Electrical Machines

Electrical machines convert energy existing in one form to another, usable, form. These machines
can broadly be divided into three categories: generators, motors and transformers. Generators
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, motors convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy, and transformers change the voltage level in ac system and are considered to be the
backbone of a power system.
Electrical machines play an important role in domestic appliances, commercial devices and
industrial applications. It is important for students of electrical and electronics engineering to learn
the basic concepts of transformers, motors, generators and magnetic circuits. This book explains
the design of transformers, decoding of generators and performance of electrical motors through
descriptive illustrations, solved examples and mathematical derivations. Construction, working
principles and applications of various electrical machines are discussed in detail. In addition, it
offers an engrossing discussion on special purpose machines, which is useful from an industrial
prospective in building customised machines. The text contains hundreds of worked examples and
illustrations and more than a thousand self-assessment exercises. It is an ideal textbook for
undergraduate students of electrical and electronics engineering.
S. K. Sahdev is Associate Dean at the Faculty of Technology and Science at Lovely Professional
University, Jalandhar. He has more than thirty-five years of teaching experience. In addition, he has
helped industrial units to set-up electrical laboratories for testing and developing their products. He
has authored six books. His areas of interest include electrical machines, electric drives, power
electronics and power systems.

Electrical
 Machines S. K. Sahdev

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
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© Cambridge University Press 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in India
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-108-43106-4 Paperback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9781108431064
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
This book is dedicated to
my Parents,
wife – Ritu Sahdev,
son – Rohit Sahdev,
daughter-in-law – Robina
Sahdev and
grandsons – Arnav and Adhiraj

Contents

Preface xxi Acknowledgements xxiii

1. Electro Magnetic Circuits 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance 2 1.2
Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis 3 1.3 Important Terms 3 1.4 Comparison between
Magnetic and Electric Circuits 5 1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations 6 1.6 Series Magnetic
Circuits 6 1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits 7 1.8 Leakage Flux 8 1.9 Magnetisation or B-H
Curve 21 1.10 Magnetic Hysteresis 22 1.11 Hysteresis Loss 23 1.12 Importance of Hysteresis
Loop 24 Section Practice Problems 24 1.13 Electro Magnetic Induction 28 1.14 Faraday’s
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 29 1.15 Direction of Induced emf 30 1.16 Induced emf
31 1.17 Dynamically Induced emf 31 1.18 Statically Induced emf 33 1.19 Self Inductance 34
1.20 Mutual Inductance 34 1.21 Co-efficient of Coupling 35 1.22 Inductances in Series and
Parallel 36 1.23 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 41 1.24 AC Excitation in Magnetic
Circuits 42 1.25 Eddy Current Loss 44 Section Practice Problems 46
viii Contents

1.26 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion Devices 48 1.27 Torque Development by the

Alignment of Two Fields 49 1.27.1 Soft Iron Piece Placed in the Magnetic Field 49 1.27.2
Permanent Magnet Placed in the Magnetic Field 51 1.27.3 Electromagnet Placed in the
Magnetic Field 53 1.28 Production of Torque 54 1.28.1 In Case of Permanent Magnet 55
1.28.2 In Case of Electromagnet 55 1.29 Production of Unidirectional Torque 57 1.29.1 By
Rotating the Main Magnets 58
1.29.2 By Changing the Direction of Flow of Current in the Conductors of Electromagnet 58
1.30 emf Induced in a Rotating Coil Placed in a Magnetic Field 63 1.31 Elementary Concept
of Electrical Machines 68 1.31.1 Operation of Machine as a Generator (Conversion of
Mechanical
Energy into Electric Energy) 68 1.31.2 Operation of Machine as a Motor 70 Section Practice
Problems 74 Review Questions 74 Multiple Choice Questions 76

2. Single-Phase Transformers 79 Introduction 80 2.1 Transformer 80 2.2 Working Principle of a

 Transformer 82 2.3 Construction of Transformer 82
2.3.1 Core Material 83 2.3.2 Core Construction 83 2.3.3 Transformer Winding 85
2.3.4 Insulation 88 2.3.5 Bushings 89 2.3.6 Transformer Tank 90
2.4 Simple Construction of Single-phase Small Rating (SAY 2 kVA) Transformers 91 2.5 An
Ideal Transformer 94 2.6 Transformer on DC 95 2.7 emf Equation 96 Section Practice
Problems 100 2.8 Transformer on No-load 103 2.9 Effect of Magnetisation on No-load
(Exciting) Current 104 2.10 Inrush of Magnetising Current 106 Section Practice Problems
113 2.11 Transformer on Load 114 2.12 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer 115 2.13
Transformer with Winding Resistance 118
Contents ix

2.14 Mutual and Leakage Fluxes 119 2.15 Equivalent Reactance 119 Section Practice
Problems 122 2.16 Actual Transformer 123 2.17 Simplified Equivalent Circuit 125 2.18
Short Circuited Secondary of Transformer 127 2.19 Expression for No-load Secondary
Voltage 128 2.20 Voltage Regulation 129 2.21 Approximate Expression for Voltage
Regulation 130 2.22 Kapp Regulation Diagram 131 Section Practice Problems 140 2.23
Losses in a Transformer 142 2.24 Effects of Voltage and Frequency Variations on Iron Losses
143 2.25 Efficiency of a Transformer 145 2.26 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 146 2.27
Efficiency vs Load 152 2.28 Efficiency vs Power Factor 152 2.29 All-day Efficiency 154
Section Practice Problems 156 2.30 Transformer Tests 158 2.31 Polarity Test 158 2.32
Voltage Ratio Test 159 2.33 Open-circuit or No-load Test 159 2.34 Separation of Hysteresis
and Eddy Current Losses 161 2.35 Short Circuit Test 165 2.36 Back-to-back Test 167 Section
Practice Problems 179 2.37 Classification of Transformers 181 2.38 Parallel Operation of
Transformers 181 2.39 Necessity of Parallel Operation 182 2.40 Conditions for Parallel
Operation of One-phase Transformers 182 2.41 Load Sharing between Two Transformers
Connected in Parallel 184 Section Practice Problems 194 2.42 Auto-transformer 195 2.43
Auto-transformer vs Potential Divider 199 2.44 Saving of Copper in an Auto-transformer 199
2.45 Advantages of Auto-transformer over Two-winding Transformer 200 2.46
Disadvantages of Auto-transformers 200 2.47 Phasor Diagram of an Auto-transformer 201
2.48 Equivalent Circuit of an Auto-transformer 203 2.49 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of an
Auto-transformer 203 2.50 Conversion of a Two-winding Transformer to an
Auto-transformer 205 2.51 Comparison of Characteristics of Auto-transformers and
Two-winding
Transformers 207
x Contents

2.52 Applications of Auto-transformers 208 Section Practice Problems 218 Review

Questions 220 Multiple Choice Questions 221

3. Three-Phase Transformers 224 Introduction 224 3.1 Merits of Three-phase Transformer over
Bank of Three Single-phase
Transformers 225 3.2 Construction of Three-phase Transformers 225 3.3
Determination of Relative Primary and Secondary Windings in Case of
Three-phase Transformer 227 3.4 Polarity of Transformer Windings 227 3.5 Phasor
Representation of Alternating Quantities in Three-phase Transformer
Connections 228 3.6 Three-phase Transformer Connections 229 3.7 Selection of
Transformer Connections 233
3.7.1 Star-Star (Yy0 or Yy6) Connections 233 3.7.2 Delta-Delta (Dd0 or Dd6)
Connections 236 3.7.3 Star-Delta (Yd1 or Yd11) Connections 238 3.7.4 Delta-Star
 (Dy1 or Dy11) Connections 239 3.7.5 Delta-Zigzag Connections 241
Section Practice Problems 251 3.8 Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 252 3.9
Necessity of Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 253 3.10 Conditions for
Parallel Operation of Three-phase Transformers 254 3.11 Load Sharing between Three-phase
Transformers Connected in Parallel 255 3.12 Three Winding Transformers (Tertiary
Winding) 257
3.12.1 Stabilisation Provided by Tertiary Winding in Star-Star Transformer 260 3.13
Tap-changers on Transformers 265 3.14 Types of Tap-changers 266
3.14.1 No-load (or Off-load) Tap-changer 266 3.14.2 On-load Tap-changer 267 Section
Practice Problems 268 3.15 Transformation of Three-phase Power with Two Single-phase
Transformers 270 3.16 Open-Delta or V-V Connections 270 3.17 Comparison of Delta and
Open Delta Connections 274 3.18 T-T Connections or Scott Connections 275 3.19
Conversion of Three-phase to Two-phase and vice-versa 277 3.20 Difference between Power
and Distribution Transformers 291 3.21 Cooling of Transformers 291 3.22 Methods of
Transformer Cooling 292 3.23 Power Transformer and its Auxiliaries 294
Contents xi

3.24 Maintenance Schedule of a Transformer 296 3.25 Trouble Shooting of a Transformer

297 Section Practice Problems 297 Review Questions 299 Multiple Choice Questions 300

4. DC Generator 301 Introduction 301 4.1 DC Generator 302 4.2 Main Constructional Features
303 4.3 Simple Loop Generator and Function of Commutator 307 4.4 Connections of
Armature Coils with Commutator Segments and Location
of Brushes 309 4.5 Armature Winding 311 4.6 Types of Armature Winding 314 4.7
Drum Winding 315 4.8 Lap Winding 316 4.9 Numbering of Coils and Commutator Segments
in Developed Winding Diagram 318 4.10 Characteristics of a Simplex Lap Winding 323 4.11
Characteristics of a Multiplex Lap Winding 327 4.12 Equalising Connections and their
Necessity 327 4.13 Simplex Wave Winding 330 4.14 Dummy Coils 332 4.15 Applications of
Lap and Wave Windings 338 Section Practice Problems 338 4.16 emf Equation 340 4.17
Torque Equation 341 4.18 Armature Reaction 349 4.19 Calculations for Armature
Ampere-turns 351 4.20 Commutation 355 4.21 Cause of Delay in the Reversal of Current in
the Coil going through
Commutation and its Effect 357 4.22 Magnitude of Reactance Voltage 358 4.23 Good
Commutation and Poor Commutation 360 4.24 Interpoles and their Necessity 361 4.25
Compensating Winding and its Necessity 362 4.26 Methods of Improving Commutation 365
Section Practice Problems 366 4.27 Types of DC Generators 368 4.28 Separately-excited DC
Generators 368 4.29 Self-excited DC Generators 369 4.30 Voltage Regulation of a DC Shunt
Generator 371 4.31 Characteristics of DC Generators 376
xii Contents

4.32 No-load Characteristics of DC Generators or Magnetisation Curve of DC Generator

376 4.33 Voltage Build-up in Shunt Generators 377 4.34 Critical Field Resistance of a DC
Shunt Generator 378 4.35 Load Characteristics of Shunt Generator 379 4.36 Load
Characteristics of Series Generators 380 4.37 Load Characteristics of Compound Generator
380 4.38 Causes of Failure to Build-up Voltage in a Generator 381 4.39 Applications of DC
Generators 381 4.40 Losses in a DC Generator 382 4.41 Constant and Variable Losses 383
4.42 Stray Losses 384 4.43 Power Flow Diagram 384 4.44 Efficiency of a DC Generator 384
4.45 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 385 Section Practice Problems 387 Review
 Questions 390 Multiple Choice Questions 392

5. DC Motors 395 Introduction 395 5.1 DC Motor 396 5.2 Working Principle of DC Motors 396
5.3 Back emf 397 5.4 Electro-magnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor 398 5.5 Shaft Torque
399 5.6 Comparison of Generator and Motor Action 399 5.7 Types of DC Motors 401 5.8
Characteristics of DC Motors 405 5.9 Characteristics of Shunt Motors 405 5.10
Characteristics of Series Motors 407 5.11 Characteristics of Compound Motors 408 5.12
Applications and Selection of DC Motors 409
5.12.1 Applications of DC Motors 409 5.12.2 Selection of DC Motors 410 5.13 Starting of
DC Motors 411 5.14 Necessity of Starter for a DC Motor 411 5.15 Starters for DC Shunt and
Compound Wound Motors 412 5.16 Three-point Shunt Motor Starter 412 5.17 Four-point
Starter 414 5.18 Calculation of Step Resistances Used in Shunt Motor Starter 416 5.19 Series
Motor Starter 422 Section Practice Problems 423
Contents xiii

5.20 Speed Control of DC Motors 428 5.21 Speed Control of Shunt Motors 428 5.21.1 Field
Control Method 428 5.21.2 Armature Control Method 429 5.22 Speed Control of Separately
Excited Motors 431 5.23 Speed Regulation 432 5.24 Speed Control of DC Series Motors 440
5.24.1 Armature Control Method 440 5.24.2 Field Control Method 441 5.24.3 Voltage
Control Method 442 5.25 Electric Braking 451 5.26 Types of Electric Braking 453 5.26.1
Plugging 453 5.26.2 Rheostatic Braking 454 5.26.3 Regenerative Braking 455 Section
Practice Problems 457 5.27 Losses in a DC Machine 460 5.28 Constant and Variable Losses
461 5.29 Stray Losses 461 5.30 Power Flow Diagram 462 5.31 Efficiency of a DC Machine
462 5.32 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 463 5.33 Test Performed to Determine
Efficiency of DC Machines 471 5.34 Brake Test 472 5.35 Swinburne’s Test 474 5.36
Hopkinson’s Test 479 5.37 Testing of DC Series Machines 487 5.38 Inspection/maintenance
of DC Machines 491 5.39 Faults in DC Machines 492 5.40 Trouble Shooting in a DC Motor
492 Section Practice Problems 493 Review Questions 495 Multiple Choice Questions 497

6. Synchronous Generators or Alternators 500 Introduction 501 6.1 General Aspects of

Synchronous Machines 501 6.2 Basic Principles 502 6.3 Generator and Motor Action 503 6.4
Production of Sinusoidal Alternating emf 503 6.5 Relation between Frequency, Speed and
Number of Poles 504 6.6 Advantages of Rotating Field System over Stationary Field System
504 6.7 Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines 505
xiv Contents

6.8 Excitation Systems 509 6.8.1 DC Exciters 509 6.8.2 Static-Excitation System 510 6.8.3
Brushless Excitation System 511
Section Practice Problems 512 6.9 Armature Winding 513 6.10 Types of Armature Winding
513 6.11 Important Terms Used in Armature Winding 515 Section Practice Problems 519
6.12 Coil Span Factor 521 6.13 Distribution Factor 522 6.14 Winding Factor 524 6.15
Generation of Three-phase emf 524 6.16 emf Equation 525 6.17 Wave Shape 526 6.18
Harmonics in Voltage Wave Form 526 Section Practice Problems 534 6.19 Production of
Revolving Field 535 6.20 Ferrari’s Principle (Vector Representation of Alternating Field) 539
6.21 Production of Two-phase Rotating Magnetic Field 540 6.22 Production of Three-phase
Rotating Magnetic Field 541 6.23 Rating of Alternators 542 6.24 Armature Resistance 542
6.25 Armature Leakage Reactance 543 6.26 Armature Reaction 544 6.27 Effect of Armature
Reaction on emf of Alternator 546 6.28 Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance
548 6.29 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram 548 6.30 Expression for
 No-load Terminal Voltage 549 6.31 Voltage Regulation 551 6.32 Determination of Voltage
Regulation 552 6.33 Synchronous Impedance Method or emf Method 552
6.33.1 Determination of Synchronous Impedance 553 6.33.2 Determination of Synchronous
Reactance 555 6.34 Modern Alternators 556 6.35 Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR) 556 Section
Practice Problems 565 6.36 Assumptions Made in Synchronous Impedance Method 566 6.37
Ampere-turn (or mmf) Method 567 6.38 Zero Power Factor or Potier Method 579 Section
Practice Problems 591 6.39 Power Developed by Cylindrical Synchronous Generators 592
Contents xv

