PRACTICAL -1

Aim: To study and demonstrate block diagram of a digital computer and briefly explain
each unit.

Theory: Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by

processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and
symbols, that are expressed in binary code -i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.

By counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of
instructions held in its memory a digital computer can perform such tasks as to control industrial
processes and regulate the operations of machines; analyze and organize vast amounts of business
data; and simulate the behavior of dynamic systems (e.g., global weather patterns and chemical
reactions) in scientific research.

Introduction to digital computer: Digital systems are designed to store, process, and
communicate information in digital form. They are found in a wide range of applications, including
process control, communication systems, digital instruments, and consumer products. The digital
computer, more commonly called the computer, is an example of a typical digital system.
A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary form. A binary number
has only two discrete values — zero or one. Each of these discrete values is represented by the OFF
and ON status of an electronic switch called a transistor. All computers, therefore, only understand
binary numbers. Any decimal number (base 10, with ten digits from 0 to 9) can be represented by a
binary number (base 2, with digits 0 and 1)
The basic blocks of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the
input/output (I/O). The CPU of the computer is basically the same as the brain of a human.
Computer memory is conceptually similar to human memory. A question asked to a human is
analogous to entering a program into the computer using an input device such as the keyboard,
and answering the question by the human is similar in concept to outputting the result required by
the program to a computer output device such as the printer.
Block diagram of digital computer: The block diagram of digitalcomputer is as
follows:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

Block diagram of a computer gives the pictorial representation of a computer that how it
works inside.
Below is the list of different units of a block diagram of computer that converts to form a full
functioning computer system.

 Input unit
 Processing unit
 Storage unit
 Output unit

Input unit: All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit
The input unit comprises different devices. Like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. In other words,
each of these devices acts as a mediator between the users and the computer. The data that is to be
processed is put through the input unit. The computer accepts the raw data in binary form. It then
processes the data, and produces thedesired output.

The 3 major functions of the input unit are -

 Take the data to be processed by the user.

 Convert the given data into machine-readable form.
 And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the computer. The sole
purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In addition, this creates easy
communication between them.

Processing unit: Processing unit consists of various parts like ALU, CU , Registers and is
often referred to as an electronic brain of a computer system .This unit is responsible for
performing overall operations of a computer system .After the input device provides raw data to
the computer system, CPU performs specific operations like addition ,subtraction ,division etc
and produces a result which we call an output .CPU can also access data from secondary storage
of computer via primary memory .To carry out any operations the CPU assigns tasks to its
components.
Components of a processing unit:

 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): An arithmetic-logic unit is the part of a

central processing unit that carries out arithmetic and logic operations on the
operands in computer instruction words. In some processors, the ALU is divided into
two units: an arithmetic unit (AU) and a logic unit (LU). Some processors contain
more than one AU -- for example, one for fixed-point operations and another for
floating-point operations. In computer systems, floating-point computations are
sometimes done by a floating -point unit (FPU) on a separate chip called a numeric
coprocessor . Typically, the ALU has direct input and output access to the processor
controller, main memory (random access memory or RAM in a personal computer)
and INPUT /OUTPUT devices. Inputs and outputs flow along an electronic path that
is called a bus.

 Control unit: A control unit, or CU, is circuitry within a computer’s processor

that directs operations. It instructs the memory, logic unit, and both output and input
devices of the computer on how to respond to the program’s instructions. CPUs and
GPUs are examples of devices that use control units. A control unit receives data
from the user and translates it into control signals that are subsequently delivered to
the central processor. The processor of the computer then instructs the associated
hardware on what operations to do. Because CPU architecture differs from
manufacturer to manufacturer, the functions performed by a control unit in a
computer are dependent on the CPU type. The following are some examples of
devices requiring a control unit.

Output unit: The output units of a computer system are the collections of hardware
components that shows output to the user either in hardcopy or a softcopy format .After CPU
completes the processing on the data, the outcome ofprocessing also known as output or a result
is passed to this unit. The output unit is responsible for translating the result in human
understandable format and displaying it.
Memory unit: Memory unit is a component of a computer system. It is usedto store data,
instructions and information. It is actually a work area of computer, where the CPU stores the data
and instruction. It is also known as a main/primary/internal memory.

