amarsimha Amarakosha
the two conventional types - the Chaityas and the Vihara.
Chandragomin Chandravyakarana
They are mostly found at Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh and
Udaigiri caves of Orissa. The most characteristic feature Narrative Story Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra
of the Chaitya is its emphasis on the colossal image of Hito Padesha
Buddha seated between two standing attendants. The Dandin Dasakumarcharita
Vihara was planned in the form of rows of cells round a Philosophy Ishwar Krishna Sankhyakarika
central court. The most numerous Viharas are to be found (Sankhya Philosophy)
at Ajanta. Prashastipada Dharmasangraha
! Gupta age marks the beginning of the main style of (Vai Sheshika Philosophy)
temples architecture in India namely the Nagara style and Acharya Vyasa Vyasa Bhasya
Dravida Style. The finest example of temple architecture (Yoga Philosophy)
is the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh. It is also an example Vatsyayana Nyaya Bhashya
of early stone temple with a Shikara. It has a square (Nyaya Philosophy)
grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway. Other Miscellaneous Vatsyayana Kamasutra
examples of temple architecture are Parvati temple at Works
Nachna Kuthara, Shiva temple at Koh, Cave temple at Bhamah Kavyalankara
Udaigiri etc. Bharavi Kiratarjuniya
Magbook ~ The Gupta Age (AD 320-500) 49

