CHAPTER TWELVE : ATOMS

Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom;

Bohr model,

Energy levels,

Hydrogen spectrum.
PRESENTED BY
SUNITA KHIRBAT
PGT PHYSICS
K V BMY BHILAI
 THOMSON’S MODEL
The first model of atom was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1898.
According to this model, the positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed
throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively charged electrons are embedded
in it like seeds in a watermelon.
This model was picturesquely called plum pudding model of the atom.
RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

α
Radon
α - Beam
α
Lead Box Thin
Gold Foil

ZnS Screen

No. of α-particles
scattered (N)
+ Gold Atom

Scattering angle (θ)

α - Beam
 Observation of the Alpha (α) Scattering Experiment
Many of the α-particles pass through the foil which means that they do not suffer any
collisions.
Approximately 0.14% of the incidents α-particles scatter by more than 1 º and about
1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90º.

Conclusions of the Alpha (α) Scattering Experiment

(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty as most of the alpha particles passed
through the foil undeflected.
(ii) A few positively charged particles were deflected. The positive charge is
concentrated in a very small volume that repelled and deflected the positively charged
particles.
(iii) Calculations by Rutherford showed that the volume occupied by the nucleus
is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
 Basic assumption of Rutherford’s atomic model
(i) Atom consists of small central core, called atomic nucleus in which
whole mass and positive charge is assumed to be concentrated.
(ii) The size of nucleus is much smaller than the size of the atom.
(iii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons and atom is electrically neutral.
(iv) Electrons revolves around the nucleus and centripetal force is provided
by the electrostatic force between the electron and the nucleus.
 LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD MODEL OF THE ATOM
(i) It could not explain stability of atom
• According to electromagnetic theory an accelerated charged particle must radiate
electromagnetic energy.
• An electron revolving around the nucleus is under continuous acceleration towards
the centre as they are revolving in a circle.
• It should thus continuously loose energy and move in orbits with gradually
decreasing radii and finally collapse into the nucleus.
BUT THE NUCLEUS is stable.
An accelerated atomic electron must spiral into the nucleus as it loses energy
(ii) It did not mention anything about the arrangement of electron in the orbit.
• In Rutherford’s model, an electron can revolve in orbits of all possible radii.
• It should emit a continuous spectrum. But hydrogen atom with one electron emits
discrete lines in its spectrum
ALPHA-PARTICLE TRAJECTORY
 DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH (NUCLEAR SIZE)
When the distance between α-particle and
the nucleus is equal to the distance of the
𝑷
closest approach (r0), the α-particle comes +
r0
to rest.
At P , Kinetic energy of alpha particle is
converted into potential energy of the
alpha particle in electric field of nucleus 𝑍𝑒
2𝑒
𝐴𝑡 𝑃 , 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝐸
𝑟0
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘
2 𝑟0

1 2
2𝑒 × 𝑍𝑒
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘 Distance of closest approach is the
2 𝑟0 measure of upper limit of size of
nucleus
𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝟎 = 𝒌
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝒎𝒗
 IMPACT PARAMETER (b)
The perpendicular distance of the velocity
vector of the α-particle from the centre of the u θ
nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus b
+
r0
is known as impact parameter.

Ze2 cot (θ/2)

b=
4πε0 (½ mu2)
where θ is scattering angle

i) For large value of b, cot θ/2 is large and θ, the scattering angle is small.

ii) For small value of b, cot θ/2 is also small and θ, the scattering angle is large.
iii) For b = 0 i.e. α-particles directed towards the centre of the nucleus,
cot θ/2 = 0 or θ/2 = 90° or θ = 180°
The α-particles retrace their path.
Example 12.2 In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, what is the distance of closest
approach to the nucleus of a 7.7 MeV -particle before it comes momentarily to rest
and reverses its direction? Given atomic number of foil material gold is Z = 79

1 2𝑒 × 𝑍𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘
2 𝑟0

𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝟎 = 𝒌
𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝒗
𝟐
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑍 = 79, 𝐾. 𝐸 = 7.7 × 106 𝑒𝑉 = 7.7 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

𝟐
𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 × 𝟐 × 𝟕𝟗 × 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝒓𝟎 =
𝟕. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗

𝑟0 = 3.84 × 10−16 𝑚
12.2 Suppose you are given a chance to repeat the alpha-particle scattering
experiment using a thin sheet of solid hydrogen in place of the gold foil. (Hydrogen is
a solid at temperatures below 14 K.) What results do you expect?
𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝟎 = 𝒌 𝑍𝐴𝑢 = 79, 𝑍𝐻 = 1
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝒎𝒗

• Z decreases if gold is replaced by hydrogen hence distance of closest approach

decreases
• Also the scattering angle would not be large enough. This is because the mass of
hydrogen is less than the mass of incident α−particles.
• And the α−particles would not bounce back if solid hydrogen is used in
the α−particle scattering experiment.
 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
FIRST POSTULATE: An electron in an atom could revolve in stable orbits without
the emission of radiant energy.
Each atom has certain definite stable states in which it can exist, and each possible
state has definite total energy. These are called the stationary states of the atom.

SECOND POSTULATES: The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those
orbits for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π

ℎ
𝐿=𝑛
2𝜋
 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

THIRD POSTULATE: An electron can make a transition from one orbit to another

of lower energy.

When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference

between the initial and final states.