There are two types of memory: -

1. Read only memory (ROM):- ROM is a part of the memory unit. Thisis read
only memory. It cannot be used to written. ROM is used in situations where the data must
be held permanently.

2. Random access memory (RAM):- RAM is also part of memory unit. It is

used for temporary storage of program data. Its data is lost when power is turned off.

Storage unit: The storage unit is also a part of a block diagram of a computer .The storage unit
or secondary storage unit is a non volatile device that holds programs, files , documents . It provides
facilities to store a large volume of data. CPU executes the data stored on storage devices indirectly.
The data are transferred to RAM first and after an execution, the data can beagain written to storage
unit.
 PRACTICAL -2

Aim: To study and demonstrate internal parts of a computer system (Card Level) and
other peripheral devices and explanation of POST & BIOS.
Theory:
The internal components of a computer system consist of the hardware required to process data and to
allow the processor to communicate with other devices such as secondary storage, display screens, and
printers.

The main internal components of a computer system are:

 Processor (CPU)
 Main memory
 Input/output (I/O) controllers

These components are connected together by high-speed communication buses.

The internal components of a computer system consist of the hardware required to store and
process data, and communicate with external devices.

The input/output (I/O) controller communicates with external devices, such as the input (e.g.
keyboard, mouse), output (e.g. screen, printer), and external storage devices (e.g. USB stick). External
devices that are portable are also called peripheral devices or peripherals.

The main internal components of a computer system are:

Component Description
Processor Part of the computer that executes program instructions to process data, and handles
main memory and input/output operations
Cache memory Temporarily stores frequently used instructions and data
Main memory Stores data and instructions while they are being processed
Input/output Accesses other components such as the screen and secondary storage, which is used to
controllers permanently store data such as the operating system and user files

A peripheral device is an internal or external device that connects directly to a computer or other digital
device but does not contribute to the computer's primary function, such as computing. It helps end users
access and uses the functionalities of a computer.
Peripheral devices include the following:
 Mouse.

 Keyboard.

 Printer.

 Monitor.

 Webcam.

 Printer.

 Scanner.

 Speakers.

 External Drive.

 USB Flash Drive.

 CD-ROM.

There are several types of peripherals, although they’re commonly divided into three broad categories:
input, output, and storage devices.

Input devices convert incoming instructions or actions from the user into viable information that can be
interpreted by the computer. For example, a keyboard will convert keystroke into characters that appear
on the computer’s display, while a monitor will transform hand movements into movements of a cursor
that can be used to interact with the operating system’s programs. Other input peripherals include
joysticks, microphones, webcams, optical scanners, etc.

Output peripherals translate digital signals into information that can be interpreted or utilized by the end
user. For example, a monitor or display screen will show the operating system’s desktop, while a laser
printer will translate information saved in a word file into printed material. Other output peripherals
include speakers, 3D printers, and projectors.

Some devices can provide both input and output signals, such as network interfaces, modems, routers,
and webcams.

Storage peripherals are used to store and record data, and include internal and external hard drives, CD-
ROM and DVD drives, and flash memory drives.

Depending on whether the peripheral is located inside or outside the computer system case, it can be
further classified as an internal or external peripheral device.

An external peripheral can be connected via many different types of cables and connections. Today, the
most common connection for external peripherals is the USB connection, both because most computers
have several ports available, and because of the simplicity of the plug-and-play feature.
Internal storage devices such as hard disks are usually connected with a SATA cable, while display port
and HDMI are the most popular connections for displays and monitors.

Power-On Self-Test (POST):-

A Power-On Self-Test (POST) is an operation initiated by a computer after it has been turned on but
before it boots up the OS. The computer's firmware -- BIOS, Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
(UEFI) or another system -- carries out this operation by running a diagnostic testing sequence to
determine if the computer's essential hardware is working properly.

Power-On Self-Tests are an essential part of system troubleshooting because the boot-up can only
proceed if the software is working correctly; if the software isn't working, the BIOS produces an error
message. This is important because numerous essential programs are loaded when systems boot up.

When a POST is completed successfully, bootstrapping -- which starts the initialization of the boot-up --
is enabled. In computing, bootstrap means to boot or load a program, usually an OS, onto a computer
using a much smaller initial program.

Computers aren't the only devices that use POSTs. Some appliances, medical equipment and other
hardware run similar self-tests after being turned on.