6.39.1 Power Output of an AC Generator (in Complex Form) 593 6.39.2 Real Power
Output of an AC Generator 593 6.39.3 Reactive Power Output of an AC Generator
594 6.39.4 Power Input to an AC Generator (in Complex Form) 594 6.39.5 Real
Power Input to an AC Generator 594 6.39.6 Reactive Power Input to an AC Generator
595 6.39.7 Condition for Maximum Power Output 595 6.39.8 Condition for
Maximum Power Input 596 6.39.9 Power Equations, when Armature Resistance is
Neglected 596
6.40 Two-Reactance Concept for Salient Pole Synchronous Machines 597 6.40.1
Determination of Xd and Xq by Low Voltage Slip Test 599 6.41 Construction of Phasor
Diagram for Two-Reac tion Concept 600 6.42 Power Developed by a Salient Pole
Synchronous Generator 603 Section Practice Problems 610 6.43 Transients in Alternators
611 6.43.1 Sub-transient, Transient and Direct Reactance 613 6.44 Losses in a Synchronous
Machine and Efficiency 616 6.45 Power Flow Diagram 617 6.46 Necessity of Cooling 617
6.47 Methods of Cooling 618 6.48 Preventive Maintenance 619 Section Practice Problems
619 Review Questions 620 Multiple Choice Questions 622

7. Parallel Operation of Alternators 626 Introduction 626 7.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of
Alternators 626 7.2 Requirements for Parallel Operation of Alternators 627 7.3
Synchronising Alternators 627 7.4 Conditions for Proper Synchronising 627 7.5
Synchronising Single-phase Alternators 629
7.5.1 Dark Lamp Method 629 7.5.2 Bright Lamp Method 631 7.6 Synchronising Three-phase
Alternators 631 7.6.1 Three Dark Lamps Method 632 7.6.2 Two Bright and One Dark Lamp
Method 633 7.7 Synchronising Three-phase Alternators using Synchroscope 635 7.8 Shifting
of Load 636 7.9 Load Sharing between Two Alternators 637 Section Practice Problems 646
7.10 Two Alternators Operating in Parallel 647 7.11 Synchronising Current, Power and
Torque 647
xvi Contents

7.12 Effect of Change in Input Power of One of the Alternators 649 7.13 Effect of Change in
Excitation of One of the Alternators 650 7.14 Effect of Reactance 651 7.15 Effect of
Governors’ Characteristics on Load Sharing 652 7.16 Hunting 653 Section Practice
Problems 660 Review Questions 661 Multiple Choice Questions 663

8. Synchronous Motors 665 Introduction 665 8.1 Working Principle of a Three-Phase

Synchronous Motor 666 8.2 Effect of Load on Synchronous Motor 667 8.3 Equivalent
Circuit of a Synchronous Motor 669 8.4 Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Motor
(Cylindrical Rotor) 669 8.5 Relation between Supply Voltage V and Excitation Voltage E 671
8.6 Different Torques in a Synchronous Motor 673 8.7 Power Developed in a Synchronous
Motor (Cylindrical Rotor) 673 8.8 Phasor Diagrams of a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor
 676 8.9 Power Developed in a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor 679 8.10 Power Flow in a
Synchronous Motor 679 Section Practice Problems 700 8.11 Effect of Change in Excitation
701 8.12 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves 703 8.13 Effect of Change in Load on a
Synchronous Motor 704 8.14 Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motors 706 8.15
Synchronous Condenser 707 8.16 Characteristics of Synchronous Motor 710 8.17 Hunting
711 8.18 Applications of Synchronous Motors 712 8.19 Comparison between Three-phase
Synchronous and Induction Motors 712 8.20 Merits and Demerits of Synchronous Motor 713
Section Practice Problems 713 Review Questions 716 Multiple Choice Questions 717

9. Three-Phase Induction Motors 721 Introduction 721 9.1 Constructional Features of a

Three-Phase Induction Motor 722 9.2 Production of Revolving Field 724 9.3 Principle of
Operation 725 9.4 Reversal of Direction of Rotation of Three-Phase Induction Motors 726
9.5 Slip 727
Contents xvii

9.6 Frequency of Rotor Currents 728 9.7 Speed of Rotor Field or mmf 729 9.8 Rotor emf
730 9.9 Rotor Resistance 730 9.10 Rotor Reactance 730 9.11 Rotor Impedance 731 9.12
Rotor Current and Power Factor 731 9.13 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Rotor 732 Section
Practice Problems 739 9.14 Stator Parameters 740 9.15 Induction Motor on No-load 740
9.16 Induction Motor on Load 741 9.17 Induction Motor vs Transformer 742 9.18 Reasons of
Low Power Factor of Induction Motors 743 9.19 Main Losses in an Induction Motor 744
9.20 Power Flow Diagram 744 9.21 Relation between Rotor Copper Loss, Slip and Rotor
Input 745 9.22 Rotor Efficiency 745 Section Practice Problems 752 9.23 Torque Developed
by an Induction Motor 752 9.24 Condition for Maximum Torque and Equation for Maximum
Torque 753 9.25 Starting Torque 754 9.26 Ratio of Starting to Maximum Torque 754 9.27
Ratio of Full Load Torque to Maximum Torque 755 9.28 Effect of Change in Supply Voltage
on Torque 755 9.29 Torque-slip Curve 756 9.30 Torque-speed Curve and Operating Region
757 9.31 Effect of Rotor Resistance on Torque-slip Curve 757 Section Practice Problems 764
9.32 Constant and Variable Losses in an Induction Motor 765 9.33 Main Tests Performed on
an Induction Motor 766
9.33.1 Stator Resistance Test 766 9.33.2 Voltage-ratio Test 766 9.33.3 No-load Test
767 9.33.4 Blocked Rotor Test 769 9.33.5 Heat Run Test 770
9.34 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 773 9.35 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of an
Induction Motor 775 9.36 Maximum Power Output 776 9.37 Circle Diagram 781 9.38 Circle
Diagram for the Approximate Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 782 9.39
Construction of a Circle Diagram for an Induction Motor 783
xviii Contents

9.40 Results Obtainable from Circle Diagram 785 9.41 Maximum Quantities 785 9.42
Significance of Some Lines in the Circle Diagram 786 Section Practice Problems 793 9.43
Effect of Space Harmonies 795
9.43.1 Cogging in Three-phase Induction Motors 795 9.43.2 Crawling in Three-phase
Induction Motors 795 9.44 Performance Curves of Induction Motors 796 9.45 Factors
Governing Performance of Induction Motors 798 9.46 High Starting Torque Cage Motors
798 9.46.1 Deep Bar Cage Rotor Motors 799 9.46.2 Double Cage Induction Motor 800 9.47
Motor Enclosures 807 9.48 Standard Types of Squirrel Cage Motor 810 9.48.1 Class A
Motors 811 9.48.2 Class B Motors 811 9.48.3 Class C Motors 811 9.48.4 Class D Motors
812 9.48.5 Class E Motors 812 9.48.6 Class F Motors 813 9.49 Advantages and
 Disadvantages of Induction Motors 813 9.49.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors 813 9.49.2
Slip-ring Induction Motors 814 9.50 Applications of Three-phase Induction Motors 814 9.51
Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Phase Wound Induction Motors 815 9.52 Comparison
between Induction Motor and Synchronous Motor 815 9.53 Installation of Induction Motors
816 9.54 Preventive Maintenance of Three-phase Induction Motors 818 Section Practice
Problems 819 Review Questions 820 Multiple Choice Questions 822

10. Starting Methods and Speed Control of Three-phase Induction Motors 828 Introduction
828 10.1 Necessity of a Starter 829 10.2 Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
829
10.2.1 Direct on Line (D.O.L.) Starter 829 10.2.2 Stator Resistance (or Reactance)
Starter 831 10.2.3 Star-Delta Starter 832 10.2.4 Auto-transformer Starter 834
10.3 Rotor Resistance Starter for Slip Ring Induction Motors 836 Section Practice Problems
844 10.4 Speed Control of Induction Motors 844
Contents xix

10.5 Speed Control by Changing the Slip 845 10.5.1 Speed Control by Changing the Rotor
Circuit Resistance 845 10.5.2 Speed Control by Controlling the Supply Voltage 846
10.5.3 Speed Control by Injecting Voltage in the Rotor Circuit 847
10.6 Speed Control by Changing the Supply Frequency 847 10.7 Speed Control by Changing
the Poles 847 10.8 Speed Control by Cascade Method 848 10.9 Speed Control by Injecting
an emf in the Rotor Circuit 850
10.9.1 Kramer System of Speed Control 851 10.9.2 Scherbius System of Speed Control 851
Section Practice Problems 854 Review Questions 854 Multiple Choice Questions 855

11. Single-Phase Motors 857 Introduction 857 11.1 Classification of Single-phase Motors 857
11.2 Single-phase Induction Motors 858 11.3 Nature of Field Produced in Single Phase
Induction Motors 859 11.4 Torque Produced by Single-phase Induction Motor 860 11.5
Equivalent Circuit of Single-phase Induction Motor 861 11.6 Rotating Magnetic Field from
Two-phase Supply 866 11.7 Methods to make Single-phase Induction Motor Self-starting
870 11.8 Split Phase Motors 871 11.9 Capacitor Motors 875 Section Practice Problems 878
11.10 Shaded Pole Motor 879 11.11 Reluctance Start Motor 880 11.12 Single-phase
Synchronous Motors 881 11.13 Reluctance Motors 882 11.14 Hysteresis Motors 884 11.15
AC Series Motor or Commutator Motor 885 11.16 Universal Motor 886 11.17 Comparison
of Single-phase Motors 888 11.18 Trouble Shooting in Motors 889 Section Practice
Problems 890 Review Questions 891 Multiple Choice Questions 892

12. Special Purpose Machines 893 Introduction 893 12.1 Feedback Control System 893 12.2
Servomechanism 894
xx Contents

12.3 Servomotors 894 12.4 DC Servomotors 895 12.4.1 Field-controlled DC Servomotors

895 12.4.2 Armature-controlled DC Servomotors 895 12.4.3 Series Split-field DC
Servomotors 896 12.4.4 Permanent-magnet Armature-controlled DC Servomotor 896 12.5
AC Servomotors 897 12.6 Schrage motor 898 Section Practice Problems 903 12.7 Brushless
Synchronous Generator 903 12.7.1 Brushless DC Generator 905 12.8 Brushless Synchronous
Motor 905 12.9 Three-brush (or Third-brush) Generator 906 12.10 Brushless DC Motors 907
12.11 Stepper Motors 908 12.11.1 Permanent-magnet (PM) Stepper Motor 909 12.11.2
Variable-reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor 912 Section Practice Problems 913 12.12 Switched
 Reluctance Motor (SRM) 914 12.13 Linear Induction Motor (LIM) 915 12.14 Permanent
Magnet DC Motors 917 12.15 Induction Generator 920 12.16 Submersible Pumps and
Motors 922 12.17 Energy Efficient Motors 926 Section Practice Problems 929 Review
Questions 929 Multiple Choice Questions 930

Open Book Questions 933 Index 949

Preface

This book on ‘Electrical Machines’ has been written for under-graduate students of Electrical
Engineering (EE) and Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE) belonging to various Indian and
Foreign Universities. It will also be useful to candidates appearing for AMIE, IETE, GATE, UPSC
Engineering Services and Civil Services Entrance Examinations.
We know that electrical energy has a wide range of applications where electrical machines play
a vital role in industrial production and many other areas of science and technology. Accordingly,
this book has been designed so that it be useful not only to students pursuing courses in electrical
engineering but also for practising engineers and technicians.
‘Electrical Machines’ is taught at various universities under different titles such as Electrical
Machines-I, Electrical Machines-II, DC Machines and Transformers, Electromagnetic Energy
Conversion Devices, Special Purpose Machines, etc. All the topics in such courses have been
covered in this single unit. As such, the book covers the revised syllabi of all Indian and Foreign
Universities.
Generally, students find Electrical Machines to be one of the most difficult subjects to
understand, despite the availability of a large number of text books in this field. Keeping this fact
in mind, this text has been developed in a systematic manner giving more emphasis on basic
concepts.
Each chapter of the book contains much needed text, supported by neat and self-explanatory
diagrams to make the subject self-speaking to a great extent. A large number of solved and
unsolved examples have been added in various chapters to enable students to attempt different
types of questions in examination without any difficulty. Section Practice Problems have been
added in all the chapters to maintain regular study and understanding. At the end of each chapter
sufficient objective type questions, short-answer questions, test questions and unsolved examples
have been added to make the book a complete and comprehensive unit in all respects.
The author lays no claim to original research in preparing the text. Materials available in the
research work of eminent authors have been used liberally. But the author claims that he has
organised the subject matter in very systematic manner. He also claims that the language of the
text is lucid, direct and easy to understand.
Although every care has been taken to eliminate errors, however it is very difficult to claim
perfection. I hope this book will be useful to its users (students, teachers and professionals). I shall
be very grateful to the readers (students and teachers) and users of this book if they point out any
mistake that might have crept in. Suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly
appreciated.

Acknowledgements
There are several people to whom I would like to express my sincere thanks. First of all, I would
like to thank Mr Ashok Mittal (Hon’ble Chancellor), Mrs Rashmi Mittal (Hon’ble Pro-chancellor),
Mr H. R. Singla (Director General) of Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, who have inspired
me to develop the text in the shape of a book. I would also like to thank Dr Lovi Raj Gupta,
Executive Dean, (LFTS) of Lovely Professional University, who has encouraged and helped me in
preparing the text.
Secondly, I would like to thank the entire executive staff, faculty and students of Lovely
Professional University and Punjab Technical University for their support, collaboration and
friendship. I would like to thank all my friends, particularly Dr Manjo Kumar, Principal, DAV
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar; Dr Sudhir Sharma, HOD, Electrical, DAV
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar; Mr D. S. Rana, HOD, Electrical who have
been involved, either directly or indirectly, in the successful completion of this book.
I owe my family members, relatives, friends and colleagues (Professor Bhupinder Verma, Mr R.
K. Sharma, Mr Satnam Singh, Mr Amit Dhir and Ms Meenakshi Gupta) a special word of thanks
for their moral support and encouragement.
I express my gratitude to the Publisher ‘Cambridge University Press’ and its Associate
Commissioning Editor Ms Rachna Sehgal for guidance and support in bringing out the text in the
shape of a book.
Electro Magnetic Circuits 1

CHAPT

ER

What is a magnetic circuit?