! Indians were the first to use the decimal system. Earliest

Ajanta Paintings epigraphic evidence in AD 5th century. The famous
The greatest specimen of Buddhist Art in Gupta times is mathematician Aryabhatta was acquainted with it.
provided by Ajanta paintings. They depict the various events in ! Zero was discovered by Indians in 2nd century BC.
the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddha's, of Jataka Alberuni says that it was Brahmagupta, who gave zero its
stories. status in mathematics.
Bagh caves had the folk culture as the basic theme. The ! Knowledge of Geometry is reflected in the Sulvasutras of
paintings in the cave numbers 9 and 10 belong to the 1st and 5th century BC. Aryabhatta (Surya Siddhanta) formulated
2nd century BC. Cave number 10 belongs to the early Gupta Age, the rule for finding out the area of a triangle which led to
approximately AD 350. Painting in the cave numbers 617 and 19 the origin of Trigonometry.
belong to the later period approx to AD 650.
Paintings of the cave numbers 1 and 2 belong to the post-Gupta Astronomy
period. The finest examples of paintings of this period are found
! Jyotisha Vedanga (500 BC) is the earliest source dealing
in the rock-cut cave numbers 1, 16 and 19 at Ajanta. The wall
exclusively with astronomy. It contains rules for calculating
painting of the Bodhisattva in cave 1 is the finest example of
the position of new and full Moon amongst the 27
Gupta Art. The outstanding examples are the frescoes or
Nakshatras.
wall-paintings.
! Aryabhatta explained the true cause of solar and lunar
eclipses, stated the Sun is stationary and the Earth rotates
Science and Technology around the Sun. He gave the value of π = 3.1416, he
stated that the Earth was spherical in shape in his book
Physics called Aryabhattiya (AD 499).
! They knew the existence of atoms and molecules even ! Varahamihira in his book Brihat Samhita (AD 6th century)
before the Greeks. Vaiseshika school elaborated the stated that the Moon rotates round the Earth and the
atomic theory. Earth rotates around the Sun.
! Brahmagupta (later 6th and early 7th centuries)
anticipated Newton by declaring that “All things fall to Medicine
Earth by law of nature”, for it is the nature of the Earth to ! Hymns in Atharvaveda associated with Ayurveda.
attract things. Charaksamhita of Charaka (AD 100) refers to various
diseases with cure and treatments also about prevention
Chemistry and control through diet.
There was great development in Metallurgy with large-scale ! Susrutasamhita of Susruta refers to various kinds of
production of various metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, diseases and operation with anaesthesia, surgical
brass and other alloys. Post-Mauryan period steel products instruments, cataract and rhinoplasty etc.
were exported to the West. Gupta period copper statue of
Buddha from Sultanganj and Iron pillar of Mehrauli at Delhi
are finest examples. Decline of the Gupta Empire
! Guptas started declining after the death of Skandagupta.
Mathematics The reason for the end was weak rulers and the rise of
! Indians made three distinct contributions regarding Yashodharman in malwa. Threats from the Vakatakas
notation system, decimal system and zero usage. contributed to their decline. Another reason for the
! Indian Notation System was adopted by Arabs and decline was the invasion by the Hunas and to face them,
numerals are called Arabic in English. They are found in there was no large professional army to maintain vast
Ashokan inscriptions. empire.
Chapter ten
The Post-Gupta Era
(AD 550-750)
Ruling Dynasties of The Pushyabhutis
North India ! Their capital was at Thaneshwar. The
most important ruler of the dynasty was
! Gupta empire fell to its death in the last Prabhakara-Vardhan. He assumed the
After the downfall of the leg of 5th century. title of Parama-bhattaraka
Gupta empire in the ! Magadha and its capital patliputra, lost Maharajadhiraja. Harshavardhana
middle of the their importance. After the fall of the belonged to this family.
Guptas, five major centres of power
6th century, North India
reverted to small
emerged in North India. These power are The Hunas
given below : ! It was a barbarious race, which came to
republics and small India from Central Asia. They established
monarchical states. The Maukharis their supremacy in North India. Toramana
Harsha united the small ! They held the region of Western Uttar was their oldest ruler and Mihirakula, the
republics from Punjab to Pradesh around Kannauj had conquered most uncultured one.
a part of Magadha. Isanavarman and his
Central India. In South Harshavardhana
son Sarvavarman were powerful rulers of
India, Pallava and this dynasty and had adopted the title of (AD 606-647)
Chalukya dynasties Maharajadhiraja. ! Harshavardhana was the younger son of
fought for supremacy. Prabhakaravardhana. Hiuen-Tsang gave
The Maitrakas account of his reign, in his book, Si-Yu-Ki.
! They established a kingdom in Bana’s Harshacharita, inscriptions, coins
Saurashtra with Vallabhi as capital. Under and Harsha’s own writings i.e. Ratnavali,
the able guidance of Bhatarka, Vallabhi Priyadarshika and Nagananda, are other
not only became a seat of learning and authentic sources of Harsha’s era.
culture, but also a centre for trade and ! Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda killed
commerce. Grahavarman (Maukhari ruler) in alliance
! Dhruvasena II was the most important with Devagupta and imprisoned his wife
ruler of Maitrakas. Rajyasri (Harsha’s sister). Later
Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta, but he
The Gaudas was assassinated by Shashanka in AD
606.
! They ruled over a territory in Bengal and
were quite lesser known as of the four ! The news of the death of Rajyavardhan
kingdoms. Its most powerful ruler was reached his younger brother
Shashanka. He invaded Makhauri’s, killed Harshavar-dhana, who now coronated
Grahavarman and imprisoned Rajyasri. He himself in AD 606 and proceeded to
even treacherously murdered her brother avenge his brother’s death and release his
Rajyavardhan, the ruler of Thaneshwar. sister. From this year started the Harsha
era.
52 Magbook ~ Indian History

Conquests ! He convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to widely