The Power-On Self-Test process verifies the viability of the hardware necessary to run a computer's OS and
applications properly.
 BIOS, or Basic Input/output System

It is software stored on a small memory chip, also known as firmware. BIOS is found on the
motherboard, and it is the very first software to run after a computer starts.

BIOS instructs the computer on how to perform basic functions like booting and keyboard control; it is
also used to identify and configure the hardware in a computer such as the hard drive, CPU, memory, and
related equipment.

Finally, it manages data flow between the computer's operating system (OS) and attached devices.

BIOS firmware is non-volatile, meaning that its settings are saved and recoverable even after power has
been removed from the device.

BIOS is accessed and configured through the BIOS Setup Utility, which is, in essence, the BIOS itself,
and all BIOS options are able to be configured here.

Unlike an operating system, BIOS comes already installed on a system, also known as out-of-box
functionality.

The BIOS Setup Utility can be accessed in various ways depending on the computer or motherboard
make and model.

Some of the most popular BIOS vendors are:

1. Pheonix Technologies
2. IBM
3. Dell
4. American Megatrends (AMI)
5. Insyde Software
 PRACTICAL -3

Aim: To study and demonstrate the primary and secondary memory.

Theory: Memory is a storage part in a computer system .it is used to store the data, information
and programs at the time of processing on the computer . It stores the data either temporarily or
permanent .The main use of memory is saving and retrieving data.

PRIMARY MEMORY OR VOLATILE MEMORY

Primary storage (also known as main memory) is the component of the computer that holds data,
programs and instructions that are currently in use. Primary storage is located on the motherboard.
As a result, data can be read from and written to primary storage extremely quickly.
Primary memory is generally of two types:
RAM
ROM

RAM- Random-access memory is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in
any order, typically used to store working data and machinecode. A random-access memory device
allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the
physical location of data inside the memory.
RAM is also of two types:
 STATIC RAM ( SRAM ) - In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a six-
transistor memory cell, typically using six MOSFETs. This form of RAMis more expensive
to produce, but is generally faster and requires less dynamic power than DRAM.
 DYNAMIC RAM ( DRAM) - DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor
pair (typically a MOSFET and MOS capacitor, respectively) which together comprise a
DRAM cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the
transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state
of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static
RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers.
ROM - Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of
the memory device. Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during
the life of the system, also known as firmware. Software applications (like video games) for
programmable devices can be distributed as plug-in cartridges containing ROM.
ROM is basically of three types:

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): PROM is a form of digital memory. In this

type of ROM, each bit is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. The data stored in it are permanently
stored and cannot be changed or erasable. It is used in low-level programs such as firmware
or microcode.
2. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory): EPROM also called EROM,
is a type of PROM but it can be reprogrammed. The data stored in EPROM can be erased
and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light. Reprogrammed of it is limited. Before the era
of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used in microcontrollers.
 3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): As its name
refers, it can be programmed and erased electrically. The data and program of this ROM can
be erased and programmed about ten thousand times. The duration of erasing and
programming of the EEPROM is near about 4ms to 10ms. It is used in microcontrollers and
remote keyless systems.
Secondary memory or non volatile memory:
Secondary memory is computer memory that is non-volatile, persistent and not immediately
accessible by a computer or processor. It allows users to store data and information that can be
retrieved, transmitted, and used by apps and services quickly and easily. Secondary storage is
another name for secondary memory.
The secondary storage devices are as follows:
 Floppy disks

 Magnetic ( hard ) disk

 Magnetic tapers
 Winchester disk

 Optical disk ( CD, DVD)

 Pen drive

FLOPPY DISKS
A floppy disk or floppy diskette (casually referred to as a floppy, or a diskette) is an obsolescent type
of disk storage composed of a thin and flexible disk of a magnetic storage medium in a square or nearly
square plastic enclosure lined with a fabric that removes dust particles from the spinning disk. Floppy
disks store digital data which can be read and written when the disk is inserted into a floppy disk drive
(FDD) connected to or inside a computer or other device.
MAGNETIC DISKS

A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write, rewrite and access
data. It is covered with a magnetic coating andstores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors.
Hard disks, zip disksand floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks.