Electro
What are the important terms related to
magnetism and magnetic circuits? What are
the similarities and dissimilarities between

Magnetic magnetic and electric circuits? How series

and parallel magnetic circuits are treated?
What is leakage flux and how it affects

Circuits magnetic circuits?

What is magnetic hysteresis and hysteresis
loss?
What is electromagnetic induction
phenomenon?
What are Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction?
What are self- and mutual inductances and
what is their significance?
Chapter Objectives
After the completion of this unit,
students/readers will be able to understand:
What is magnetic field and its significance?
1

What is the effective value of inductances when these are connected in series–parallel
combination? What are electromechanical energy conversion devices?
How does torque develop by the alignment of two fields?
What are the factors on which torque depends?
How to determine the direction of torque or induced emf in rotating machines?

Introduction
It is always advantageous to utilise electrical energy since it is cheaper, can be easily transmitted,
easy to control and more efficient. The electrical energy is generally generated from natural
resources such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic energy, etc. From these sources, first
mechanical energy is produced by one way or the other and then that mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy by suitable machines. For the utilisation of electrical energy, it is
again converted into other forms of energy such as mechanical, heat, light etc. It is a well-known
fact that the electric drives have been universally adopted by the industry due to their inherent
advantages. The energy conversion devices are always required at both ends of a typical electrical
system. The devices or machines which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and
vice-versa are called electro–mechanical energy conversion devices.
2 Electrical Machines

The operation of all the electrical machines such as DC machines, transformers, synchronous
machines, induction motors, etc., rely upon their magnetic circuits. The closed path followed by the
magnetic lines of force is called a magnetic circuit. The operation of all the electrical devices (e.g.,
transformers, generators, motors, etc.) depends upon the magnetism produced by their magnetic
circuits. Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of these devices, their magnetic circuits
have to be designed carefully.
In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the basic fundamentals of magnetic circuits and
their applications as electromechanical energy conversion devices.

1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance

The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or repulsion is called
magnetic field.
The existence of the magnetic field at a point around the magnet can also be determined by
placing a magnetic needle at that point as shown in Fig. 1.1. Although magnetic lines of force have
no real existence and are purely imaginary, yet their concept is very useful to understand various
magnetic effects. It is assumed (because of their effects) that the magnetic lines of force possess
the following important properties:
(i) The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet. But
inside the magnet their direction is from S-pole to N-pole.
(ii) They form a closed loop.
(iii) Their tendency is to follow the least reluctance path.
(iv) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves.
(v) They never intersect each other.
(vi) They repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction.
(vii) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials.

Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field around a bar magnet

Electro Magnetic Circuits 3

1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (e.g., iron,
soft steel, etc.). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes at the same point after
completing its path.
Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having N turns wound on an iron
core (ring). When current I ampere is passed through the solenoid,
magnetic flux Ι Wb is set-up in the core.
Let l = mean length of magnetic circuit in m;
 a = area of cross-section of core in m2;
μr = relative permeability of core material.
φ 2
Flux density in the core material, B = a Wb/m
Magnetising force in the core material. φ Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit
B
H = a μ μr r
00μμ = AT/m
According to work law, the work done in moving a unit pole once round the magnetic circuit (or
path) is equal to the ampere-turns enclosed by the magnetic circuit.

i.e., Hl = NI or φ ∞ = or Ι = NI
Wb
a μ μl NI 0 r l a r( / μ μ 0)
The above expression reveals that the amount of flux set-up in the core is
(i) directly proportional to N and I i.e., NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf). It shows that the
flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa.
(ii) inversely proportional to l/a μ0 μr called reluctance of the magnetic path. In fact, reluctance is
the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by the magnetic path. The lower is the reluctance,
the higher will be the flux and vice-versa.

Thus, Flux = m.m.f

reluctance
It may be noted that the above expression has a strong resemblance to Ohm’s law for electric
current (I = emf/resistance). The mmf is analogous to emf in electric circuit, reluctance is
analogous to resistance and flux is analogous to current. Because of this similarity, the above
expression is sometimes referred to as Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits.

1.3 Important Terms

While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms:
1. Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion is called magnetic field.
4 Electrical Machines

2. Magnetic flux (Ι): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric current I in electric circuit. 3. The
magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at that point.
φ
It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is Wb/m 2 or Tesla, i.e., B = A Wb m/ 2 or T (1
Wb/m2 = 1 × 104 Wb/cm2) 4. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of
force through it is called the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by μ (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the permeability of a material, the
greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa. The permeability of
air or vacuum is the poorest and is represented as μ0 (where μ0 = 4Σ × 10–7 H/m).
Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability μ of a magnetic material is much
greater than absolute permeability of air μ0. The relative permeability of a magnetic material
 is given in comparison with air or vacuum.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material μ to the permeability of air or vacuum μ0 is called
the relative permeability μr of the material.
μ
i.e., μr = μ0 or μ = μ0 μr
Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be μ0/μ0 = 1. The value of relative permeability of
all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high as 8000 for soft iron,
whereas, its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1,20,000.
5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when placed at a point
in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the field at that point. It is denoted by H. In
magnetic circuits, it is defined as mmf per unit length of the magnetic path. It is denoted by H,
mathematically,
NI
length of magnetic path = AT m l/

H = m.m.f

6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per work law it may be
defined as under:
The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force. In general
mmf = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
It is analogous to emf in an electric circuit.
7. Reluctance (S): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit is called its
reluctance.
It depends upon length (l), area of cross-section (a) and permeability (μ = μ0 μr) of the material
that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb.
Electro Magnetic Circuits 5

Reluctance, S = l
a μ μ0 r
It is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
8. Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the material. It is just
reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in Wb/AT or henry.
a r
reluctance = lμ μ Wb/AT or H

Permeance = 1 0

It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.

9. Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit.

1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Although magnetic and electric circuits have many points of similarity but still they are not
analogous in all respects. A comparison of the two circuits is given below:
 Magnetic Circuits Electrical Circuits

Fig. 1.3 Magnetic circuit Fig. 1.4 Electric circuit

Similarities

1. The closed path for magnetic flux is 1. The closed path for electric current is
called magnetic circuit. called electric circuit.
2. Flux = mmf/reluctance 2. Current = emf/resistance
3. Flux, Ι in Wb 3. Current, I in ampere
4. mmf in AT 4. emf in V
l l 1 l
5. Reluctance, S = al 5. Resistance, R = ρ aΩ or R = σ aΩ
AT/Wb 6. Conductance = 1/resistance
= 7. Conductivity, ς = 1/Υ
a μ μμr 8. Resistivity
0
I 2
6. Permeance = 1/reluctance 9. Current density, J = aA/m
7. Permeability, μ 10. Electric intensity, E = V/d
8. Reluctivity
φ 2
9. Flux density, B = a Wb/m
10. Magnetic intensity, H = NI/l

6 Electrical Machines
Dissimilarities

1. In fact, the magnetic flux does not flow but 1. The electric current (electrons) actually
it sets up in the magnetic circuit flows in an electric circuit.
(basically molecular poles are aligned).
2. For magnetic flux, there is no perfect 2. For electric current, there are large
insulator. It can be set-up even in the number of perfect insulators like glass,
non-magnetic materials like air, rubber, air, rubber, etc., which do not allow it to
glass etc. with reasonable mmf follow through them under normal
3. The reluctance (S) of a magnetic circuit is conditions.
not constant rather it varies with the 3. The resistance (R) of an electric circuit is
value of B. It is because the value of μr almost constant as its value depends
changes considerably with the change in upon the value of Υ which is almost
B. constant. However, the value of Υ and R
may vary slightly if temperature changes.
4. Once the magnetic flux is set-up in a 4. Energy is expanded continuously, so long
magnetic circuit, no energy is expanded. as the current flows through an electric
However, a small amount of energy is circuit. This energy is dissipated in the
 required at the start to create flux in the form of heat.
circuit.

1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations

In a magnetic circuit, flux produced,

reluctance = NI
μμ
Ι = m.m.f.
l a r / μ μ0
φ
or AT required, NI = μμ
l = = Hl
a
B
l
00rr

1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of different dimensions and materials carrying the
same magnetic field is called a series magnetic circuit. Such as series magnetic circuit (composite
circuit) is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Series magnetic circuit

Electro Magnetic Circuits 7

Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

S = S1 + S2 + S3 + Sg
l
l

=l
l
g
3
1
2
 +++
a
a rrr
a a
μμ μμ μμ μ 30 3 0
10 1

Total mmf = ΙS
20 2 l
g
⊇ ˆ
+++ ⊄ℑ ↓˜
l l l g
1 2 3
φ
= μμ μμ μμ μ
a
a rrr
10 1 20 2
30 3 0 g
a a

= Bl Bl B l B l 1 1 g g
22 33
+++
μμ μμ μμ μ 03 0 rr r
01 02

= H1 l1 + H2 l2 + H3 l3 + Hg lg

1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is called a parallel
magnetic circuit. Its behaviour can be just compared to a parallel electric circuit. Figure 1.6 shows
a parallel magnetic circuit. A current carrying coil is wound on the central limb AB. This coil
sets-up a magnetic flux Ι1 in the central limb which is further divided into two paths i.e., (i) path
ADCB which carries flux Ι2 and (ii) path AFEB which carries flux Ι3.

Fig. 1.6 Parallel magnetic circuit

It is clear that Ι1 = Ι2 + Ι3
The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB are in parallel. The ATs required for this parallel
circuit is equal to the ATs required for any one of the paths.
If S1 = reluctance of path BA i.e., l1/a1 μ0 μr1
S2 = reluctance of path ADCB i.e., l2/a2 μ0 μr2
S3 = reluctance of path AFEB i.e., l3/a3 μ0 μr3
 ? Total mmf required = mmf required for path BA + mmf required path ADCB or path AFEB.
i.e., Total mmf or AT = Ι1 S1 + Ι2 S2 = Ι1 S1 + Ι3 S3
8 Electrical Machines air gap is known as leakage co-efficient. It is
generally represented by letter ‘Ο’.
φ
1.8 Leakage Flux ? Leakage co-efficient, Ο = φu

The magnetic flux which does not follow the

intended path in a magnetic circuit is called
leakage flux.
When some current is passed through a
solenoid, as shown in Fig. 1.7, magnetic flux
is produced by it. Most of this flux is set-up
in the magnetic core and passes through the
air gap (an intended path). This flux is known
as useful flux Ιu. However, some of the flux
is just set-up around the coil and is not
utilised for any work. This flux is called
leakage flux Ιl.
Total flux produced by the solenoid.
Ι = Ιu + Ιl
Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The
ratio of total flux (Ι) produced by the
Fig. 1.7 Leakage flux
solenoid to the useful flux (Ιu) set-up in the

Fringing: It may be seen in Fig. 1.7 that the useful flux when sets-up in the air gap, it tends to
bulge outwards at b and bχ since the magnetic lines set-up in the same direction repel each other.
This increases the effective area in the air gap and decreases the flux density. This effect is known
as fringing. The fringing is directly proportional to the length of the air gap.

Example 1.1
An iron ring of 400 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-section 20 cm2. Its
permeability is 500. If it is wound with 400 turns, what current would be required to produce a flux
of 0·001 Wb?

Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Mean length of magnetic path, lm = 400 cm = 4 m
Area of X-section of iron ring, a = 20 × 10–4 m2
Absolute permeability, μ0 = 4π × 10–7
Now mmf = flux × reluctance
l
NI = Ι × m

a μ μ0 r circuit
Fig. 1.8 Magnetic
400 × I = 0·001 × 4
20 10 4 10 500 4 7 ∞ ∞∞ ∞ − − π

? Current, I = 0 001 4
.∞
∞ ∞∞ ∞ ∞ − − π = 7·958 (Ans.)
20 10 4 10 500 400 4 7
Electro Magnetic Circuits 9

Example 1.2
An electromagnet has an air gap of 4 mm and flux density in the gap is 1·3 Wb/m 2. Determine the
ampere-turns for the gap.

Solution:
Here, lg = 4mm = 0·4 cm = 4 × 10–3 m; Bg = 1·3 Wb/m 2
Ampere-turns required for the gap
Bg g
= Hg × Ig = l μ0∞ = 1 3
◊3
–
= 4136·83 AT (Ans.)

Example 1.3

4 104 10 7

∞∞ ∞
π–

A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of

resistance 4 : is closely wound on iron ring.
The ring has a mean diameter of 0·25 m and a
uniform cross-sectional area of 700 mm2.
Calculate the total flux in the ring when a DC s
supply of 6V is applied to the ends of the Resistance of coil
winding. Assume a relative permeability of 6
550. = 5 = ◊ 1 5A

Solution:
Mean length of iron ring, l = Σ D = Σ × 0·25 =
0·25 Σ m
Area of cross-section, Δ = 700 mm2 = 700 ×
10–6 m2 Current flowing through the coil,

I = Voltage applied acros coil

 Fig. 1.9 Magnetic circuit

=∞
0

r
the ring, Ι = N
Ila
/μμ
0
NI a
lr
Total flux in μ μ

67
∞◊ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
−−
π

= 500 1 5 700 10 4 10 550

π = 0·462 mWb (Ans.) 0 25 ◊

Example 1.4

What are the similarities between electrical circuits and magnetic circuits? An iron ring of mean
length 50 cm and relative permeability 300 has an air gap of 1 mm. If the ring is provided with
winding of 200 turns and a current of 1 A is allowed to flow through, find the flux density across
the airgap.

Solution:
Here, li = 50 cm = 0·5 m; μr = 300; lg = 1mm = 0·001 m; N = 200 turns; I = 1 A
B g
Ampere-turns required for air gap = l μ0
10 Electrical Machines

B
Ampere-turns required for iron ring = l
i
r μμ0
 B B g i
or Total ampere-turns required = l l r μ μμ 0 0
+ ...(i)

Ampere-turns provided by the coil = N I = 200 × 1 = 200 ...(ii) Equating eqn. (i) and (ii), we
get,
B
or 200 = ll
⊇ ˆ B
+ ⊄ℑ ↓˜ = μ00 01 0 5
.+
gi
300 . ()
μ μ 0r

B B
= μ0(0 001 0 00167 ◊ +◊ ) = μ0∞ ◊ 0 00267
μ –
π = 0·09425 T (Ans.)
or Flux density, B = 200
0∞
7

◊ = ∞ ∞ 200 4 10

Example 1.5 0 00267 ◊

0 00267

A coil of 1000 turns is wound on a laminated core of steel having a cross-section of 5 cm2. The
core has an air gap of 2 mm cut at right angle. What value of current is required to have an air gap
flux density of 0·5 T? Permeability of steel may be taken as infinity. Determine the coil inductance.

Solution:
Here, N = 1000 turns; a = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10–4 m2;

lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m; B = 0·5 T; μr = φ
Total ampere-turns required,

B B g i
AT = l l r μ μμ 0 0 π 7
◊ −
+ = 2 10 0 ∞∞∞ + − = 796
053
4 10
B ⊇ ˆ
=• ∞ = l ⊄ℑ ↓˜ ;00
As μ AT
μ μ r r i Current required, I = I = 796

1000 = 0·796 A (Ans.)

φ ∞∞ −
= = ∞◊∞∞ 1000 0 5 5 10 4

N
Inductance of coil, L = INBa I
= 0·314 H (Ans.) Example 1.6

0 796 .