The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by 𝑬𝒊 −𝑬𝒇 =𝒉𝒗

 RADIUS OF 𝒏𝒕𝒉 ORBIT OF ATOM
According to II Postulate

ℎ
𝐿=𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑟
2𝜋
ℎ
∴ 𝑚𝑣 𝑟 = 𝑛 … … … (1)
2𝜋

For e revolving around nucleus in circular orbit

𝑍𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 × 𝑒 𝑒
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘
𝑟 𝑟2
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑒 ∴ = 𝑘 2 … … … … . (2)
𝑟 𝑟
Square equation (1) and divide it by equation (2)

𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2 𝑛2 ℎ2 /4𝜋 2 3
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑛 2 2
ℎ 𝒏𝟐 𝒉 𝟐
= ∴ 𝑚𝑟 . 𝑘 2 = 𝒓=
𝑚𝑣 2 /𝑟 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 /𝑟 2 𝑟 4𝜋 2 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐
 RADIUS OF 𝑩𝑶𝑯𝑹′ 𝑺 ORBIT

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝒓=
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐

𝒓 ∝ 𝒏𝟐

For H-atom, Z=1 and N=1

𝒉𝟐
𝒓𝟎 =
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝒌 𝒆𝟐

𝒓𝟎 = 𝟓. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎

𝑟0 1
=
𝑟2 22

𝑟2 = 5.3 × 10−11 𝑋4 = 21.2 × 10−11 𝑚

 VELOCITY OF ELECTRON IN 𝒏𝒕𝒉 ORBIT OF ATOM
According to II Postulate
ℎ
∴ 𝑚𝑣 𝑟 = 𝑛 … … … (1)
2𝜋
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2
∴ = 𝑘 2 … … … … . (2)
𝑟 𝑟

divide equation (2) by equation (1)

For H-atom, Z=1 and N=1
𝑚𝑣 2 /𝑟 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 /𝑟 2
= 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑚𝑣𝑟 𝑛ℎ/2𝜋 𝒗= 𝒗 = 2.18×106ms−1.
𝒉
𝑣 2𝜋𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
=
𝑟2 𝑛ℎ𝑟 2

𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒗=
𝒏𝒉

1
𝑣∝
𝑛
 ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN 𝒏𝒕𝒉 ORBIT OF ATOM
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐸𝑁𝐸𝑅𝐺𝑌 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 … (1) 𝑍𝑒
𝑒
𝑍𝑒 × −𝑒 −𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘 = … … . (2) 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞. 2 & 5 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟐𝑻𝑬,
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2
∴ = 𝑘 2 … … … … . (3)
𝑟 𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞. 4 & 5 𝑻𝑬 = −𝑲𝑬,
2
1 𝑍𝑒
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘 … … (4)
2 2𝑟
Substituting value of KE and
PE in eq.(1)

−𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑇𝐸 = +𝑘
𝑟 2𝑟

−𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
𝑇𝐸 = … … . . (5)
2𝑟
12.5 The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and
potential energies of the electron in this state?

∴ 𝐾𝐸 = 13.6𝑒𝑉 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟐𝑻𝑬 ∴ 𝑃𝐸 = −27.2𝑒𝑉

𝑻𝑬 = −𝑲𝑬,

12.15 The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is
about –3.4 eV.
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
(c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the zero of potential
energy is changed?

𝒂 𝑻𝑬 = −𝑲𝑬, ∴ 𝐾𝐸 = 3.4𝑒𝑉 𝒃 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟐𝑻𝑬 ∴ 𝑃𝐸 = −6. 8𝑒𝑉

(c) PE nd KE would change if the choice of the zero of potential energy is changed?
 ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN 𝒏𝒕𝒉 ORBIT OF ATOM
−𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
𝑇𝐸 = … … . . (5)
2𝑟

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝒓=
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝒌 𝒁𝒆𝟐

−𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
∴ 𝑇𝐸 = 2 2 =−
2𝑛 ℎ /4𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑛2 ℎ2

For H-atom, Z=1 and N=1

2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑇𝐸 = −
ℎ2

𝐸1 = −13.6𝑒𝑉

−13.6
𝐸𝑛 =
𝑛2
 ENERGY LEVELS OF H-ATOM

−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬𝒏 =
𝒏𝟐
−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬𝟏 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝒆𝑽
𝟏𝟐
−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬𝟐 = = 𝟑. 𝟒𝒆𝑽
𝟐𝟐
−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬𝟑 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝒆𝑽
𝟑𝟐
−𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝑬𝟒 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝒆𝑽
𝟒𝟐

IONISATION ENERGY

The minimum energy required to free the electron from the atom is called the
ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom.
 SPECTRAL LINES OF H-ATOM
2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑇𝐸 = − 2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
ℎ2 ℎ𝑐/𝜆 = −
ℎ2 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛2 =−
𝑛2 2 ℎ2 1 2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= −
𝜆 ℎ3 𝑐 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛1 =−
𝑛1 2 ℎ2 1 1 1
=𝑅 −
𝜆 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
According to III Postulate
Where R is constant called Rydberg ′ s
𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 = ℎ𝜗
constant

2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 R = 1.03 × 107 /m
ℎ𝜗 = − − −
𝑛2 2 ℎ2 𝑛1 2 ℎ2

2𝜋 2 𝑘 2 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
ℎ𝜗 = −
ℎ2 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
 SPECTRAL LINES OF H-ATOM

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑰𝒇 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 𝑰𝒇 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑰𝒇 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟑 𝑰𝒇 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟒
=𝑹 − &𝒏𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒 … . &𝒏𝟐 = 𝟑, 𝟒 … &𝒏𝟐 = 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔 … &𝒏𝟐 = 𝟓, 𝟔 …
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE INFRARED INFRARED
REGION REGION REGION REGION