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 Class 1:
Magnetic Circuits- Introduction
Importance of Electromagnetic System:
• The electromagnetic system is a
necessary element of all rotating
machines and electromechanical
devices.
• The role of electromagnetic system is to
establish and control electromagnetic
fields for carrying out conversion of
energy, its processing and transfer.
• Practically, all electric motors, small to big in
capacity depend on magnetic field as the
coupling medium allowing interchange of energy
in either direction between electrical and
mechanical systems.
• A transformer though not an electromechanical
conversion device, provides a means of
transferring electrical energy between two
electrical ports via the medium of a magnetic
field. Electromagnetic
Electromechanic Devices
al Devices
• Transformer analysis runs parallel to rotating
machine analysis and greatly aids in
understanding the latter.
• So all electrical machines including transformer
use the medium of magnetic field, for energy
conversion and transfer
• The study of these devices essentially involves
electric and magnetic circuit analysis and their
interaction.
Also several other essential
devices like relays, circuit
breakers, etc need the
presence of a confined
magnetic field for their
operation
 What we will see in Unit 1
• Review of physical laws governing magnetic
fields, induction of emf, production of
mechanical force and to develop methods of
magnetic circuit analysis.
• Simple magnetic circuits and magnetic
materials will be discussed briefly
• Later, how this concepts are applied in the
analysis of transformers and machines.
 Magnetic circuits
• The exact description of the magnetic field is given by the
Maxwell’s equations and the constitutive relationship of
the medium in which the field is established
• This is not necessary for use in electric machines wherein
the fields (magnetic and electric) are slowly varying
(fundamental frequency 50 Hz) so that the displacement
current can be neglected.
• The magnetic field can then be described by Ampere’s law
and is solely governed by the conduction current
• This law is in integral form and is easily derivable from the
third Maxwell’s eqn (by ignoring displacement current) by
means of well known results in vector algebra.
• The Ampere’s law is reproduced as follows
 Ampere’s Law

න 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 = න 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍

• Where J= conduction current density

• H=Magnetic field density
• s= the surface enclosed by the closed path of
length
• ds differential surface
• dl=differential length
 A simple magnetic system
• A simple electromagnetic system comprising an
exciting coil and ferromagnetic core
 A simple magnetic system
• A simple electromagnetic system comprising
an exciting coil and ferromagnetic core
• The coil has N turns and carries a constant dc
current of i Amps.
• The magnetic field is established in the space
wherein most of the total magnetic flux set up
is confined to the ferromagnetic core
• Consider the flux path through the core
(shown dotted) which in fact is the mean path
of the core flux.
• The total current piercing the surface enclosed
by this path is easily seen to be
 mmf
• Hence the above eqn acquires the form

• Since N is the number of coil turns and i the

exciting current in amperes, the product F=Ni
has the units of ampere turns (AT) and is the
cause of establishment of the magnetic field.
• It is known as the magneto-motive force
(mmf) in analogy to the electromotive force
which establishes current in an electric circuit
 μ0 , μ and μr
• The magnetic field intensity H causes a flux density B to be
set up at every point along the flux path which is given by
B=μH= μ0 μrH (for flux path in core)
and B=μ0H (for flux path in air)
• The units of flux density are weber (Wb)/m2 called tesla (T)
• The term μ0 is the absolute permeability of free space and
has a value of μ0 =4π x 10-7 (Henry/m)
• The permeability μ= μ0 μr of a material medium is different
from μ0 because of a certain phenomenon occurring in the
material.
• The term μr is referred to as relative permeability of a
material and is in the range of 2000-6000 for ferromagnetic
materials.
 Leakage flux
• So for a given H, the flux density B and therefore
the flux over a given area

will be far larger in the magnetic core in figure

than in the air paths.
• Hence it is safe to assume that the magnetic flux
set up by mmf Ni is mainly confined to the
ferromagnetic core and the flux set up in air
paths is of negligible value.
• The flux set up in air paths is known as the
leakage flux as if it leaks through the core; some
of the leakage flux paths are shown chain dotted
in figure
Can magnetic leakage be avoided?
• There is no way to avoid
magnetic leakage as there are
no magnetic insulators in
contrast to electric insulators
which confine the electric
current to the conductor for all
practical purposes.