A flux density of 1·2 Wb/m2 is required in 2 mm air gap of an electro-magnet having an iron path 1
metre long. Calculate the magnetising force and current required if the electro magnet has 1273
turns. Assume relative permeability of iron to be 1500.

Solution:
Flux density, B = 1·2 Wb/m 2
Electro Magnetic Circuits 11

Relative permeability of iron, μr = 1500

No. of turns, N = 1273
Length of iron path, li = 1m
Length of air gap, lg = 2mm = 0·002 m

Magnetising force for iron Hi = B

μ μ0 r = 1 2
◊
∞ ∞ − π = 636·6 AT/m
4 10 1500 7
B
Magnetising force for air gap, Hg = μ0 = 1 2
◊
∞ − π = 954900 AT/m
4 10 7
ATs required for iron path = Hili = 636·6 × 1 = 636·6
ATs required for air gap = Hglg = 954900 × 0·002 = 1909·8
Total ampere-turns = 636·6 + 1909·8 = 2546·4

N = 2546 4◊

Current required, I = Total ATs 1273 = 2A (Ans.)

Example 1.7

Estimate the number of ampere-turns necessary to produce a flux of 100000 lines round an iron
ring of 6 cm2 cross section and 20 cm mean diameter having an air gap 2 mm wide across it
Permeability of the iron may be taken 1200. Neglect the leakage flux outside the 2 mm air gap.

Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.10
Area of cross section of the ring, a = 6 cm2 = 6 × 10–4 m2
Mean diameter of the ring, Dm = 20 cm = 0·2 m
Length of air gap, lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m
Flux set up in the ring, Ι = 100,000 lines
= 100,000 × 10–8
= 0·001 Wb
Now, mmf = flux × reluctance
Relative permeability of iron, μr = 1200
Ampere-turns required for iron path,
Mean length of ring, lm = πD = π × 0·2 =
0·6283 m l

Length of air gap, lg = 0·002 m ∞ =◊ ∞ ◊

Length of iron path, li = 0·6283 – 0·002 = Fig. 1.10 Magnetic circuit
0·6263 m

0r470 001 0 6263

i
=φμμ
ATi π
a 6 10 4 10 1200 – – ∞ ∞∞ ∞
= 692·21 AT
12 Electrical Machines

Ampere-turns required for air gap,

l

04 7 0 001 0 002

∞ =◊ ∞ ◊
g
φμ
ATg = π

6 10 4 10 = 2652·58 AT
a
∞ ∞∞ − −
Total ampere-turns required to produce the given flux
= ATi + ATg = 692·21 + 2652·58 = 3344·79 AT (Ans.)

Example 1.8
A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a circular shape as given in Fig.
0.11. It is then wound with 500 turns of wire. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0·5
mWb in magnetic circuit with an air gap of 1 mm; ur (iron) = 4000 (assume constant).
Solution:
Here, Ii = 30 cm = 0·3 m;
Diameter, d = 2 cm
2

4 ( ) ∞ – m2
π 2 π2
? Area, a = 4 d = 4 10
= π × 10–4 m2

Ι = 0·5 mWb = 0·5 × 10–3 Wb

∪
N = 500 turns φ
N I = a μμ μ
Fig. 1.11 Magnetic circuit
lli
˘
∈⊆ ˚˙
g

+
00
r

˘
∈⊆ ˚˙
∞ ∪ 3
I = 0 5 10 ◊
− ◊
3 ∞ ∞+ ∞ 0

◊ 0 001
−− −
ππ π = 4·433 A (Ans.)
500 10 47 7

∞∞ 4 10
Example 1.9 4 10 400

A circular ring 20 cm in diameter has an air gap 1 mm wide cut in it. The area of a cross-section
of the ring is 3·6 cm2. Calculate the value of direct current needed in a coil of 1000 turns uniformly
wound round the ring to create a flux of 0·5 mWb in the air gap. Neglect fringing and assume
relative permeability for the iron as 650.

Solution:
Here, Area of cross-section of the ring, a = 3·6 cm2 = 3·6 × 10–4 m2

No. of turns of the coil, N = 1000

Flux set-up, Ι = 0·5 m Wb = 0·5 × 10 –3 Wb

Relative permeability of iron, μr = 650

Length of air gap, lg = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Electro Magnetic Circuits 13
 Mean diameter of ring = 20 cm = 20 × 10–2 m

? Length of iron path li = ΣD = Σ × 20 × 10–2 m = 62·83 × 10–4 m Reluctance of

l
iron path = a
i
μ μ0 r
−
2

= 62 83 10 ◊ ∞

−−
π = 213669 AT/Wb.
74
4 10 650 3 6 10
∞ ∞ ∞◊∞
? AT required for iron path = 0·5 × 10–3 × 213669 = 1068·3 AT
l g 3
1 10
air gap = a −
Reluctance of
4 10 3 6 10 = ∞
∞ ∞◊∞
μ0 π
− − = 2210485 AT/Wb 7 4

? AT required for air gap = 0·5 × 10–3 × 2210485 = 1105·2 AT ? Total AT = (AT) i +

(AT)gap = 1068·3 + 1105·2 = 2173·5 AT N = 2173 5◊

? Current I = Total AT Example 1.10 1000 = 2·1735 A (Ans.)

A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability 900 having a
mean diameter of 20 cm. The steel ring is made of bar having circular cross-section of diameter 2
cm. If the coil has a resistance of 50 ohm and is connected to 250 V DC supply, calculate (i) the
mmf of the coil, (ii) the field intensity in the ring, (iii) reluctance of the magnetic path, (iv) total flux
and (v) permeance of the ring.

Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.12.

V
Current through the coil, I = R = 250

50 = 5 A
(i) mmf of the coil = NI = 300 × 5 = 1500 AT (Ans.)
NI
(ii) Field intensity H = l
where, l = π D = 0·2 Σ metre
? + = 1500

0 2◊ π = 2387·3 AT/m (Ans.)

∞ ◊ ( ) = π × 10–4 m2; μr = 900
(iii) Reluctance of the magnetic path, S = 1 0 Fig. 1.12 Magnetic circuit
aμ μr
π 2 π 2
where, a = 4 d = 4 0 02

? S = 0·2π/π × 10–4 × 4π × 10–7 × 900 = 17·684 × 105 AT/Wb (Ans.)

14 Electrical Machines 1500

(iv) Total flux,

Ι = m.m.f.
=
S װ
5
17 684 10 = 0·848 m Wb (Ans.)
(v) Permeance = 1/S = 1/17·684 × 105 = 5·655 × 10–7 Wb/AT (Ans.)

Example 1.11
Calculate the relative permeability of an iron ring when the exciting current taken by the 600 turn
coil is 1.2 A and the total flux produced is 1 m Wb. The mean circumference of the ring is 0·5 m and
the area of cross-section is 10 cm2.

Solution:
φ
NI = μ μ
∞l
a 0r
φ
? μr = μ∞ l
a NI 0
where N = 600 turns; I = 1·2 A; Ι = 1 m Wb = 1 × 10 –3 Wb; l = 0·5 m; a = 10 cm2 = 10 × 10–4 m2
3
−

? μr = 1 10 0 5
∞ ∞◊
−−
π= 552·6 (Ans.)
47
10 10 4 10 600 1 2
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞◊
Example 1.12
An iron ring of mean length 1 m has an air gap of 1 mm and a winding of 200 turns. If the relative
permeability of iron is 500 when a current of 1 A flows through the coil, find the flux density.

Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.13.
Now, mmf = flux × reluctance

l
⊇ ˆ
+ ⊄ℑ ↓˜
l g
i
φ
i.e., NI = μμ μ
a 00r

a
li = (1 – 0·001) = 0·999 m
or NI = Bl l i
⊇ ˆ ⊇
+ ⊄ℑ ↓˜
ˆ
g ⊄ℑ ↓˜
μμ μ 0 0
r

where N = 200 turns; I = 1 A; μ r = 500

lg = 1 mm = 0·001 m; Fig. 1.13 Magnetic circuit
0 001

? 200 × 1 = B 0 999
◊
∞ ∞+ ∞
◊
π π ––
4 10 7 7
4 10 500

or B = 200
2
2385 73 ◊ = 0·0838 Wb/m (Ans.)
Electro Magnetic Circuits 15

Example 1.13
A rectangular magnetic core shown in Fig. 1.14 (a). has square cross-section of area 16 cm2. An
air-gap of 2 mm is cut across one of its limbs. Find the exciting current needed in the coil having
1000 turns wound on the core to create an air-gap flux of 4 m Wb. The relative permeability of the
core is 2000.
 Fig. 1.14 Magnetic circuit

Solution:
Here, Area of x-section, a = 16 cm2 = 16 × 10–4 m2; lg = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m No. of turns, N =
1000; Flux, Ι = 4 m Wb = 4 × 10 –3 Wb; μr = 2000
−
3
φ
Flux density required, B = a = 4 10
∞ 16 = 4 cm
16 10
− = 2·5 T 4
∞
Each side of the cross-section =

4 −∞ + −∞ 2 02
4
Length of iron-path, li = 25 2 2 20 2 2 ( )∞
−◊
= 73·8 cm = 0·738 m

B B g i
Total ampere-turns required = l l r μ μμ 0 0
+

−
3

= 2 5 2 10 ◊∞∞

∞+ ◊∞◊
2 5 0 738
−−
ππ
4 10 ∞∞
77
4 10 2000
= 3979 + 734 = 4713

Exciting current required, I = Total ampere - turns

N = 4713
 1000 = 4·713 A (Ans.)
Example 1.14
An iron ring of 10 cm2 area has a mean circumference of 100 cm. If has a saw cut of 0·2 cm wide.
A flux of one mWb is required in the air gap. The leakage factor is 1.2. The flux density of iron for
relative permeability 400 is 1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required.
16 Electrical Machines

Solution:
g
Flux density in air gap, Bg = φ a = 1 10
−
3
∞ Wb/m2 4
10 10 ∞

−= 1

Flux in iron ring, Ιi = Ο × Ιg (where Ο is leakage factor)

= 1.2 × 1 × 10–3 = 1.2 × 10–3 Wb

φ ◊∞ −
Flux density in iron ring, B = a = ∞ 3

1 2 10 Wb/m2
4 = 1·2
10 10 −

B B
Total ampere-turn required = Hg lg + Hi li = l l ggir i μ μμ 0 0
+

=1

4 100 2 10 1 2

4 10 4001 7 π π ∞∞◊∞ + ◊
27

−
∞ ∞∞ −−

= 3978·87 (Ans.)

Example 1.15
A steel ring 10 cm mean radius and of circular cross-section 1 cm in radius has an air gap of 1 mm
length. It is wound uniformly with 500 turns of wire carrying current of 3 A. Neglect magnetic
leakage. The air gap takes 60% of the total mmf Find the total reluctance.

Solution:
Total mmf = NI = 500 × 3 = 1500 ATs

Mmf for air gap = 60% of total mmf = 0·6 × 1500 = 900 ATs

l
Reluctance of air gap, Sg = agμ0
where, lg = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m; a = π × (0·01)2 = π × 10–4 m2;
−
3
8

? Sg = 1 10 ∞

−−
π π = 10
47
4 Flux in the air gap, Ιg = M.M.F.
∞ ∞∞ of iron
2
10 4 10 π ATs/Wb

reluctance =∞= ∞ Wb 900 −

2 26
104 36 10 8 π π
Mmf for iron = Total mmf – air mmf = 1500 – 900 = 600 ATs

Flux in the iron ring, Ιi = Ιg = 36 Σ2 × 10–6 Wb

(since there is no magnetic leakage)
8
M.M.F. of iron AT / Wb =
Reluctance of iron ring, Si = φi π π ∞=−
600 10
6 26
2
36 10
Electro Magnetic Circuits 17 8

8
8

Total reluctance, S = Sg + Si = 10 10

10 1 1
+= +
()
2
π ππ 4 6
4 2 2
6

= 4·22 × 106 ATs/Wb (Ans.)

Example 1.16
Determine magnetomotive force, magnetic flux, reluctance and flux density in case of a steel ring
30 cm mean diameter and a circular cross-section 2 cm in diameter has an air gap 1 mm long. It is
wound uniformly with 600 turns of wire carrying a current of 2.5 A. Neglect magnetic leakage. The
iron path takes 40% of the total magnetomotive force.

Solution:
Mmf of the magnetic circuit = NI = 600 × 2·5 = 1500 ATs (Ans.)
 As iron path takes 40% of the total mmf, the reluctance of iron in 40% and the rest of the
reluctance (60%) is of air path.
S a 60 3
? S i= = 40 2 = 1·5
l
Reluctance of air path, Sa = aaμ0
π
where la = 1 × 10–3 m; a = 4 (2)2 × 10–4 = π × 10–4 m2;
−
4

? Sa = 1 10 ∞

−− 6
π π = 2·533 × 10 ATs/Wb
47
∞ ∞∞
10 4 10
6
װ
Reluctance of iron path, Si = Sa

1 5◊ = 2 533 10
6
◊ = 1·688 × 10 ATs/Wb
15

Total reluctance = Sa + Si = (2·533 + 1·688) × 106 ATs/Wb = 4·221 × 106 ATs/Wb

(Ans.)
m.m.f.
Magnetic flux, Ι = 1500
=
reluctance װ
6
4 221 10 = 0·3554 m Wb (Ans.)
−
3
φ
Flux density, B = a = 0 3554 10 ◊

− 2
π = 1·131 Wb/m (Ans.)
e 1.17 4
∞
Exampl 10

An iron ring is made up of three parts; l1 = 10 cm, a1 = 5 cm2; l2 = 8 cm, a2 = 3 cm2; l3 = 6 cm, a3 =
2·5 cm2. It is wound with a 250 turns coil. Calculate current required to produce flux of 0·4 mWb.
Π1 = 2670, Π2 = 1050, Π3 = 600.
18 Electrical Machines
Solution:
φ
Flux density B1 = a13
0 4 10 −
−
5 10 = ◊ 4

∞
∞ = 0·8
Wb/m2 −
φ
B2 = a23 0 4 10

Wb/m2
3 10 = ◊
∞ 4

−
∞
−
= 1·33
φ
B3 = a334 0 4 10

2 5 10 = ◊ ∞
−
װ Fig. 1.15 Series magnetic circuit as per data
2
= 1·6 Wb/m

Total Ampere-turns required

B B B 1
AT = l l l
0 223

0 112
++
3
0 3 μμ μμ μμ

1050 0 08 1 6
=1 2670 0 10 1 33
7 ◊ ◊ ◊ ∪ −
600 0 06 π ∞ ∞◊ + ∞◊ + ∞ ◊ ∈⊆ ˘ ˚˙
08
4 10
= 231·92

Current required to produce given flux,

231 92 ◊
N= 250 = 0·928 A (Ans.)

I = AT
Example 1.18
The ring shaped core shown in Fig. 1.16 is made of a material having a relative permeability of
1000. The flux density in the smallest area of cross-section is 2 T. If the current through the coil is
not to exceed 1·5 A, compute the number of turns of the coil.