! He is said to have established his control over ‘5 indies’ — publicise the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism. He is said
Orissa, Gauda, Mithila, Kanyakubja and Svarstha to have erected many Buddhist Stupas on the banks of the
(Punjab). Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II Baladitya, the Ganga and a number of monasteries at the sacred places of
Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi (Gujarat). He conquered the Buddhists.
Kongoda Ganjam (Orissa) and offered its 80 township as a Two Assemblies
gift to a local Buddhist Monk Jayasena. The two great assemblies under Harsha are as follows:
! Harsha was defeated by Pulakesin II on the banks of river Kannauj
Narmada. This is mentioned in Aihole inscription of ! At Kannauj, Harsha arranged a big assembly of 20 kings,
Pulakesin II authored by Ravikirti, who describes Harsha
4000 monks acquainted with Buddhism, 3000 Brahmins
as the Lord of Northern country (Saka Lottara
and Nirgranthas (Jains) and 1000 scholars from all over
Patheshvara). Mostly, the feudatories seem to have
India.
accepted his suzerainty. The Chinese ruler, Tsang, sent
three embassies to Harsha’s court.
! It was presided over by Hiuen-Tsang. For three weeks,
topics of Mahayana Buddhism were discussed. This was a
Administration shot in arms of Mahayana Buddhism.
! Harsha shifted his capital from Thaneswar to Kannauj. He Prayag (Allahabad)
governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did,
! Quinquennial distribution by the king to the people was
except that his administration became more feudal and
held at Prayag. Here a great assembly for 75 days was
decentralised.
held.
! Land grants continued to be made to priests for special
! The images of Buddha, Sun and Shiva were publicly
services rendered to the state.
worshipped and gifts of valuable articles and clothing were
! The Harsha empire was divided into provinces called given to about 50 lakh persons belonging to all faiths.
Bhuktis. Bhuktis were further subdivided into Visayas
! Hiuen-Tsang was invited by Harsha to witness his
(Districts). Visayas were divided into Tehsils or Pathaks,
6th quinquennial distribution of alms and gifts
Pathaks and villages or grama.
(Maha Moksha Parishad) at Prayag.
! He shifted his capital from Thaneshwar to Kannauj.
! Hiuen-Tsang writes that Harsha actually gave away
Officials in the Harsha Administration everything in the royal treasury and became a monk.
Officer Names Post Officers Literature
MahasandhiVigrahaka Officer to decide about war and peace ! Harsha was an avid lover of literature and he himself
Mahabaladhikrita Highest official of the army wrote three dramas: Ratnavali, Nagananda and
Baladhikrita The commander Priyadarshika.
Vrihadeshwara Head of cavalry ! He patronised Banbhatt, a great scholar who wrote Parvati
Ayuktaka Ordinary officer Parinay, Harshacharita and Kadambari. Haridatta and
Katuka Head of elephant brigade Jayasena were also patronised by Harsha. Hiuen-Tsang
wrote Si-Yu-Ki and his biography was written by Hui-li.
Uparika Maharaja Provincial head

Society Hiuen-Tsang
Hiuen-Tsang's visited to India in AD 629, Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese
! This period witnessed the ascendancy of Varnashrama pilgrim, started off a journey from China to India to study in the
dharma and the existence of various sub-castes called Buddhist University, Nalanda. He spent many years in the court of
Varnasamskaras. Harshavardhana and influenced the king to convert to Buddhism. He
! The position of women further declined. The institution of also reported what he witnessed in his book Si-Yu-Ki, which means
svayamvara declined that re-marriage of widows was not my experiences. It is also called Records of the Western World.
permitted. The system of dowry became common. There
Nalanda University
are only few references of the practice of committing Sati.
Kumaragupta, the Gupta King founded Nalanda University in the
Religion AD 5th century which became the principal seat of learning during
! Harsha was primarily a worshipper of Shiva, but he was Harsha's time. Dharmapala served as vice-chancellor of this
tolerant to other religions as well. In his later life, he university during Harsha's time.
became a great patron of Buddhism. Nalanda is considered to be first International Resident University in
! He endowed the land grants to the priests of both Hindu the world. The rebuilding process of Nalanda is in progress with the
and Buddhist religions. co-operation of many nations including China, Japan and Australia.
Magbook ~ The Post-Gupta Era (AD 550-750) 53

Economy Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami)