• The effect of the

leakage flux is
incorporated in
machine models
through the concept of
the leakage inductance.
 Right Hand Rule
• The direction of field
intensity is H and so
the direction of flux φ
is determined from
Right Hand Rule (RHR).
• In case of a coil grasping
the coil in right hand
with thumb in the
direction of current then
the fingers curl in the
direction of flux.
• The magnetic field intensity H is tangential to a
flux line all along its path so that the closed vector
integration along a flux line reduces to closed
scalar integration i.e

• with the assumption of negligible leakage flux, the

flux piercing the core cross section at any point
remains constant.
• Further from the consideration of symmetry it
immediately follows that the flux density over
straight parts of the core is uniform at each cross
section and remains constant along the length;
such that H is constant along the straight parts of
the core.
• Around the corners, flux lines have different
path lengths between magnetic equi-potential
planes (typical ones being ab and cd shown in
fig) so that H varies from a high value along
inner paths to a low value along outer paths.
• It is reasonable to assume that H shown dotted
along the mean path will have the same value as
in straight parts of the core
• We have already seen that magnetic field
intensity along the mean flux path in the core
can be regarded constant at Hc
• F= Ni=HcIc
• Where F= mmf in AT and Ic = mean core length
(m)
• Hc=Ni/Ic
Class 3
 Quasi-static fields
• If we imagine that the exciting current i varies
with time, then the above eqn would indicate
that Hc will vary in unison with it.
• Such field are known as quasi-static fields in
which the field pattern in space is fixed but the
field intensity at every point varies as a replica of
the time variation of current
• This simplified field picture is a consequence of
negligible displacement current in slowly varying
fields as mentioned earlier.
• In a quasi-static field, the field pattern and
field strength at a particular value of time
varying exciting current will be the same as
with a direct current of that value.
• In other words, a field problem can be solved
with dc excitation and then any time variation
can be imparted to it
• Now the core flux density is given by
• Bc=μcHc
• And core flux (assumed to be total flux) is
given by
• Φ=(int)B.ds=BcAc
• Where Ac = cross sectional area of core and
flux in the limbs is oriented normal to cross
sectional area
 Reluctance and Permeance
• Φ=μcHcAc=Ni/(lc/μcAc)
• Φ=F/R=FP
• Where R=F/ Φ = (lc/μcAc) = reluctance of the
magneitc circuit (AT/wb)
• And P=1/R= permeance of the magnetic circuit
• Hence it is seen that by certain simplifying
assumptions and field symmetries, it has been
possible to lump the distributed magnetic system
into a lumped magnetic circuit described by that
eqn which is analogous to Ohm’s law in dc circuits
• The electrical circuit analog of the magnetic
system (now reduced to a magnetic circuit) is
shown in fig
• Where in F(mmf) is analogous to E(emf),
R(reluctance is analogous to R(resistance) and
φ (flux) is analogous to i (current)
• The analogy though useful, it is not complete;
there are two points of difference
1. Magnetic reluctance is non-dissipative of
energy unlike electric resistance
2. When F is time varying, the magnetic circuit
still remains resistive whereas inductive
effects are bound to appear in an electric
circuit.
• This is because there is no time lag between
the exciting current and the establishment of
magnetic flux (quasi-static field)
• The lumped magnetic circuit and its electrical analog are
useful concepts provided the permability ( μ) of the core
material and therefore, the core reluctance is constant as is
tactily assumed above.
• This however, is not the case with ferromagnetic materials,
but when air gaps are involved the assumption of constant
reluctance is generally valid and leads to considerable
simplicity in magnetic circuit analysis
• In more complicated magnetic circuits with multiple
excitations and series parallel core arrangement the
general theorems of electric circuits apply i.e kirchoff’s
voltage (mmf) law and kirchchoff’s current (flux) law.
 B-H relationship (Magnetization
Characteristic)
• μ0 is constant in free space and also in non-
magnetic materials and hence relationship
between B and H is linear.
• This is not the case with ferromagnetic
materials used in electric machines, where in
the B-H relationship is strictly non-linear in
two respects
– Saturation and
– hysteresis
• Hysteresis non linearity is the double valued
B-H relationship exhibited in cyclic variation of
H (i.e exciting current)
• This nonlinearity is usually ignored in
magnetic circuit calculations and is important
only when current wave shape and power loss
are to be accounted for. Details will be
explained later
• A typical normal B-H relationship (magnetization
characteristic) for ferromagnetic materials is
shown in figure.
• It has three zones
– An initial non-linear zone,
– A middle almost linear zone and
– A final saturation zone in which B progressively
increases less rapidly with H compared to the linear
zone.
• In the deep saturation zone, the material behaves
like free space
• Due to economic constraints, electric
machines and transformers are designed such
that the magnetic material is slightly saturated
(i.e somewhat above the linear zone).
• In exact magnetic circuit calculations the
nonlinear magnetization curve has to be used
necessitating graphical numerical solutions
 Core with air gap
• Transformers are wound on closed cores as in fig.
• Rotating machines have a moving element and
must therefore have air gaps in the cores out of
necessity.
• A typical magnetic circuit with an air gap is shown
in fig
• It is assumed that the air gap is narrow and the
flux coming out of the core passes straight down
the air gap such that the flux density in the air
gap is the same as in the core.
• Note that the flux in the air gap fringes out so
that the gap flux density is somewhat less
than that of the core.
• Further let the core permeability μc be
regarded as constant (linear magnetization
characteristic)
• The mmf Ni is now consumed in the core plus
the air-gap. From the circuit model of Fig.
2.4(b)
• which means that in a magnetic circuit with
air-gap(s), core reluctance may be neglected
with no significant loss of accuracy.
• This assumption will be generally made in
modelling rotating machines.
• The effect of core saturation (reduction of
core permeability) will be introduced as a
correction wherever greater accuracy is
desired.
 Magnetic circuit calculations
• Normally magnetic circuit calculations involve
two types of problems
1. It is required to determine the excitation
(mmf) needed to establish a desired flux or
flux density at a given point in a magnetic
circuit
• This is the normal case in designing
electromechanical devices and is a straight
forward problem
• 2. To determine the flux (flux density) for a given
geometry of the magnetic circuit and specified mmf
• This kind of problem arises in magnetic amplifiers
wherein this resultant flux is required to be determined
owing to the given excitation on one or more control
windings.
• A little thought will reveal that there is no direct
analytical solution to this problem because of the non-
linear B-H characteristics of the magnetic material
• Graphical/numerical techniques have to be used in
obtaining the solution of this problem.
 Leakage flux
• In all practical magnetic circuits, most of the flux is confined
to the intended path by use of magnetic cores but a small
amount of flux always leaks through the surrounding air.
• This stray flux is called leakage flux.
• Leakage is characteristic of all magnetic circuits and can
never be fully eliminated
• Calculations concerning the main magnetic circuit are
usually carried out with the effect of leakage flux either
ignored or empirically accounted for.
• Special studies of leakage must be made for ac machines
and transformers since their performance is affected by it.
 Fringing
• At an air gap in a magnetic core, the flux fringes
out into neighbouring air paths as shown in figure
• These being of reluctance comparable to that of
the gap.
• The result is non uniform flux density in the air
gap(decreasing outward), enlargement of the
effective air gap area and a decrease in the
average gap flux density.
• The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux
pattern to some depth near the gap.
• Air gap reluctance for the air gap shown in fig is
given by