Fig. 1.16 Series magnetic circuit as per data

Electro Magnetic Circuits 19

Solution:
Flux in the core, Ι = B × A = 2 × 2 × 10–4 = 4 × 10–4 Wb

Total reluctance of the magnetic path,

S = S1 + S2 + S3
l

=l
l
3
1
2
++
a
a rrr a

μμ μμ μμ 3 0
10 20l

l l
⊇ ˆ
=1 + + ⊄ℑ ↓˜
1 2 3
a a a
μ μr 3
0 1 2

ˆ − −−−
⊄ℑ ↓ ˜
⊇ 01 02
=1 0 15
◊ ◊
∞+ ∞+ ∞
◊
 2 10 7 444 π ∞ ∞
4 10 1000 4 10 3 10
= 13·926 × 105 AT/Wb Solution:
Total mmf required, NI = Ι S

or N × 1·5 = 4 × 10–4 × 13·926 × 105 ? No. of

turns, N = 371·36 (Ans.)

Example 1.19
The magnetic frame shown in Fig. 1.17 is
built-up of iron of square cross-section, 3 cm
side. Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the
coil is wound with 1000 turns and the
exciting current is 1·0 A. The relative
permeability of part A and part B may be
taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively.
Calculate, (i) reluctance of part A; (ii)
reluctance of part B; (iii) reluctance of two
air gaps; (iv) total reluctance of the
Fig. 1.17 Series magnetic circuit
complete magnetic circuit; (v) mmf produced
and (vi) flux set-up in the circuit.

(i) Reluctance of path A, SA = l A

a
μ μ0 rA
where, lA = 20 – (1·5 + 1·5) + (1·5 + 1·5) = 20 cm = 0·2 m
a = 3 × 3 = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10–4 m2; μrA = 1000;

? SA = 0 2
◊
∞ ∞∞ ∞ − − π = 176839 AT/Wb (Ans.)
9 10 4 10 1000 4 7

(ii) Reluctance of path B, SB = l B

a
μ μ0 rB
20 Electrical Machines

where, lB = (20 – 1·5 – 1·5) + 2 (10 – 1·5) = 34 cm = 0·34 m; μrB = 1200 SB

= 0 34
◊
∞ ∞∞ ∞ − − π = 250521 AT/Wb (Ans.)
9 10 4 10 1200 4 7
 l
(iii) Reluctance of two air gaps, Sg = agμ0
where, lg = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 4 × 10–3 m
? Sg = 4 × 10–3/9 × 10–4 × 4π × 10–7 = 3536776 AT/Wb (Ans.) (iv) Total reluctance of the
composite magnetic circuit,
S = SA + SB + Sg = 176839 + 250521 + 3536776 = 3964136 AT/Wb (Ans.)
(v) Total mmf = NI = (2 × 1000) × 1 = 2000 AT (Ans.)

reluctance = 2000
(vi) Flux set-up in the circuit, Ι = m.m.f.
3964136 = 0·5045 m Wb (Ans.)

Example 1.20

A magnetic core made of annealed sheet steel has the dimensions as shown in Fig. 1.18. The cross
section everywhere is 25 cm2. The flux in branches A and B is 3500 m Wb, but that in the branch C
is zero. Find the required ampere-turns for coil A and for coil C. Relative permeability of sheet
steel is 1000.

Fig. 1.18 Given parallel magnetic circuit Fig. 1.19 Flux distribution in the parallel magnetic circuit

Solution:
The given magnetic circuit is a parallel circuit. To determine the ATs for coil ‘A’, the flux
distribution is shown in Fig. 1.19.
Since path ‘B’ and ‘C’ are in parallel with each other w.r.t. path ‘A’,
? mmf for path ‘B’ = mmf for path C,

i.e., Ι1 S1 = Ι2 S2
62
i.e., 3500 10 30 10
∞ ∞∞ − −
φ 2
aμ μr = μ μ 2
80 10 −
∞∞
ar
0 0

? Ι2 = 1312·5 × 10–6 Wb
Electro Magnetic Circuits 21

Total flux in the path ‘A’, Ι = Ι1 + Ι2

 = (3500 + 1312·5) × 10–6 = 4812·5 × 10–6 Wb

Actual (resultant) flux in path ‘A’ = Ι – Ι2 = 3500 × 10–6 Wb

? ATs required for coil ‘A’ = ATs for path ‘ A’ + ATs for path ‘B’ or ‘C’ ∞ ∞ ∞∞( ◊+◊ )

= 3500 10 ∞

4 10 1000 25 1008 03
−−
π
74

= 1225·5 (Ans.)

To neutralise the flux in section ‘C’, the coil produces flux of 1312·5 μ Wb in opposite direction.

? ATs required for coil ‘C’ = ATs for path ‘ C’ only

− 6

= 1312 5 10 0 8
◊∞ ∞◊
−−
π = 334·22 (Ans.)
74
4 10 1000 25 10
∞ ∞ ∞∞

1.9 Magnetisation or B-H Curve

The graph plotted between flux density B and magnetising force H of a material is called the
magnetisation or B–H Curve of that material.
The general shape of the B–H Curve of a magnetic material is shown in Fig. 1.20. The shape of
the curve is non-linear This indicates that the relative permeability (μr = B/μ0 H) of a magnetic
material is not constant but it varies. The value of μr largely depends upon the value of flux density.
Its shape is shown in Fig. 1.21 (for cast steel).
 Fig. 1.20 B-H curve of a magnetic material Fig. 1.21 μr-B curve

The B–H curves of some of the common magnetic materials are shown in Fig. 1.22. The B–H
curve for a non-magnetic material is shown in Fig. 1.23. It is a straight line curve since B = Π0 H
or B ϖ H as the value of Π0 is constant.
22 Electrical Machines

Fig. 1.22 B-H curve for different magnetic materials Fig. 1.23 B-H curve for a non-magnetic materials

1.10 Magnetic Hysteresis

When a magnetic material is magnetised first in one direction and then in the other (i.e., one cycle
of magnetisation), it is found that flux density B in the material lags behind the applied magnetising
force H. This phenomenon is known as magnetic hysteresis.
Hence, the phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the magnetising force H in a magnetic
material is called magnetic hysteresis.
‘Hysteresis’ is the term derived from the Greek word hysterein meaning to lag behind. To
understand the complete phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis, consider a ring of magnetic material
on which a solenoid is wound uniformly as shown in Fig. 1.24. The solenoid in connected to a DC
source through a double pole double throw reversible switch (position ‘1’).
Fig. 1.24 Circuit to trace hysteresis loop Fig. 1.25 Hysteresis loop
Electro Magnetic Circuits 23

When the field intensity H is increased gradually by increasing current in the solenoid (by
decreasing the value of R), the flux density B also increases until saturation point a is reached and
curve so obtained is oa. If now the magnetising force is gradually reduced to zero by decreasing
current in the solenoid to zero. The flux density does not become zero and the curve so obtained is
ab as shown in Fig. 1.25. When magnetising force H is zero, the flux density still has value ob.

Residual Magnetism and Retentivity

This value of flux density ‘ob’ retained by the magnetic material is called residual magnetism and
the power of retaining this residual magnetism is called retentivity of the material. To demagnetise
the magnetic ring, the magnetising force H is reversed by reversing the direction of flow of current
in the solenoid. This is achieved by changing the position of double pole, double throw switch
(i.e., position ‘2’). When H is increased in reverse direction, the flux density starts decreasing and
becomes zero and curve follows the path bc. Thus residual magnetism of the magnetic material is
wiped off by applying magnetising force oc in opposite direction.

Coercive Force
This value of magnetising force oc required to wipe off the residual magnetism is called coercive
force. To complete the loop, the magnetising force H is increased further in reverse direction till
saturation reaches (point ‘d’) and the curve follows the path cd. Again H is reduced to zero and the
curve follows the path de. Where oe represents the residual magnetism. Then H is increased in the
positive direction by changing the position of reversible switch to position ‘1’ and increasing the
flow of current in the solenoid. The curve follows the path of efa and the loop is completed. Again
of is the magnetising force utilised to wipe off the residual magnetism oe.
Hence, cf is the total coercive force required in one cycle of magnetisation to wipe off the
residual magnetism.
Since the meaning of hysteresis is lagging behind, and in this case flux density B always lags
behind the magnetising force, H, therefore, loop (abcdefa) so obtained is called hysteresis loop.
 1.11 Hysteresis Loss
When a magnetising force is applied, the magnetic material is magnetised and the molecular
magnets are lined up in a particular direction.
However, when the magnetising force in a magnetic material is reversed, the internal friction of
the molecular magnets opposes the reversal of magnetism, resulting in hysteresis. To overcome
this internal friction of the molecular magnets (or to wipe off the residual magnetism), a part of the
magnetising force is used. The work done by the magnetising force against this internal friction of
molecular magnets produces heat. This energy, which is wasted in the form of heat due to
hysteresis, is called hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss occurs in all the magnetic parts of electrical machines where there is reversal of
magnetisation. This loss results in wastage of energy in the form of heat. Consequently, it increases
24 Electrical Machines

the temperature of the machine which is undesirable. Therefore, a suitable magnetic material is
selected for the construction of such parts, e.g., silicon steel is most suitable in which hysteresis
loss is minimum.

1.12 Importance of Hysteresis Loop

The shape and size of hysteresis loop of a magnetic material largely depends upon its nature. For a
particular location, the choice of the magnetic material depends upon the shape and size (i.e., area)
of its hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loops of some of the common magnetic materials are shown
in Fig. 1.26.
(i) Hard steel: The hysteresis loop for hard steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (a). This loop has larger
area which indicates that this material will have more hysteresis loss. Therefore, it is never
used for the construction of machine parts. However, its loop shows that the material has high
retentivity and coercivity. Therefore, it is more suitable for making permanent magnets.

Fig. 1.26 Hysteresis loop for different magnetic materials

(ii) Silicon steel: The hysteresis loop for silicon steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (b). This loop has
smallest area which indicates that this material will have small hysteresis loss. Therefore, it is
most suitable for the construction of those parts of electrical machines in which reversal of
magnetisation is very quick e.g., armature of DC machines, transformer core, starter of
induction motors etc.
(iii) Wrought iron: Figure 1.26 (c) shows the hysteresis loop for wrought iron. This loop shows
 that this material has fairly good residual magnetism and coercivity. Therefore, it is best
suited for making cores of electromagnets.

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. An iron ring has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. It is wound
with 500 turns. If the value of relative permeability is 500, find the total flux set-up in the ring.
The coil resistance is 400 Ω and the supply voltage is 200 V. (Ans. 0·08 m Wb)
Electro Magnetic Circuits 25

2. An iron ring of mean diameter 22 cm and cross-section 10 cm2 has an air gap 1 mm wide. The
ring is wound uniformly with 200 turns of wire. The permeability of ring material is 1000. A flux
of 0·16 mWb is required in the gap. What current should be passed through the wire? (Ans.
1·076 A)

3. An iron ring has cross-section 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. An air gap of 0·4 mm has
been made by saw cut across the section. The ring is wound with 200 turns through which a
current of 2 A is passed. If the total flux is 21 × 10–5 weber, find μ for iron assuming no
leakage. (Ans. 2470)

4. An iron ring has a mean circumferential length of 60 cm with an air gap of 1 mm and a uniform
winding of 300 turns. When a current of 1 A flows through the coil, find the flux density. The
relative permeability of iron is 300. Assume μ 0 = 4π × 10–7 H/m. (Ans. 0·1256 T)
5. In the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.27, a coil of 500 turns is wound on the central limb. The
magnetic path from A to B by way of outer limbs have a mean length of 100 cm each and an
effective cross-sectional area of 2·5 cm2. The central limb is 25 cm long and 5 cm2
cross-sectional area. The air gap is 0·8 cm long. Calculate the current flowing through the coil
to produce a flux of 0·3 m Wb in the air gap. The relative permeability of the core material is
800 (neglect leakage and fringing).

Fig. 1.27:

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What is a magnet?

Ans. A substance that attracts pieces of iron is called a magnet.

Q.2. What are permanent and temporary magnets?

Ans. A magnet that retains magnetism permanently is called a permanent magnet. Whereas a
magnet in which magnetism remains temporarily is called a temporary magnet. A wire
wound soft iron piece becomes a temporary magnet when a DC is passed through the wire.

Q.3. What are magnetic poles?

 Ans. The ends of a magnet from where the magnetic lines of force appear to emit or enter are
called magnetic poles, these are identified as north and south poles respectively.

Q.4. What do you understand by magnetic field?

Ans. The space occupied by the magnetic lines of force around a magnet is called the magnetic field.

Q.5. What do you mean by magnetic axis?

Ans. Magnetic axis is the imaginary line joining the two poles of a magnet. It is also called as the
magnetic equator.
26 Electrical Machines

Q.6. Define and explain a magnetic circuit.

Ans. A complete closed path followed by a group of magnetic lines force is called a magnetic
circuit. In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves from north pole, passes through the
circuit and returns to the north pole.

Q.7. Mention at least four properties of magnetic lines of force.

Ans. 1. Magnetic lines always emanate from north pole and terminate at south pole outside the
magnet whereas they are set-up from south to north pole inside the magnet.
2. The magnetic lines of force do not intersect each other.
3. The magnetic lines of force set-up in one direction have a repulsive force between them
and therefore do not intersect.
4. The magnetic lines of force always follow the least reluctance path.

Q.8. Explain the term MMF.

Ans. The force which drives the magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit is called the
magnetomotive force. It is produced by passing electric current through wire of number of
turns. It is measured in ampere turns (AT).
MMF in a magnetic circuit can be compared to EMF in an electric circuit. Both are pressure. MMF
is magnetic pressure and EMF is electric pressure.

Q.9. Define relative permeability.

Ans. The relative permeability (μr) of a material (or medium) is defined as the ratio of the flux
density produced in that material or medium to the flux density produced in vacuum by the
same magnetising force.
B
μr = B0
where, B – Flux density in the material or medium in tesla
B0 – Flux density in vacuum
Q.10. Define permeance of magnetic circuit.
Ans. Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is the ease of the magnetic material with which
magnetic flux is set-up in it. It is equivalent to conductance in an electric circuit. Its unit is
weber per ampere turn.

Permeance = 1
Reluctance

μμ
=
a

=1
0
 r
l /μμ0 lr

where, l = length of the magnetic circuit

a – area of cross section of the magnetic circuit Π0 –
absolute permeability of the magnetic circuit. Πr – relative
permeability
Electro Magnetic Circuits 27

Q.11. Give similarities of electric and magnetic circuits.

Ans.
S Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
e.
N
o.

1. The closed path for magnetic flux is The closed path for electric current is
called magnetic circuit. called electric circuit.

2.
Flux (Ι) = MMF Current (I) = emf
Reluctance Resistance

3. MMF (Ampere-turns) emf (volt)

4. l
Reluctance (S) = l Resistance (R) = ρ a
a μ μ0 r

5. Reluctivity Resistivity

6. Permeance Conductance

7. φ 2 I 2
Flux density B = a Wb/m Current density (J) = a ampere/m

8. NI V
Magnetic field intensity H = l AT/m Electric field intensity E = d volt/m

Q.12. What is a composite magnetic circuit?

Ans. A composite magnetic circuit consists of different magnetic materials. The magnetic materials
have different permeabilities and length it may also have an air gap. Each path will have its
own reluctance. Since the materials are in series, the total reluctance is given by the sum of
individual reluctances.