PEN DRIVE

A USB flash drive (also called a thumb drive) is a data storage device that includes flash memory
with an integrated USB interface. It is typically removable, rewritable and much smaller than an
optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 g (1 oz). Since first appearing on the market in late 2000, as
with virtually all other computer memory devices, storage capacities have risen while prices have
dropped. As of March 2016, flash drives with anywhere from 8 to 256 gigabytes (GB) were
frequently sold, while 512 GB and 1 terabyte (TB) units were less frequent. As of 2018, 2 TB flash
drives were the largest available in terms of storage capacity. Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase
cycles, depending on the exact type of memory chip used, and are thought to physically last between
10 and 100 years under normal circumstances (shelf storage time)
OPTICAL DISKS ( CD/DVD)
An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology to read
and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams
(transmitted from a laser head mounted on an optical disk drive) to read and write data.
In computing and optical disc recording technologies, an optical disc (OD) is a flat, usually circular disc
that encodes binary data (bits) in the form of pits and lands on a special material, often aluminum, on one
of its flat surfaces. Its main uses are physical offline data distribution and long-term archival. Changes
from pit to land or from land to pit correspond to a binary value of 1 ; while no change, regardless of
whether in a land or a pit area, corresponds to a binary value of 0 .
 PRACTICAL -4

Aim: To demonstrate motherboard / main board and its parts, Chipsets, Connectors,
Add on Card.

Theory:

MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of acomputer together. It
can be considered as the backbone of the computer.

It connects the CPU, Memory, Hard drives, Optical drives, Video card, Sound card, and other
parts. It also connects Expansion cards directly or via cables.

A computer is an electronic device that processes the data with respect to theuser’s requirements
using IO devices. The data processing takes place in a processor, an important component. The
processor is situated in a hardware circuit board called the motherboard or Printed Circuit Board
(PCB).

Features of motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, Hard drives, Sound cards have to be compatible with the
motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboard, Cases, and Power supplies must be compatible to work properly
together.

Components
A motherboard is made of plastic and silicon as well. It is a hub of a computer system. A
motherboard is a complex component with various kinds of ports, slots, cables connected to it.
Some of them are:
  RAM slots (Random Access Memory): Also called as main memory, it is a primary
storage device for storage huge bytes of data.
 CPU Fan and Heat Sink: Its main function is to cool down the CPU by absorbing
the heat while the system is running.
 North bridge: Due to its location, it is referred to as Northbridge.
 South bridge: Controls the Input and Output functions.
 Capacitors: Data storage
 Resistors: Data storage
 CMOS battery (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor): A battery
that provides backup power.
 PCI Slots (Peripheral Component Interconnect): Connects the
peripherals.
 SATA cables(Serial Advanced Technology Attachment): Data transfer
 BIOS (Basic Input Output System): Controls the basic input-outputfunctions.
 Processor: the main component for the data processing.
 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port): For displaying graphics on the screen.
 IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics): Used for data transfer.
 Processor socket: To insert or remove the processor.
 Integrated Circuits (IC): for data processing and storage.

Types of Motherboard

Motherboards are present in Desktop, Laptop, Tablet, and Smartphone and the components and
functionalities are the same. But the size of the components and the way they are accommodated on
the board varies due to space availability. In desktops, most of the components are fitted inside the
sockets provided on the board and it is easy to replace each of them separately, whereas in
Laptops/Smart phones some components are soldered on the board, hence it is difficult to
replace/upgrade.
Though different motherboards have varying capabilities, limitations, features, Physical size/shapes
(form factor), they are identified/grouped/categorized mostly by their form factors. Each
manufacturer has come out with its form factor to suit the design of computers.
Form factor
Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called form factors, some of which are
specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible
systems are designed to fit various case sizes. As of 2005, most desktop computer motherboards use
the ATX standard form factor even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers, which have not
been built from commodity components. A case's motherboard and power supply unit (PSU) form
factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family will fit
larger cases. For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a micro ATX motherboard.
Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards.
This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair.
Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement ofthe entire motherboard, which
is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard.

CPU sockets
A CPU socket (central processing unit) or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a Printed
Circuit Board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special
type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many
functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating
replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both
with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets on the motherboard can most often be found in most
desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based
on the Intel x86 architecture. A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU
series and speed.

Integrated peripherals
With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include
support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the
physical size and total cost of thesystem may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus
especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.

 Disk controllers for SATA drives, and historical PATA drives.