! Economy became more feudal and self-sufficient. ! The rule of this dynasty began in the early AD 6th century
! The decline of trade and commerce caused decline of and its first two rulers were Jayasimha and Ranaraja. But
trade centres, paucity of coins and almost complete the first independent ruler was Pulakesin I (AD 535-566).
disappearance of guilds of traders. Agricultural and ! He got built the fort of Vatapi in Bijapur district of
handicraft production decreased. Karnataka.
! Emergence of Jajmani System i.e. self-sufficient village ! The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (AD
economy where all the needs were met from within the 611-642) also known as Satyashraya, who was a
village. contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.
! From the Aihole inscription, by his court poet Ravikirti, in
Ruling Dynasties of Sanskrit it comes to light that there was much external and
internal disturbance, which he overcame with little effort.
South India The greatest achievement of Pulakesin II was his victory
! After the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas and over Harshavardhana in AD 620.
Ikshavakus rose to power. ! Vikramaditya II (AD 733-746) once more defeated the
Pallava kings. But his son Kirtivarman II (AD 746-757) lost
Satavahamas not Maharashtra to the Rashtrakuta Chief, Dantidurga and the
sovereignty of the Chalukyas came to an end in about
The Vakatakas AD 757 .
! The founder of the Brahman dynasty was
Vindhyasakti. His son was Pravarasena I. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
! Pravarasena I was the first Vakataka rules, who called ! This dynasty was founded by Pulakesin II’s brother Kubja
himself a Samrat and conducted wars with Haga kings. Vishnuvardhana.
! His successor Prithvisena was probably a contemporary ! Vijayaditya III (AD 848-892) is credited with victories over
of the great Gupta emperor, Samudragupta. the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The power
of the Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the AD 10th
! Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya is said to have given his
century and they became the allies of the Cholas.
daughter, Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka King,
Kulothunga Chola annexed the kingdom in 1076.
Rudrasena II.
! Harisena, who belonged to a minor branch of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani
Vakataka dynasty, reigned towards the close of the (AD 793-1190)
AD 5th century. The Vakataka power was destroyed by ! The kingdom was re-established by Taila II in AD 973, when
the Kalachuris and the Kadambas towards the middle of he defeated the last Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha IV.
the AD 6th century.
Some Important Rulers
Ikshavakus ! Satyasraya (AD 997-1008) His 11 years reign was
disturbed. It had disastrous war with great Chola Raja I.
! After the fall of the Satavahanas, there arose the
Ikshavakus in the Eastern part of the peninsula. They ! Somesvara I (AD 1042-1068) It was involved in a
built monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikonda. Protracted War with the Cholas and was finally defeated
They began providing lands as grants in the by the Chola ruler, Virarajendra, in the Battle of Kudai.
Krishna-Guntur region, where their copper-plate charters ! Somesvara II (AD 1068-1076), A tyrannical ruler, was
have been found. Their rule ended with their conquest overthrown by his brother, Vikramaditya II
by the Pallavas. ! Tribhuvanamalla (AD 1076–1126) The hero of Bilhana's
Vikramankadevacharita. He was undoubtedly the greatest
Chalukyas ruler of the Western Chalukyas. He introduced the
! The Chalukyas grew powerful in the Deccan towards the Chalukya-Vikrama era (AD 1076). He is said to have sent
middle of the AD 6th century. They were probably an embassy to Ceylon.
Kshatriyas from Ayodhya. The dynasty had two branches, ! With the death of Jagadekamalla II, the Chalukyas power
viz. Vatapi (Badami) and Kalyani. was eclipsed and the throne was usurped by the Kalachuri
minister of war, Vijjala or Vijjana.
54 Magbook ~ Indian History

Achievements of the Chalukyas ! Narasimhavarman I (AD 630-668) He is regarded as the