Q.13. State ‘Ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit.

Ans. The ‘ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit is given by

Flux = MMF
NI
Reluctance i.e., Ι = S
The above equation is similar to that of the ohm’s law in electric circuit. Flux is analogous to
current, MMF to EMF and reluctance to resistance in electric circuit.

Q.14. Define leakage factor.

Ans. Leakage factor is defined as the ratio of total flux to the useful flux.

Q.15. Why is it necessary to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible? Ans.
Usually, the ampere-turns (AT) required for the airgap is much greater than that required for the
magnetic circuit. It is because the reluctance of air is very high as compared to that offered by iron.
Therefore, it is always preferred to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible.

Q.16. Why does leakage occur in a magnetic circuit?

Ans. In a parallel magnetic circuit, a large amount of flux follows the intended path. At the same
time a small amount of flux leaks through the surrounding air since air is not a magnetic
insulator. Therefore, leakage of flux takes place easily. The leakage flux is useless, it is
harmful in an electrical machine.
28 Electrical Machines

Q.17. What is magnetic fringing?

Ans. While crossing an air gap the magnetic lines of force tend to bulge out. The reason is that the
magnetic lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material. This
phenomenon is known as fringing.

Q.18. What is hysteresis in a magnetic material?

Ans. The phenomenon due to which magnetic flux density (B) lags behind the magnetic field
intensity (H) in a magnetic material is called magnetic hysteresis.

Q.19. Give the units of MMF, reluctance, flux and give the relation
between them. Ans.

Quantity Unit

MMF Ampere-Turn

Flux Weber

Reluctance AT/weber

Reluctance = MMF
Flux

1.13 Electro Magnetic Induction

The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit (and hence current flows when the circuit
is closed) when magnetic flux linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic induction.
 Fig. 1.28 Electromagnetic induction

For illustration, consider a coil having a large number of turns to which galvanometer is
connected. When a permanent bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil or away from the coil, as
shown in Fig. 1.28 (a), a deflection occurs in the needle of the galvanometer. Although, the
deflection in the needle is opposite is two cases.
On the other hand, if the bar magnet is kept stationary and the coil is brought nearer to the
magnet or away from the magnet, as shown in Fig. 1.28 (b), again a deflection occurs in the needle
of the galvanometer. The deflection in the needle is opposite in the two cases.
However, if the magnet and the coil both are kept stationary, no matter how much flux is linking
with the coil, there is no deflection in the galvanometer needle.
Electro Magnetic Circuits 29

The following points are worth noting:

(i) The deflection in the galvanometer needle shows that emf is induced in the coil. This condition
occurs only when flux linking with the circuit changes i.e., either magnet or coil is in motion. (ii)
The direction of induced emf in the coil depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the
direction of motion of coil.

1.14 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Michael Faraday summed up conclusions of his experiments regarding electro-magnetic induction
into two laws, known as Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the conductor.”
or
“Whenever the magnetic flux linking with any circuit (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in the
circuit.” Figure 1.29 shows a conductor placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet to
which a galvanometer is connected. Whenever, the conductor is moved upward or downward i.e.,
across the field, there is deflection in the galvanometer needle which indicates that an emf is
induced in the conductor. If the conductor is moved along (parallel) the field, there is no deflection
in the needle which indicates that no emf is induced in the conductor.
For the second statement, consider a coil placed near a bar magnet and a galvanometer
connected across the coil, as shown in Fig. 1.30. When the bar magnet (N-pole) is taken nearer to
the coil [see Fig. 1.30 (a)], there is deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. If now the bar
magnet (N-pole) is taken away from the coil [see Fig. 1.30 (b)], again there is deflection in the
needle of galvanometer but in opposite direction. The deflection in the needle of galvanometer
indicates that emf is induced in the coil.
Fig. 1.29 Conductor moving in the field Fig. 1.30 Coil is stationary but bar magnet (field) is
moving
30 Electrical Machines

Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages.

φφ( 21− ) Wb-turns/s

N
Rate of change of flux linkages = t
where, N = No. of turns of the coil; (Ι2 – Ι1) = change of flux in Wb t = time in second for the
change
? According to Faraday’s second law of electro-magnetic induction;

N
Induced emf, e ϖ t
( ) φ φ 21−

N
e= t
−
( ) φ φ 21 (taking proportionality constant, as unity)

d φ
In differential form, e = N dt volt
Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression which indicates that emf is
induced in such a direction which opposes the cause (i.e., change in flux) that produces it
(according to Lenz’s law).
d φ
e = −N dt volt

1.15 Direction of Induced emf

The direction of induced emf and hence current in a conductor or coil can be determined by either
of the following two methods:
 1. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: This rule is applied to determine the direction of induced emf
in a conductor moving across the field and is stated as under;
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand mutually perpendicular to each
other. If first finger indicates the direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction of
motion of conductor then second finger will indicate the direction of induced emf in the
conductor.”
Its illustration is shown in Fig. 1.29.
2. Lenz’s Law: This law is more suitably applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a
coil or circuit when flux linking with it changes. It is stated as under:
“In effect, electro-magnetically induced emf and hence current flows in a coil or circuit in such a
direction that the magnetic field set up by it, always opposes the very cause which produces
it.”
Explanation: When N-pole of a bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, an
emf is induced in the coil and hence current flows through it in such a direction that side ‘B’ of the
coil attains North polarity which opposes the movement of the bar magnet. Whereas, when N-pole
of the bar magnet is taken away from the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, the direction of emf induced
in the
Electro Magnetic Circuits 31

coil is reversed and side ‘B’ of the coil attains South polarity which again opposes the movement
of the bar magnet.

1.16 Induced emf

When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in it. This change in flux
linkages can be obtained in the following two ways:
(i) By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving
the magnetic field system and keeping the conductor stationary, in such a way that conductor
cuts across the magnetic field (as in case of DC and AC generators). The emf induced in this
way is called dynamically induced emf
(ii) By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor) without moving either coil or field
system. However, the change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is
obtained by changing the current in the field system (solenoid), as in transformers. The emf
induced in this way is called statically induced emf

1.17 Dynamically Induced emf

By either moving the conductor keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving the field
system keeping the conductor stationary so that flux is cut by the conductor, the emf thus induced
in the conductor is called dynamically induced emf

Mathematical Expression
Considering a conductor of length l metre placed in the magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m2 is
moving at right angle to the field at a velocity Ξ metre/second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (a). Let the
conductor be moved through a small distance dx metre in time dt second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (b).

Fig. 1.31 Dynamically induced emf

32 Electrical Machines

Area swept by the conductor, A = l × dx

Flux cut by the conductor, Ι = B × A = B l dx
According to Faraday’s Law of electro-magnetic induction;

Induced emf, e = flux cut

φ
time = = dtBl dx

dt = B l Ξ (since dx/dt = Ξ (velocity))

Now, if the conductor is moved at an angle Τ with the direction of magnetic field at a velocity Ξ
metre/second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (d). A small distance covered by the conductor in that direction
is dx in time dt second. Then the component of distance perpendicular to the magnetic field, which
produces emf, is dx sin Τ.
? Area swept by the conductor, A = l × dx sin Τ
Flux cut by the conductor, Ι = B × A = B l dx sin Τ

Bl dx sinθ
Induced emf e = dt = B l Ξ sin Τ
Example 1.21
A coil of 500 turns in linked with a flux of 2 mWb. If this flux is reversed in 4 ms, calculate the
average emf induced in the coil.

Solution:
d
Average induced emf, e = N dtφ
∞
where, N = 500 turns; d Ι = 2 – (– 2) = 4 m Wb; dt = 4 × 103 s; 3 ∞ ∞−− = 500 V (Ans.)

? e = 500 4 10 4 10
Example 1.22
A coil of 250 turns is wound on a magnetic circuit of reluctance 100000 AT/Wb. If a current of 2 A
flowing in the coil is reversed in 5 ms, find the average emf induced in the coil.

Solution:
 Ι = mmf/reluctance i.e., Ι = NI/S

where, N = 250; I = 2A and S = 100000 AT/Wb.

? Ι = 250 2
∞
= 5 m Wb
100000
d
Average induced emf e = N dtφ
∞
where, d Ι = 5 – (– 5) = 10 m Wb (since current is reversed) 3 ∞ ∞−− = 500

V (Ans.)
3

e = 250 10 10 5
10
Electro Magnetic Circuits 33

1.18 Statically Induced emf

When the coil and magnetic field system both are stationary but the magnetic field linking with the
coil changes (by changing the current producing the field), the emf thus induced in the coil is called
statically induced emf
The statically induced emf may be:
(i) Self induced emf (ii) Mutually induced emf
(i) Self induced emf: The emf induced in a coil due to the
change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is
called self induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.32.
The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the
cause which produces it (Lenz’s law) i.e., change of current
in the coil.
Since the rate of change of flux linking with the coil depends
upon the rate of change of current in the coil. Therefore,
the magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional
to the rate of change of current in the coil. Therefore, the
magnitude of self induced emf is directly
or e = L d I
proportional to the rate of change of current d t
dt
in the coil, i.e.,
Fig. 1.32 Flux produced by coil linking with its
own turns
eϖdI

where L is a constant of proportionality and is called self inductance or co-efficient of self

inductance or inductance of the coil.
(ii) Mutually induced emf
The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another (neighbouring) coil,
linking with it is called mutually induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.33.

Fig. 1.33 Flux produced by coil-A linking with coil-B

Since the rate of change of flux linking with coil ‘B’ depends upon the rate of change of current in
coil ‘A’. Therefore, the magnitude of mutually induced emf is directly proportional to the rate
of change of current in coil ‘A’, i.e.,
34 Electrical Machines

dI 1 dI
em ϖ d t or em = M d t1
where M is a constant of proportionality and is called mutual inductance or co-efficient of mutual
inductance.

1.19 Self Inductance

The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through itself is called
self inductance or inductance of the coil.
This property (i.e., inductance) is attained by a coil due to self-induced emf produced in the coil
itself by the changing current flowing through it. If the current in the coil is increasing (by the
change in circuit conditions), the self-induced emf is produced in the coil in such a direction so as
to oppose the rise of current i.e., the direction of self-induced emf is opposite to that of the applied
voltage. On the other hand, if the current in the coil is decreasing, the self-induced emf is produced
in the coil in such direction so as to oppose the fall of current i.e., the direction of self-induced emf
is in the same direction as that of the applied voltage. In fact, self-inductance does not prevent the
change of current but it delays the change of current flowing through a coil.
It may be noted that this property of the coil only opposes the changing current (i.e., alternating
current). However, it does not affect the steady (i.e., direct) current when flows through it. In other
words, the self-inductance of the coil (by virtue of its geometrical and magnetic properties) will
exhibit its presence to the alternating current but it will not exhibit its presence to the direct current.
Expressions for self inductance:

dI dt e L d I

L=e
since =
/dt ()
2
 N
N d dI φ φ ⊇ ˆ
= I e N d t L dt since = = ⊄ℑ ↓˜ = ⊇ ˆ
since = ⊄ℑ ↓˜ NI

φ
00/ /μμ μμ
la l a rr

1.20 Mutual Inductance

The property of one coil due to which it opposes the change of current in the other (neighbouring)
coil is called mutual-inductance between the two coils.
This property (i.e., mutual-inductance) is attained by a coil due to mutually induced emf in the
coil while current in the neighbouring coil is changing.
Expression for mutual inductance:

M=e
dI
dI dt e M d t
⊇ ˆ
/ since = ⊄ℑ ↓˜
mm
11

N d dI m
= I e N d t M dt 2 12
φφ ⊇ ˆ
1212 1 since = = ⊄ℑ ↓˜
⊇ ˆ
= N N 12 since = ⊄ℑ ↓˜

NI
11 φ
012 0 / /μμ μμ
la
l a rr
Electro Magnetic Circuits 35

1.21 Co-efficient of Coupling

When current flows through one coil, it produces flux (Ι1). The whole of this flux may not be
linking with the other coil coupled to it as shown in Fig. 32. It may be reduced, because of leakage
flux Ιl, by a fraction k known as co-efficient of coupling.
Thus, the fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with the other
is known as co-efficient of coupling (k) between the two coils.
If the flux produced by one coil completely links with the other, then the value of k is one and
the coils are said to be magnetically tightly coupled. Whereas, if the flux produced by one coil
does not link at all with the other, then the value of k is zero and the coils are said to be
magnetically isolated.

Mathematical expression: Considering the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.34. When current I1
flows through coil-1;
N
L1 = I1 1
φ N Nk
and M = I I
φφ
= ...(i) ∵ φ φ ( 12 1 = k)
1 2 12 1 211

Fig. 1.34 Flux produced by one coil linking with the other

Now considering coil-2 carrying current I2;

N
L2 = I2 2
φ N Nk
and M = I I
φφ
= ...(ii) ∵ φ φ ( 21 2 = k)
2 Nk Nk 1 21 2

Multiplying = I I 122

equation (i) and

(ii), we get, M × M
φφ
∞
1
122
2
1

φφ
∞ = k2 L1 L2
NN
or M2 = k I I
2111 222

or M = k LL1 2 ...(iii) The above expression gives a relation between mutual-inductance between
the two coils and their respective self inductances.
Expression (iii) can also be written as,

k=M
L L1 2
36 Electrical Machines

1.22 Inductances in Series and Parallel

 Consider two coils magnetically coupled having self-inductance of L1 and L2 respectively, and a
mutual-inductance of M henry. The two coils, in an electrical circuit, may be connected in different
ways giving different values of resultant inductance as given below:
Inductances in series: The two coils may be connected in series in the following two ways:
(i) When their fields (or mmfs.) are additive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in the same direction as
shown in Fig. 1.35 In this case, the inductance of each coil is increased by M i.e., Total inductance,
LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) = L1 + L2 + 2 M
(ii) When their fields (or mmfs.) are subtractive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in opposite direction as
shown in Fig. 1.36. In this case, the inductance of each coil is decreased by M, i.e., Total
inductance, LT = (L1 – M) + (L2 – M) = L1 + L2 – 2 M

Note: It may be noted that direction of field produced by a coil is denoted by placing a
Dot at the side at which current enters (or flux enters the core), see Fig. 1.35 and 1.36.
in same direction
Fig. 1.36 Inductances in series with field
in opposite direction

Fig. 1.35 Inductances in series having field

Inductances in parallel: The two coils may be connected in parallel in the following two ways:
(i) When the fields (or mmfs.) produced by them are in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.37.
2

Total inductance, LT = LL M
12
−
LL M
122
+−

Fig. 1.38 Inductances in parallel fields are

in opposite direction
Fig. 1.37 Inductances connected in parallel
fields are in same direction
Electro Magnetic Circuits 37

(ii) When the fields (or mmfs.) produced by them are in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.38.
 2

Total inductance, LT = LL M
12
−
LL M
122
++
Example 1.23
A coil has 1500 turns. A current of 4 A causes a flux of 8 mWb to link the coil. Find the self
inductance of the coil.

Solution:
N
Inductance of the coil, L = Iφ
where N = 1500; Ι = 8 × 10–3 Wb and I = 4 A.
3
∞ ∞ − = 3 H (Ans.)