 Historical floppy-disk controller
 Integrated graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics,with
VGA, DVI, HDMI, Display Port and TV output
 integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
 Ethernet network controller for connection to a LAN and to receive Internet
 USB controller
  Wireless network interface controller
 Bluetooth controller
 Temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitorthe health of
computer components.

Peripheral card slots

A typical motherboard will have a different number of connections depending on its standard and
form factor.

A standard, modern ATX motherboard will typically have two or three PCI- Express x16
connection for a graphics card, one or two legacy PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one or
two PCI-E x1 (which has superseded PCI). A standard EATX motherboard will have two to four
PCI-E x16 connection for graphics cards, and a varying number of PCI and PCI-E x1 slots. It can
sometimes also have a PCI-E x4 slot (will vary between brands and models).

Some motherboards have two or more PCI-E x16 slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without
special hardware, or use a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for
AMD). These allow 2 to 4 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in
intensive graphicalcomputing tasks, such as gaming, video editing, etc.

Temperature and reliability

Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips in modern
motherboards. Insufficient or improper cooling can cause damage to the internal components of the
computer, or cause it to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was
sufficient for many desktop computer CPU's until the late 1990s; since then, most have required
CPU fans mounted on heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most
motherboards have connectors for additional computer fans and integrated temperature sensors to
detect motherboard and CPU temperatures and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or
operatingsystem can use to regulate fan speed.
 PRACTICAL -5

Aim: To study various processor (Pentium-I, II, III, DUAL Core, i-3, i-5, i-7 etc).
Theory: Processor- A processor is an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations
that run a computer. A processor performs arithmetical, logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic
instructions that are passed from an operating system (OS). Most other processes are dependent on
the operations of a processor.
A processor includes an arithmetical logic and control unit (CU), which measures capability in
terms of the following:
 Ability to process instructions at a given time.
 Maximum number of bits/instructions.
 Relative clock speed.
The CPU carries out his operations through the three main steps of the instruction cycle: fetch,
decode, and execute.
 Fetch: the CPU retrieves instructions, usually from a RAM.
 Decode: a decoder converts the instruction into signals to the other components of the
computer.
 Execute: the now decoded instructions are sent to each component so that the desired
operation can be performed.
Pentium:- The Pentium is a fifth generation, 32-bit x86 microprocessor that was introduced by
Intel on March 22, 1993, as the very first CPU in the Pentium brand.Pentium is the brand name of a
series of microprocessors produced by Intel Corporation. It was released in 1993 as the successor
to the Intel 80486. The first microprocessor in the Pentium series was the Pentium 1.
This chip’s features included:
 32-bit processing
 Base clock speed of 66HZ to 300MHZ
 16 KB to 32KB L1 cache
 Fast serial bus (FSB) up to 66 MHz
In addition to the Pentium I, other Pentium microprocessors include: Pentium II
The Pentium II is a specific type of microprocessor built by the Intel company and introduced to
the market in 1997. This technology represents Intel’s sixth-generation design for microprocessors.

The Pentium III model, introduced in 1999, represents Intel’s 32-bit x86 desktop and mobile
microprocessors in accordance with the sixth-generation P6 micro-architecture.
The Pentium III processor included SDRAM, enabling incredibly fast data transfer between the
memory and the microprocessor. Pentium III was also faster than its predecessor, the Pentium II,
featuring clock speeds of up to 1.4 GHz. The Pentium III included 70 new computer instructions
which allowed 3-D rendering, imaging, video streaming, speech recognition and audio applications
to run more quickly.

Dual core is a CPU that has two distinct processors that work simultaneously in the same
integrated circuit. This type of processor can function as efficiently as a single processor but can
perform operations up to twice as quickly. Because each core has its own cache, the operating
system is able to handle most tasks in parallel
IBM introduced dual-core chips in its Power 4 microprocessors in 2000. Dual core CPUs were
introduced in 2004. Because of the continual increase in single core clock speeds, CPUs were
generating more heat and using more power. Dual cores were introduced to improve performance
without generating more heat as dual core systems use about the same amount of energy. While a
dual-core system has twice the processing power of a machine with a single processor, this doesn’t
mean it will always perform twice as fast. This is because some operating systems and programs
are not optimized for multiprocessing.