which will be less than the previous value as Ag>A

• The effect of fringing increases with the air gap length.
• Corrections for fringing in short gaps (as used in machines)
are empirically made by adding one gap length to each of
the two dimensions making up its area.
• Air gap reluctance for the air gap shown in fig is given by
Rg=lg/μ0 Ag which will be less than the previous value as
Ag>A
• It can be shown theoretically that the magnetic flux leaves
and enters the surface of an infinitely permeable material
normally
• This will be nearly so in ferro-magnetic materials which
have high permeability
• In electric machines a small amount of the tangential flux
component present at iron surfaces will be neglected
 Stacking factor
• Magnetic cores are made up of thin, lightly insulated
(coating of varnish) laminations to reduce power loss in
cores due to the eddy current phenomenon
• As a result the net cross sectional area of the core
occupied by the magnetic material is less than its gross
cross section; their ratio (less than unity) being known
as the stacking factor
• Depending upon the thickness of laminations, stacking
factor may vary from 0.5 -0.95, approaching unity as
the lamination thickness increases.
 Class 4 and 5:
Problems _Magnetic Circuits
(a) μr=∞ means, core will not have any reluctance. So explain, the
understanding of mmf dropping and infinite permittivity and reluctance
(b) μr = 5000. This means that the reluctance of magnetic core
must be taken into consideration. The analogous electric circuit
now becomes that of Fig. 2.9.
 Class 6 and 7:
Magnetically Induced Emf and Force
 MAGNETICALLY INDUCED EMF AND
FORCE
• Faraday’s law of induction, which is the
integral form of the fourth Maxwell’s
equation, is
• The positive direction of current in the coil is
that direction which establishes positive flux
and flux linkages.
• The negative sign in prev Eqn means that the
induced emf owing to an increase in l is in
opposite direction to that of positive current.
• If this fact is separately remembered (it is
known as Lenz’s law), prev Eqn may be written
 + +