? L = 1500 8 10
4
Example 1.24
Calculate the value of emf induced in circuit having an inductance of 700 micro-henry if the
current flowing through it varies at a rate of 5000 A per second.

Solution:
Inductance of the coil, L = 700 × 10–6 H

dI
Rate of change of current, dt = 5000 A/s
? Magnitude of emf induced in the coil,

dI –6
e=L dt = 700 × 10 × 5000 = 3·5 V (Ans.)
Example 1.25
An air cored solenoid has 300 turns its length is 25 cm and its cross section is 3 cm2. Calculate the
self-inductance is henry.

Solution:
No. of turns of the solenoid, N = 300
Length of solenoid, l = 25 cm = 0·25 m
Area of cross section, a = 3 cm2 = 3 × 10–4 m2
For air core, μr = 1
2
2
μ0
Inductance of the solenoid, L = N
N
0/ μμ= la
lar

= 300 300
 0 25 3 10 4 10 ∞ 4 7
−−
◊ ∞∞ ∞ ∞ π
= 0·1375 mH (Ans.)
38 Electrical Machines

Example 1.26
Calculate the inductance of toroid, 25 cm mean diameter and 6.25 cm2 circular cross-section
wound uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Hence calculate the emf induced when current in it
increases at the rate of 100 A/second.

Solution:
∞ μ μ0
2

N
Inductance of the toroid, L = l a r
where, No. of turns, N = 1000 turns
Mean length l = Σ D = 0·25 Σ m;
Area of cross-section, a = 6·25 × 10–4 m2 and
Relative permeability, Πr = 1
? L = (1000)2 × 6·25 × 10–4 × 4 π × 10–7 × 1/0·25 π = 1 m H (Ans.)

Induced emf, e = L d I
–3
d t = 1 × 10 × 100 = 0·1 V (Ans.)
Example 1.27
The iron core of a choke has mean length 25 cm with an air gap of 1 mm. The choke is designed for
an inductance of 15 H when operating at a flux density of 1 Wb/m2. The iron core has a relative
permeability of 3000 and 8 cm2 area of cross-section. Determine the required number of turns of
the coil.

Solution:
Inductance of the coil, L = N2/ST
where ST is the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit
i + a
ST = l a l g

μμ μ 0 0
r

−
3
1 10

∞ ∞∞ ∞+∞

= 0 25
◊
−−
π π = 1077612 AT/Wb
−−
∞ ∞∞
 8 10 4 10 4 7
8 10 4 10 3000 47

Now N = LST = ∞ 15 1077612 = 4020·5 turns (Ans.)

Example 1.28
Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0·6 H. If current in one coil is varied from 4 A to 1 A in 0·2
second, calculate (i) the average emf induced in the other coil and (ii) the change of flux linking the
later assuming that it is wound with 150 turns.

Solution:
dI 1
Mutually induced emf, em = M dt
Electro Magnetic Circuits 39

where, M = 0·6 H; d I1 = 4 – 1 = 3 A and dt = 0·2 s ? em = 0·6 × 3/0·2 = 9 V (Ans.)

d
Now, em = N2 dtφ12
? Change of flux with second coil, dΙ12 = e dt
∞
m =∞◊
902

150 = 12 mWb (Ans.)

N
2

Example 1.29
Two coils having 100 and 50 turns respectively are wound on a core with μ = 4000 μ0. Effective
core length = 60 cm and core area = 9 cm2. Find the mutual inductance between the coils.

Solution:

We know that, Mutual Inductance M = NN a

12μ
l
where, N1 = 100; N2 = 50; μ = 4000 μ0; l = 60 cm = 60 × 10–2 m; a = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10– 4 m2
−
4

? M = 100 50 4000 9 10 ∞ ∞ ∞∞

μ 0
−
60 10 ∞ 2

−
4

= 100 50 4000 4 0 9 10 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞∞

μ
= 37·7 mH (Ans.)
−
 2
60 10
∞
Example 1.30
A wooden ring has mean diameter of 150 mm and a cross-sectional area of 250 mm2. It is wound
with 1500 turns of insulated wire. A second coil of 900 turns in wound on the top of the first.
Assuming that all flux produced by the first coil links with the second, calculate the mutual
inductance.

Solution:
NN 12
Mutual-inductance, M = l a r μ μ0
where, N1 = 1500; N2 = 900; l = π D = 0·15 π m; a = 250 × 10–6 m2; μr = 1

? M = 1500 900
0 15 250 10 4 10 1 ∞
67
∞ ∞ ∞∞ ∞ − −

. ππ = 0·9 m H (Ans.)
Example 1.31
Two coils A and B of 600 and 1000 turns respectively are connected in series on the same magnetic
circuit of reluctance 2 × 106 AT/Wb. Assuming that there is no flux leakage, calculate (i) self
inductance of each coil; (ii) mutual inductance between the two coils.
What would be the mutual inductance if the co-efficient of coupling is 75%.

Solution:
Self inductance of coil A, L1 = N S 12 /
40 Electrical Machines

where N1 = 600 and S = 2 × 106 AT/Wb.

? L1 = (600)2/2 × 106 = 0·18 H (Ans.)
Similarly, L2 = (1000)2/2 × 106 = 0·5 H (Ans.)

Mutual inductance, M = k L L1 2

when k = 1; M = 1 0 18 0 5 . . ∞ = 0·3 H (Ans.) when k = 0·75; M = 0·75 0 18 0 5 . . ∞ =

0·225 H (Ans.)

Example 1.32
Two air-cored coils are placed close to each other so that 80% of the flux of one coil links with the
other. Each coil has mean diameter of 2 cm and a mean length of 50 cm. If there are 1800 turns of
wire on one coil, calculate the number of turns on the other coil to give a mutual inductance of 15
mH.

Solution:
05
Reluctance, S = l ∞◊ ∞ ∞ ∞ − ( ) = 1·2665 × 109 AT/Wb
=◊
 0r
a μμ π π 27

4 0 02 4 10 1
Now L1 = N12 / S and L2 = N S 22 / ? L L1 2 = N1 N2/S

Also M = k LL1 2 = k N1 N2/S

where M = 15 × 10–3 H; N1 = 1800; k = 0·8;
? 15 × 10–3 = 0·8 × 1800 × N2/1·2665 × 109 3 9 ∞ ∞◊ ∞
−

or N2 = 15 10 1 2665 10 0 8 1800 = 13193 turns (Ans.)

װ
Example 1.33

Two coils with negligible resistance and of self inductance of 0·2 H and 0·1 H respectively are
connected in series. If their mutual inductance is 0·1 H, determine the effective inductance of the
combination.

Solution:
Total inductance of the two coils when connected in series;

L = L1 + L2 + 2 M = 0·2 + 0·1 + 2 × 0·1 = 0·5 H or 0·1 H (Ans.)

Example 1.34
The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0·6 H and 0·1 H depending upon the
relative direction of currents in the coils. If one of the coils when isolated has a self inductances of
0·2 H, calculate the mutual inductance of the coils and the self inductance of the other coil.
Electro Magnetic Circuits 41

Solution:
The combined inductance of the two coils when connected in series;

(a) having their field additive = L1 + L2 + 2M = 0·6 ...(i) (b) having their fields subtractive = L1 +
L2 – 2M = 0·1 ...(ii) Subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we get,

4M = 0·5 or M = 0·125 H (Ans.)

From equation (ii); L1 + L2 – 2 × 0·125 = 0·1 or L1 + L2 = 0·35 H

Self inductance of one coil, L1 = 0·2 H
? Self inductance of second coil, L2 = 0·25 – 0·2 = 0·15 H (Ans.)

Example 1.35
Two coils of self inductance 120 mH and 250 mH and mutual inductance of 100 mH are connected
in parallel. Determine the equivalent inductance of combination if (i) mutual flux helps the
individual fluxes and (ii) mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes.

Solution:
(i) When mutual flux helps the individual fluxes;
 2
2

LT = LL M
−

+ − = ∞ − 120 250 100

12 120 250 2 100

LL M + −∞
2
12
()
= 117·65 m H (Ans.)

(ii) When mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes.

2
2

LT = LL M
−

+ + = ∞ − 120 250 100

12 120 250 2 100

LL M + +∞
2
12
()
= 35·088 m H (Ans.)

1.23 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

When some electrical energy is supplied to a coil, it is spent in two ways:

(i) A part of it is spent to meet I 2 R loss which is dissipated in the form of heat and cannot be
recovered.
(ii) The remaining part is used to create magnetic field around the coil and is stored in the
magnetic field. When this field collapses, the stored energy is released by the coil and is
returned to the circuit.
The energy stored in the magnetic field is given by the expression:
1 2
Energy stored in magnetic field = 2 L I
Example 1.36
A solenoid of 1 m in length and 10 cm in diameter has 5000 turns. Calculate the energy in the
magnetic field when a current of 2 A flows in the solenoid.
42 Electrical Machines

Solution:
∞ μ μ0
2

N
Inductance of the solenoid, L = l a r
where, N = 5000; a = π d2/4 = 25 π × 10–4 m2; l = 1 m; μr = 1.
 1 1
? L = (5000)2 × 25 π × 10–4 × 4 π × 10–7 × 1/1 = 0·2467 H Energy stored = 22 LI = 2 0 2467

2 2 ∞◊ ∞( ) = 0·4934 J (Ans.)

1.24 AC Excitation in Magnetic Circuits

To magnetise the magnetic circuits of electrical devices such as transformers, AC machines,
electromagnetic relays, etc., AC supply is used. The magnetisation of magnetic circuits is called
their excitation.
The magnetic circuits are never excited by DC supply, because in case of DC excitation the
steady state current is determined by the impressed voltage and resistance of the circuit. The
inductance of the coil comes into picture only during transient period i.e., when the current is
building-up or decaying during switching (ON or OFF) instants. The magnetic flux in the
magnetic circuit adjusts itself in accordance with this steady value of current so that the
relationship imposed by magnetisation (B-H) curve in satisfied. However, with AC excitation,
inductance comes into picture even at steady state condition. As a result for most of the magnetic
circuits (not for all) the flux is determined by the impressed voltage and frequency. Then the
magnetisation current adjusts itself in accordance with this flux so that the relationship imposed by
the magnetisation (B-H) curve is satisfied.
Usually, for economic reasons, the normal working flux density in a magnetic circuit is kept
beyond the linear portion of the magnetisation curve thus accurate analysis cannot be predicted for
determining self inductance. However, for all practical purposes the parameters of the magnetic
circuit are considered to be constant.
The reactive effect of the alternatively flux set
up by the exciting current can readily be shown
as per Faraday’s laws i.e.,
d
e = N dtφ
Consider a magnetic core which is excited
by a coil (winding) having N turns and carrying
a current of i ampere as shown in Fig. 1.39. A
magnetic flux Ι is set-up by the exciting current
i. Let the magnetic flux Ι varies sinusoidally with
respect to time t, then its instantaneous value Fig. 1.39 Magnetic core excited by AC
is given by the relation;

Ι = Ιm sin Ζt = Ιm sin 2π ft ...(i)

Electro Magnetic Circuits 43

where, Ιm = maximum value of alternating flux

f = frequency of supply impressed across the coil.
The induced emf in the coil
φ
= ( sin ) φ π2
d d
e = N dt N d t ft m
 sin 2 π ft +
= 2π fN Ιm cos 2πft = 2π fN Ιm 2π ( ) ...(ii)
The value of induced emf will be maximum when cos 2π ft = 1, therefore
Em = 2πfN Ιm
Its effective or r.m.s. value,

Erms = E fN m m
πφ
2= = 4·44 f N Ιm
2
2
Equation (i) and (ii) reveal that the induced emf leads the flux and hence the exciting current by
π

2 radian or 90°. This induced emf and the coil resistance drop oppose the applied voltage. In case
of electrical machines, usually the drop in resistance in only a few percent of applied voltage and
therefore, neglected for close approximation. Thus, the induced emf E and applied voltage V may
be considered equal in magnitude.

Example 1.37
For the AC excited magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.40. Calculate the excitation current and
induced emf of the coil to produce a core flux of 0·6 sin 314 t mWb.

Fig. 1.40 Magnetic core excited by AC

Solution:
Here, Ι = Ιm sin Ζ t = 0·6 sin 314 t mWb
Maximum value of flux, Ιm = 0·6 mWb = 6 × 10–4 Wb
Area of x-section, a = 3 × 3 = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10–4 m2

−
∞= −. T
4
φ
Flux density, Bm = αm = 6 10 ∞

9 100 667 4
44 Electrical Machines
 Length of air gap, lg = 1·5 mm = 1·5 × 10–3 m
3 −∞ + −∞ 2 0 15 107 85
3
Length of iron path, li = 25 2 2 35 2 2 ( ) ∞− = ◊ . cm = 1·0785 m

B B mm i
Total ampere-turns required, ATm = l l r μ μμ 0 0
g+
0 667 1 0785
−
3

= 0 667 1 5 10 ◊ ∞◊ ∞

−−
∞+◊ ∞◊ π π
4 10 ∞∞
77
4 10 3775
= 796·3 + 151·7 = 948

Maximum value of excitation current required,

AT m
Im = N = 948

500 = 1·896 A
RMS value of excitation current,

m
Irms = I 21 896
◊
1 414 = ◊ = 1·34 A (Ans.)
RMS value of induced emf in the coil, Erms = 4·44 f N Ιm

= 4 44 314
−
2 500 0 6 10 ◊ ∞ ∞ ∞◊∞
3

π = 66·57 V (Ans.)

1.25 Eddy Current Loss

When a magnetic material is subjected to a changing (or alternating) magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the magnetic material itself according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
Since the magnetic material is also a conducting material, these emfs. circulate currents within the
body of the magnetic material. These circulating currents are known as eddy currents. As these
currents are not used for doing any useful work, therefore, these currents produce a loss (i2 R loss)
in the magnetic material called eddy current loss. Like hysteresis loss, this loss also increases the
temperature of the magnetic material. The hysteresis and eddy current losses in a magnetic material
are called iron losses or core losses or magnetic losses.
A magnetic core subjected to a changing flux is shown in Fig. 1.41. For simplicity, a sectional
view of the core is shown. When changing flux links with the core itself, an emf is induced in the
core which sets-up circulating (eddy) currents (i) in the core as shown in Fig. 1.41 (a). These
currents produce eddy current loss (i2 R), where i is the value of eddy currents and R is resistance
of eddy current path. As the core is a continuous iron block of large cross-section, the magnitude
of i will be very large and hence greater eddy current loss will result.
To reduce the eddy current loss, the obvious method is to reduce magnitude of eddy currents.
This can be achieved by splitting the solid core into thin sheets (called laminations) in the planes
parallel to the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 1.41 (b). Each lamination is insulated from the other
by a fine
Electro Magnetic Circuits 45

layer of insulation (varnish or oxide film). This arrangement reduces the area of each section and
hence the induced emf It also increases the resistance of eddy currents path since the area through
which the currents can pass is smaller. This loss can further be reduced by using a magnetic
material having higher value of resistivity (like silicon steel).