Core i3:- An Intel Corei3 is an Intel proprietary processor that is built on the framework of
multiprocessor architecture.
It is a type of dual-core processor with an integrated graphic processing unit (GPU). It is a
successor of the Core 2 series of processors produced by Intel. It can be installed within mobile,
desktop and embedded devices.

Intel Corei5 provides better performance against heavier and demanding applications, games and
rich audio-visual data using the embedded Intel Turbo Boost Technology. The Intel Corei5 comes
in variations of two to four cores, all supporting four different threads simultaneously. Its processor
clock speed ranges from 1.50 GHz to up to 3.10 GHz, with cache memory from 3 to 6 MB.
The thermal design power (TDP) range goes from 84 TDP to as low as 15 TDP. Similar to Corei3,
some of the latest generations of the Intel Corei5 support error correction code (ECC) memory and
Intel Platform Protection Security and Intel OS Guards. These features provide embedded security
abilities for protecting BIOS, enabling secure boot and prevention against attacks.
Intel Corei7 is the fastest version of the Intel processor for consumer-end computers and devices.
Like the Intel Corei5, the Corei7 is embedded with Intel Turbo Boost Technology. The Intel Corei7
is available in two- to six-core varieties, and can support up to 12 different threads simultaneously.
Its processor clock speed ranges from 1.70 GHz to up to 3.90 GHz, with cache memory from 4 to
12 MB. Intel Corei7 thermal design power (TDP) range goes from 130 watts TDP to as low as 15
watts TDP. Similar to some other Corei series processors, the Intel Corei7 supports error correction
code (ECC) memory, Intel Platform Protection Security and Intel OS Guards. These features
provide embedded security abilities for protecting BIOS, enabling secure boot and protection
against attacks.
 PRACTICAL -6

Aim: To study various types of monitors: LCD/LED/TFT/PLASMA DISPLAY &

New Technologies.
Theory: A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or
textual form. A discrete monitor comprises a visual display, support electronics, power
supply, housing, electrical connectors, and externaluser controls.

The display in modern monitors is typically an LCD with LED backlight, having by the
2010s replaced CCFL backlit LCDs. Before the mid-2000s, most monitors used a CRT.
Monitors are connected to the computer via Display Port, HDMI, USB-C, DVI, VGA, or
other proprietary connectors and signals.

Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were
used for video. From the 1980s onward, computers (and their monitors) have been used for
both data processing and video, while televisions have implemented some computer
functionality

History: Early electronic computer front panels were fitted with an array of light bulbs
where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off stateof a particular register bit
inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal
state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the 'monitor'. As early
monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very
transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the
primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program's
operation.

Types of monitors

There are several types of monitors; some are as follows:

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

It is a technology used in early monitors. It uses a beam of electrons to create an image
on the screen. It comprises the guns that fire a beam of electrons inside the screen. The
electron beams repeatedly hit the surface of the screen. These guns are responsible for
generating RGB (Red, Green, Blue) colors, and more other colors can be generated
with the help of combining these three colors. Today's Flat Panel Monitors replace the
CRT monitors.
 Advantages of CRT:

 Less expensive than other display technology

 Fast response time

 It can operate at any resolution, geometry and also for aspect ratio without the
need for rescaling the image

 Highest pixel resolutions generally available

 They produce more colors.

2. Flat Panel Monitors

These types of monitors are lightweight and take less space. They consume less power
as compared to CRT monitors. These monitors are more effective as theydo not provide
harmful radiation. These monitors are more expensive than CRTs. The flat-panel
monitors are used in PDA, notebook computers, andcellular phones. These monitors are
available in various sizes like 15", 17", 18" & 19" and more.

Advantages of Flat Panel Devices:

Flat Panel Devices like LCD produces high quality digital images. Flat Panel
monitor are stylish and have very space saving design. Flat Panel Devices consumes
less power and give maximum image size in minimum space.

3. Touch Screen Monitors

These monitors are also known as an input device. It enables users to interact with the
computer by using a finger or stylus instead of using a mouse or keyboard. When users touch
the screen by their finger, it occurs an event and forward it to the controller for processing.
These types of screens include pictures or words that help users to interact with the computer.
It takes input from the users by touching menus or icons presented on the screen.

ADVANTAGES OF TOUCH SCREEN MONITORS

 Simple clear interface. One of the most obvious benefits of touch screen
technology is its easy-to-use nature. ...

 Engaging & Interactive. ...