! The Central Government under the Chalukyas of Badami most successful Pallava king.
exercised a paternalistic control over the village ! In AD 642, he occupied the Chalukyan capital, Vatapi, and
administration which is unlike the administrative practice probably killed Pulakesin II. He assumed the title
of South India. Vatapikonda. It was during his reign that the Chinese
! The Hindu School of Law emerged during Western pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang is reported to have visited Kanchi,
Chalukyas. It was divided into two major schools i.e. known as Mamalla. He founded the city of Mamallapuram
Dayabhaga and Mitakshara. In the Mitakshara System, (Mahabalipuram) and the famous rock-cut temples.
the sons can claim right to the property during the life ! Paramesvaravarman II He defeated Chalukya Vikramaditya II.
time of the father, whereas in the Dayabhaga System, it ! Nandivarman II Vikramaditya II again invaded and
is only after the death of father that the sons can claim captured the Pallava capital. Nandivarman II had to
right to the property. purchase peace by giving his daughter in marriage and
! The army of the Chalukyas consisted of a small standing paying a huge ransom. During his reign, several old temples
army, but looked after civil administration whenever the were renovated and new one like the Vaikunta perumal
need arose. They patronised education and learning. temple at Kanchi were constructed.
They promoted both sanskrit and prakrit. ! Successors : Dantivarman (defeated by Rashtrakuta king,
—A famous Chalukyan feudal lord Gangaraja Durvinita wrote a Govinda III) Nandivarman III, Nripatunga and Aparajita
famous book on Grammar known as Shabavatara. He also ruled in succession as independent rulers, but the last
translated the book Brihatkatha written by Gunadya into Pallava ruler Aparajita Pallava (AD 879-897) was defeated
sanskrit.
by Aditya Chola by the end of the 9th century with, which
—Udayadeva wrote a grammar book known as Jainendra
began the Chola supremacy in South India.
Vyakarana.
—Somadeva Suri wrote the book Vitivakyamrita about morality. ! The period circa AD 600-850 marks the second historical
—Bilhan, a sanskrit writer, wrote Vikramdeva Charita and the phase in the South, which was divided mainly between the
poem Chaurapanchasika. Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas.
—Vijnanesvara wrote the Mitaksara.
Conflict between the Chalukyas and the
! Though, Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, they Pallavas
promoted other religions also. Jainism made much
! The main interest in the political history of peninsular India
progress under them.
from the 6th to the 8th century centres round the long
! The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin is written in sanskrit struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas
language. The courts later Chalukyas kings were of Badami for supremacy.
adorned by great scholars like Bilhana and Vijnanesvara.
! The Pandyas, who were in control of Madurai and Tirunelveli
! Hiuen-Tsang visited the country during the time of
district of Tamil Nadu, joined this conflict as a poor third.
Pulakesin II.
! The Pallavas and the Chalukyas quarrelled with each other
Pallavas for plunder, prestige and territorial resources.
! Both tried to establish supremacy over the land lying between
! The Pallavas were possibly a local tribe, who established
the Krishna and the Tungabhadra.
their authority in the Tondai Nadu or the land of
creepers. ! The first important event in this long conflict took place in
the reign of Pulakesin-II (609-642), the most famous
! After the fall of Satavahanas, the Pallavas established a
Chalukya king. In his conflict with the Pallavas, he almost
powerful kingdom in South India. The Pallavas with their
reached the Pallava capital, but the Pallavas purchased
capital at Kanchi, South of Madras.
peace by surrendering their Northern provinces to
! Simha Vishnu (AD 575-600) Extended the Pallava Pulakesin II.
kingdom up to the river Kaveri.
! Pulakesin’s second invasion of the Pallava territory ended in
! Mahendravarman I (AD 600-630) It was defeated by the
failure. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman (AD 630-668)
Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II and with this started the
occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about AD 642,
great struggle between the Pallavas and their Northern
when Pulakesin II was probably killed in fight against the
enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi, for the mastery of
Pallavas.
Southern India. The struggle continued for several
generations. ! Narasimhavarman assumed the title of Vatapi-konda or the
Conqueror of Vatapi.
! He patronised the Saint Appar and the scholar Bharavi.
He wrote a famous satirical play called Mattavilasa ! The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (AD 733-745) is said to
Prahasana. have over run Kanchi three times. In AD 740, he
completely routed the Pallavas.