Fig. 1.41 Production of eddy currents

Useful Applications of Eddy Currents

It has been seen that when the affects of eddy currents (production on heat) are not utilised, the
power or energy consumed by these currents is known as eddy current loss. However, there are the
places where eddy currents are used to do some useful work e.g., in case of Induction heating. In
this case, an iron shaft is placed as a core of an inductive coil. When high frequency current is
passed through the coil, a large amount of heat is produced at the outer most periphery of the shaft
by eddy currents. The amount of heat reduces considerably when we move towards the centre of
the shaft. This is because outer periphery of the shaft offers low resistance path to eddy currents.
This process is used for surface hardening of heavy shafts like axils of automobiles.
Eddy current effects are also used in electrical instrument e.g., providing damping torque in
permanent magnet moving coil instruments and braking torque in case of induction type energy
meters.

Mathematical Expression for Eddy Current Loss

Although it is difficult to determine the eddy current power loss from the current and resistance
values. However, experiments reveal that the eddy current power loss in a magnetic material can be
expressed as:
Pe = KBt f e m22 2 V watt
where, Ke = co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of magnetic
material; Bm = maximum value of flux density in Wb/m 2;
t = thickness of lamination in m;
f = frequency of reversal of magnetic field in Hz;
V = volume of magnetic material in m3.
46 Electrical Machines

Section Practice Problems

Numerical Problems
1. A current of 8 A through a coil of 300 turns produces a flux of 4 m Wb. If this current is reduced
to 2 A in 0·1 second, calculate average emf induced in the coil, assuming flux to be proportional to
current. (Ans. 9 V)
2. Estimate the inductance of a solenoid of 2500 turns wound uniformly over a length of 0·5 m on a
cylindrical paper tube 4 cm in diameter. The medium is air. (Ans. 19·74 m H)

3. Calculate the inductance of a toroid 25 cm mean diameter and 6·25 cm2 circular cross-section
wound uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Also determine the emf induced when a current
increasing at the rate of 200 A/s flows in the winding. (Ans. 1 m H; 0·2 V)

4. Two coils having turns 100 and 1000 respectively are wound side by side on a closed iron circuit
of cross sectional area 8 cm2 and mean length 80 cm. The relative permeability of iron is 900.
Calculate the mutual inductance between the coils. What will be the induced emf in the
second coil if current in the first coil is increased uniformly from zero to 10 A in 0·2 second?
(PTU.) (Ans. 0·113 H; 56·5 V)

5. Two identical coils, when connected in series have total inductance of 24 H and 8 H depending
upon their method or connection. Find (i) self-inductance of each coil and (ii) mutual
inductance between the coils. (Ans. 8H; 4 H)

6. Two coils of self inductance 100 mH and 150 mH and mutual inductance 80 mH are connected
in parallel. Determine the equivalent inductance of combination if (i) mutual flux helps the
individual fluxes (ii) mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes. (Ans. 95·56 mH; 20·97 mH)

7. A current of 20 A is passed through a coil of self-inductance 800 m H. Find the magnetic energy
stored. If the current is reduced to half, find the new value of energy stored and the energy
released back to the electrical circuit. (Ans. 160 J, 40 J, 120 J)

Short Answer Type Questions

Q.1. What do you understand by electromagnetic induction?

Ans. The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in an electric circuit (or conductor) when it cuts
across the magnetic field or when magnetic field linking with it changes is called
electro-magnetic inductions. This phenomenon was discovered by Faraday.

Q.2. Define Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

Ans. I Law: Whenever the flux linking with a coil or circuit changes, an emf is induced in it II Law:
The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to rate of change of flux linkages.
d
i.e., e = – N dtφ

where e – Induced emf in volt

 N – Number of turns
d φ
dt – rate of change of flux.
Minus sign due to Lenz’s law.
Electro Magnetic Circuits 47

Q.3. State Fleming’s Right hand rule as well as Fleming’s Left hand rule.
Ans. Fleming’s Right hand rule: This law states that if one stretches the thumb, fore finger and
middle finger of the right hand at right angles to each other in such a way that the thumb
points in the direction of the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of the
flux (from north to south) then the middle finger will indicate the direction of the induced emf
in the conductor.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch thumb, fore-finger and middle finger of your left hand at right
angles to each other such that the fore finger points the direction of magnetic field (from
north to south) and the middle finger gives the direction of current in the conductor, then the
thumb will indicate the direction in which the force will act on the conductor.

Q.4. State right hand cork screw rule.

Ans. Hold the cork and place the right handed screw over it, now rotate it in such a way that it
advances in the direction of flow of current. The direction in which the screw is rotated gives
the direction of magnetic lines of force around the current carrying conductor.

Q.5. What do you mean by dynamically induced emf?

Ans. Either the magnetic field is stationary and the conductor is moving or the conductor is
stationary and the flux is moving so that flux is cut by the conductor, an emf is induced in it.
The emf induced in this way is known as dynamically induced emf. (e.g., emf generated in a
DC generator).

Q.6. Define self inductance and give its unit.

Ans. The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through it is
called self inductance. It refers to the ability of the coil to induce emf when current through it
changes. Its unit is Henry.

Q.7. Distinguish between self induced and mutually induced emf.

Ans. The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is
called self induced emf.
The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux produced by the neighbouring coil linking with it is
called mutually induced emf.

Q.8. Does inductance play any role in DC circuit?

Ans. The role of inductance is only during the opening and closing of a DC circuit. It delays the rise
of current during closing and delays the fall of current during opening. If in a DC circuit, the
current reaches at its steady value, the circuit does not exhibit any inductance.

Q.9. What is a closed circuit?

Ans. The complete path for the flow of current through the load is known as a closed circuit.

Q.10. What is a short circuit?

Ans. If the supply mains are connected directly by a piece of wire without any load, it is known as
short circuit. In these circuits, the value of the current is much greater than in the closed
circuit. So the fuse melts.

Q.11. What is the type of energy being stored in a capacitor?

 Ans. When a capacitor is charged, an electro-static field is set-up in between the plates. Thus
electrical energy is stored in the electrostatic field set-up between the plates of the capacitor
48 Electrical Machines

1.26 Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion Devices

(Motors and Generators)
A device (machine) which makes possible the conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical
form or from mechanical to electrical form is called an Electromechanical energy conversion
device or Electromechanical transducer.
Depending upon the conversion of energy from one from to the other, the electro-mechanical
device can be named as motor or generator.
1. Motor: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts electrical energy or
power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (Ζ T) is called a motor.

Fig. 1.42 Motor

Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines e.g., hammer presses, drilling machines,
lathes, shapers, blowers for furnaces etc., and domestic appliances e.g., refrigerators, fans,
water pumps, toys, mixers etc. The block diagram of energy conversion, when the
electro-mechanical device works as a motor, is shown in Fig. 1.42.
2. Generator: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts mechanical
energy or power (Ζ T) into electrical energy or power (EI) is called generator.

Fig. 1.43 Generator

Generators are used in hydro-electric power plants, steam power plants, diesel power plants,
nuclear power plants and in automobiles. In the above said power plants various natural
sources of energy are first converted into mechanical energy and then it is converted into
electrical energy with the help of generators.
The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-mechanical device works as a
generator, is shown in Fig. 1.43.
The same electro-mechanical device is capable of operating either as a motor or generator
depending upon whether the input power is electrical or mechanical (see Fig. 1.44). Thus, the
motoring and generating action is reversible
Electro Magnetic Circuits 49
 Fig. 1.44 Same machine can work as a generator or motor

The conversion of energy either from electrical to mechanical or from mechanical to electrical
takes place through magnetic field. During conversion, whole of the energy in one form is not
converted in the other useful form. In fact, the input power is divided into the following three parts;
(i) Most of the input power is converted into useful output power.
(ii) Some of the input power is converted into heat losses (I2R) which are due to the flow of current
in the conductors, magnetic losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) and friction losses. (iii) A
small portion of input power is stored in the magnetic field of electro-mechanical device.

1.27 Torque Development by the Alignment of Two Fields

To understand the process of torque development by the alignment of two fields, the following
cases may be considered:
(i) Soft iron piece placed in the magnetic field.
(ii) Permanent magnet placed in the magnetic field.
(iii) Electromagnet placed in the magnetic field.

1.27.1 Soft Iron Piece Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider a soft iron piece, capable of free rotation, placed in the magnetic field of two permanent
magnets (see Fig. 1.45). The magnetic lines of force are set up in the soft iron piece as shown in
Fig. 1.45. The molecular poles get aligned parallel to the magnetic field due to magnetic induction.
The soft iron piece obtains the polarities as marked in Fig. 1.45. This is the stable position of the
soft iron piece. Torque produce in this case is zero.

Fig. 1.45 Stable position of soft iron piece

50 Electrical Machines
Fig. 1.46 Torque development at various positions of soft iron piece placed in the magnetic field

If the soft iron piece is rotated through an angle Τ (Τ < 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A
and B become North and South poles respectively. A force of attraction acts on the two ends and
the soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field i.e., the position of least reluctance
path. This anticlockwise torque tries to decrease the angle Τ and is considered as negative. [See
Fig. 1.46 (a)]. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle Τ = 90°, an equal force of attraction
and repulsion acts on each end of short iron piece [see Fig. 1.46 (b)], therefore, torque produced is
Electro Magnetic Circuits 51

zero. This is the unstable position of the soft iron piece, because a slight change in angle Τ in either
direction will create a torque in that direction. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle Τ
(Τ > 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A and B become South and North poles respectively. A
force of attraction acts on the ends and soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field.
This clockwise torque tries to increase the angle Τ and is considered as positive [See Fig. 1.46 (c)].
When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle Τ = 180°, then by magnetic induction ends A
and B will obtain South and North polarity respectively [see Fig. 1.46 (d)]. There is a force of
attraction at ends A as well as at B of soft iron piece which being equal and opposite cancel each
other. In this position, torque produced is zero. This is the stable position, because any change in
angle Τ will create a torque which will tend to restore it position.
Following the similar explanation, the torque produced in the soft iron piece for various
positions between 180° to 360° i.e., 180° < Τ < 360° can be determined.
When 270° > Τ > 180°, torque produce is negative (anticlockwise) as shown in Fig. 1.46 (e).
When Τ = 270°, torque produced is zero, and it is an unstable position as shown in Fig. 1.46
(f). When360° > Τ > 270°, torque produced is positive (clockwise) as shown in Fig. 1.46 (g).
When Τ = 360°, torque produced is zero and it is a stable position.
In fact, when a soft iron piece is placed in the magnetic field, by magnetic induction iron piece
is magnetised. The magnetised iron piece produces its own field, the axis of that field is shown by
arrow head Fr. The axis of the main magnetic field is shown by the arrowhead Fm. The rotor field
Fr tries to come in line with Fm due to which torque develops. Hence, it can be said that torque is
developed by the alignment of two fields.
The angle between two magnetic fields on which torque depends is called torque angle. This
torque angle is measured with respect to the direction to the direction of rotation of soft iron piece.
Thus, it is concluded that the torque is a function of torque angle Τ. The variation of torque with
respect to angle Τ is shown in Fig. 1.47.

Fig. 1.47 Wave diagram of torque produced in soft iron piece

1.27.2 Permanent Magnet Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider a permanent magnet capable of free rotation, placed in the magnetic field of two
permanent magnets as shown in Fig. 1.48 (a). There is a force of attraction on north and south pole
of the rotating magnet, which being equal and opposite cancel each other. In this position, torque
produced is zero
52 Electrical Machines

because the field of rotating magnet Fr and the field of stationary permanent magnet Fm are in line
with each other.
When the rotating magnet in rotated through in angle Τ (Τ being less than 90°, equal to 90°
more than 90° but less than 180°), its north pole will be attracted towards the south pole and south
pole will be attracted towards the north pole of permanent stationary magnets [see Fig. 1.48 (b),
(c) and (d) respectively]. In other words, we can say that the rotor field Fr tries to come in line with
main field Fm and torque is developed. This anticlockwise torque is considered as negative,
because it is decreasing the torque angle Τ.
When the permanent rotating magnet is rotated through an angle Τ = 180°, the two field Fr and
Fm are in line with each other but acting in opposite direction [see Fig. 1.48 (e)], therefore, torque
developed is zero but this is the unstable position because slight change in angle Τ in either
direction will create a torque in that direction and the rotor will not regain its original position.

Fig. 1.48. Contd.

Electro Magnetic Circuits 53
 Fig. 1.48 Permanent magnet in magnetic field

When the permanent rotating magnet is rotated through an angle Τ more than 180°, but less than
360° (i.e., Τ is less than 270°, equal to 270°, more than 270°), its north and south poles will be
attracted towards the south and north poles of the permanent stationary magnets respectively [see
Figs. 1.48 (f), (g) and (h) respectively]. In other words, Fr will try to come in line with Fm and thus
torque is developed. This clockwise torque is considered as positive, because it is increasing the
torque angle Τ.
The maximum negative or positive torque is produced on the rotating permanent magnet when
angle Τ = 90° or Τ = 270° (–90°) respectively, because at these positions, there is maximum force
of attraction or repulsion acting on the rotating magnet.
When rotating, permanent magnet is rotated through an angle Τ = 360°, two field Fr and Fm are
in line with each other [see Fig. 1.48 (i)]. Therefore, the torque developed is zero. This is the stable
position because any change in angle Τ will develop a torque which tends to restore its original
position.
Thus, it is concluded that the torque is produced due to the alignment of two fields. The angle
between the two magnetic fields on which torque depends is called Torque angle. This torque
angle is measured with respect to the direction of rotation of rotating magnet. The torque produced
in the rotating magnet is a function of torque angle Τ. The variation of torque with respect angle Τ
is shown graphically in Fig. 1.48 (j).

1.27.3 Electromagnet Placed in the Magnetic Field

Consider an electromagnet, free to rotate about its axis, is placed in the magnetic field of
permanent magnets. When the field produced by the electromagnet Fr is in the same direction as
that of the main field produced by the stationary permanent magnets Fm, the torque produced is
zero [see Fig. 1.49 (a)].
When the electromagnet is rotated through an angle Τ = 90°, the axis of the rotor field Fr will
make an angle of Τ = 90° with the main field Fm. The rotor field Fr will try to come in line with the
54 Electrical Machines
main field Fm, and produces an anticlockwise torque [see Fig. 1.49 (b)]. This torque is considered
as negative because it reduces the torque angle Τ.
When the electromagnet is rotated through an angle Τ = 270°, the rotor field Fr will try to come
in line with the main magnetic field Fm, therefore, a clockwise torque will be produced [see Fig.
1.49 (c)], This torque is considered as positive because it increases the torque angle Τ.

Fig. 1.49 Electromagnet in the field of permanent magnets

When torque angle Τ is between zero and 180°, the torque produced is negative, whereas when
Τ is between 180° to 360°, the torque produced is positive. When torque angle Τ = 90° or Τ = 270°
(–90°), torque produced is maximum negative or maximum positive respectively.
Thus, it is conclude that the variation of torque with respect to torque angle Τ is similar to that
in the case of permanent rotating magnet placed in the magnetic field of permanent stationary
magnet[see Fig. 1.48 (j)].
The torque produced in this case is called an electromagnetic torque (Te).

1.28 Production of Torque

The torque produced by the alignment of two fields (i.e., rotor field and stationary main field)
varies in magnitude and direction depending upon the torque angle Τ. Let us see, the effect of
torque angle Τ on the torque produced in the following cases:
(i) In case of permanent magnet
(ii) In case of electromagnet.