 Self-Service Features. ...

 Improve Accessibility. ...

 Reduce Staff Costs

4. LED Monitors

It is a flat screen computer monitor, which stands for light-emitting diode display. It is
lightweight in terms of weight and has a short depth. As the source of light, it uses a panel of
LEDs. Nowadays, a wide number of electronic devices, both large and small devices such as
laptop screens, mobile phones, TVs, computer monitors, tablets, and more, use LED displays.

ADVANTAGES OF LED MONITORS

 It is a reliable technology that is recognized throughout the world. ...

 Emits high quality images. ...

 It offers very low energy consumption. ...

 You can easily increase its power. ... It is more environmentally friendly than other
similar products. ...
5. OLED Monitors

It is a new flat light-emitting display technology, which is more efficient, brighter, thinner,
and better refresh rates feature and contrast as compared to the LCD display. It is made up
of locating a series of organic thin films between two conductors. These displays do not need a
backlight as they are emissive displays. Furthermore, it provides better image quality ever and
used in tablets and high-end smart phones.

ADVANTAGES OF OLED MONITORS

 Superior viewing angle.

 High brightness and contrast.

 Fast response time.

 Small size form factors.

 Well suited for battery driven applications.

 PRACTICAL -7

Aim: To study different printer types and their working.

Theory: Printer: A printer is a hardware output device that is used to generate hard copy and
print any document. A document can be of any type such as a text file, image, or the combination
of both. It accepts input command by users on a computer or on other devices to print the
documents. For example, if you have to submit a project report at your college, you need to create
a soft copy of your report and print it with the help of the printer.

Types of printer: Although there are different types of printers, nowadays, two types of printers
are commonly used, which are inkjet and laser printers. A list of all the various types of printers
is given below:

o Inkjet Printers
o Laser Printers
o 3D Printers
o LED Printers
o Solid Ink Printers
o Dot Matrix Printers
o Multifunction or All-in-One Printers
o Thermal printer
o Plotter

Inkjet Printers: It is widely used by home and business computer users that prints characters by
spraying the ink using magnetic plates on the paper. It contains a paper feed assembly, ink
cartridge, print head, stabilizer bar, and belt.

It stores the ink in cartridges, and uses separate cartridge to print several types of color
documents. These colors are a combination of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black color. These
types of printers have the ability to create high-quality pictures with the help of vivid colors.
Furthermore, the inkjet printers are more affordable and easier to use as compared to other
printers.

Advantages of Inkjet Printers:

o The Inkjet printers have the ability to produce high-quality output.

 o These printers are reasonably fast and easy to use.
o Additionally, these types of printers do not take warm up time.

Disadvantages of Inkjet Printer:

o It may take more time to print.

o Its running cost is high.
o It does not allow the highlighter marker.

Laser printers: The laser printer is one of the common personal computer printers. It was
introduced in 1971, and after that it was developed at Xerox PARC by Gary Starkweather. It uses
the laser or non-impact photocopier technology to print the text and images on the paper.
Whenever it gets input to print any document, a laser beam draws the document on the selenium-
coated drum with the help of electric charges. When the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner (dry
ink powder). The ink follows the image, which has charged on the drum. The ink is combined with
the paper, including heat and pressure, then transferred on a chunk (piece) of paper.

When the document is printed, the excess toner is collected, and an electric charge is removed
from the drum. Most of the laser printers are capable of printing only in monochrome. The
monochrome laser printer is around ten times cheaper than a color laser printer.
There are many differences between a laser printer and inkjet printer, such as:
The laser printer contains dry ink, while an inkjet contains wet ink.
An inkjet printer is approximately ten times more expensive than the laser printer as it requires
replacing the ink very frequently. If a paper is wet, the inkjet printer will print the document with
blur, but the laser printer will print clear. The inkjet printer is suitable for printing fewer
documents, while the laser printer has the ability to print more documents.

Advantages of a Laser printer:

o These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.

o It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.
o It has the ability to print documents speedily.
o Furthermore, it is able to increase productivity.

Disadvantages of a Laser printer:

o Laser printers may need warm up time.

o Laser printers are bulky as they required the laser technology and imaging drum.
o It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.

3D Printers: One of the best enhancements in the history of printing technology is the 3d
printer, which was developed by Chuck Hull in 1984. It produces 3D objects and items by using
quality resin. It uses materials like plastics, polymers, metal alloys, or even food ingredients.

Application of 3D printers
There are many applications where 3D printers are used, such as archaeology, aerospace
engineering, information systems, dentistry, and biotechnology. For example, it might be used to
reconstruct ancient artifacts of archaeology physically, which have been destroyed with time.
How 3D printer works?
Generally, the design of an object starts in a computer-aided design (CAD) software system
where its prototype is created. Then, the computer-aided design system sends this prototype to
the printer in STL (stereolithography) file format. The printer then starts the process of recreating
the object layer-by-layer after reading the prototype in cross-sections. The below image is a
blueprint of 3d printer that is known as FlashForge.

Advantages of 3D printer:

o The main advantage of a 3D printer is that it allows users to print objects in 3D .

o It has the ability of full customization.
o It is easy to access and cost-effective.
o It prints the documents with better quality.
o It provides users unlimited shapes and geometry.
Disadvantages of 3D printer:

o Its initial and resin costs are high.

o 3D printing is still developing technology.
o It consumes high energy around 50 to 100 more than injection molding.
o It includes limited materials
o The 3D printers are slow as they are limitless for mass customization.
 PRACTICAL -8

Aim: Assembly/ Installation and Maintenance of Personnel Computer Systems: Practical

exercise on assembly of Personnel Computer System.

Theory: Computer Assembly Is A Process In Which All The Internal Components Required For The
Computer System Are Fitted So As To Make The Computer Functional. There Is A Proper Sequence Of
Attachment Of Each And Every Component Into The Computer System.

Sequence of computer assembly:-

1. Open The Case
2. Install The Power Supply
3. Attach The Components To The Motherboard
4. Install The Motherboard
5. Install Internal Drives
6. Connect All Internal Cables
7. Install Motherboard Power Connections
8. Connect External Cables To The Computer
9. Boot The Computer For The First Time.

Procedure for Computer Assembling

1. The First Step In Assembling A Computer Is To Open The Computer Case. To Open The Case,
First Remove The Screws Of The Left Side Cover And Slide The Side Cover
2. The Next Step Is To Install A Power Supply. There Are Usually Four Screws That Attach The
Power Supply To The Case.
3. The Motherboard Has To Be Prepared Before Its Installation. To Prepare The Motherboard, You
First Need To Install The CPU, Then The Heat Sink On The CPU And CPU Fan.
 A CPU Socket Uses A Series Of Pins To Connect A CPU’s Processor To The Pc’s
Motherboard. If A CPU Is Connected Via A CPU Socket.
 A Heat Sink And Fan (HSF) Is An Active Cooling Solution Used To Cool Down
Integrated Circuits In Computer Systems, Commonly The Central Processing Unit (CPU).
 Connect The Assembly Power Cable To The CPU Fan Connector On The Motherboard.
 To Install The RAM First On The Motherboard And Then Fix The Motherboard In The
Case. To Install RAM, First Ensure Its Compatibility With The Motherboard.
4. After Preparing The Motherboard, You Can Install In The Computer Case.
5. The Hard Drive Is The Device Which Stores All The Data. Connect The Power Cable Coming
From The SMPS To The Power Socket Of Hard Disk Drive. Connect SATA Data Cable From
Hard Disk Drive Socket To The Motherboard Socket
6. Power Cables Are Used To Distribute Electricity From The Power Supply To The Motherboard
And Other Components. Data Cables Transmit Data Between The Motherboard And Storage
Devices, Such As Hard Drives.
7. The Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) Main Power Connector Will Have Either 20 Or 24
Pins.
8. Connecting Monitor The VGA Cable Is Used To Connect To Monitor.
 Connecting Keyboard If It Uses A USB Connector, Plug It Into Any Of The USB Ports
On The Back Of The Computer.
 Connecting Headphones Or Speakers, And Microphone Connect The External Speakers
Or Headphones, To Computer’s Audio Port (Either On The Front Or Back Of The
Computer Case).
 Power Supply Cable Connect Into The Back Of The Computer Case.
 Connecting Printer, Scanner, Webcam
9. Always Remember That The First Step Is To Push Power Button Of The CPU Than The
Monitor’s. An Operating System Or System Software Like Window Or Linux Will Start Loading,
Now Your Computer Is Ready To Use.