e e

- -

Mutually
Self Induced emf
Induced emf
 Eddy current

+
+
e e
V

- -

Mutually
Self Induced emf
Induced emf
• Change in flux linkages of a coil may occur in
three ways:
• (i) The coil remains stationary with respect to
flux, but the flux through it changes with time.
The emf induced is known as statically induced
emf. Eg:
• (ii) Flux density distribution remains constant and
stationary but the coil moves relative to it. The
emf induced is known as dynamically induced (or
motional) emf. Eg:
• (iii) Both changes (i) and (ii) may occur
simultaneously, i.e. the coil moves through time-
varying flux. Both statically and dynamically
induced emfs are then present in the coil.
• The dynamically induced emf (case (ii) above) in a
conductor of length l placed at 90° to a magnetic
field of flux density B and cutting across it at
speed v is given by

• where θ is the angle between the direction of flux

density and conductor velocity, and l the
conductor along which the flux density is
assumed uniform.
• In electric machines θ = 90°, so that
e=Blv
This is known as the flux-cutting rule and the
direction of emf is given by v X B or by the well-
known Fleming’s right-hand rule
is the self-inductance of the circuit.
• For a magnetic circuit having a linear B-H relationship
(constant permeability of material) or with a dominating
air-gap, the inductance L is a constant, independent of
current and depends only on the geometry of circuit
elements and permeability of the medium.
• In this case Eq. (2.19) can also be expressed as
L =λ/ i
* The bilateral circuit allows the current flow in both directions. Transmission
line is the main example of bilateral circuit because if you give power supply
from any direction, the circuit properties remain constant.
* The fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with
the other coil is called coefficient of coupling between the two coils. It is
denoted by (k)
 Generator Motor
Induced emf Force
Faradays' Law of induced Lorentz force eqn
emf
e=N dφ/dt (statically induced emf) dF=I dl x B
or
(Dynamically induced emf)

Direction of emf Direction of Force

Flemings RHR Flemings LHR

 AC operation of Magnetic Circuits
• The magnetic circuits of transformers, ac
machines and several other electromagnetic
devices are excited from ac rather than dc
sources
• With ac operation, inductance is effective even in
steady-state operation
• Often, the flux is determined by the impressed
voltage and frequency and the magnetization
current has to adjust itself in accordance with the
flux so that B-H relationship is satisfied
 Why exact analysis cannot be made?
• Except when linearity is desirable, economic
utilization of material demands that working flux
density should lie in the non-linear zone (but not
in the region of saturation).
• Exact and accurate analysis, therefore cannot be
predicted on the basis of constant inductance.
• Still circuit models (equivalent circuits) with
constant parameters are often used.
• These not only provide
– simplified approach but at the same time yield the
– desired accuracy for engineering applications.
• Consider the N-turn iron-core coil of Fig. 2.1,
assuming Complete linearity of the magnetic
circuit, the Magnetic flux φ is produced by the
exciting current i.
• Let the current and so the flux vary
sinusoidally with time. Then φ = φmaxsinωt
1. The polarity of emf must, in accordance with Lenz’s
law, oppose the flux change and therefore as shown
in fig, when the flux is increasing.
2. Since the current produces the flux instantaneously
and in proportion to it (quasi-static field), there are in
phase (Im and φ are in phase. Ref No load phasor diag)
3. Eqns of e and φ, it is found that the induced emf leads
the flux (hence the current) by 900
4. The induced emf (self) and coil resistance drop
oppose the impressed voltage, (e + imrp =v)which is
small in many ac electromagnetic devices is quite
small and may be neglected to a close approximation
Due to
Lenz’s law
 Class 8:
Hysteresis
 What is Hysteresis?
• Magnetic materials are characterized by high
permeability and the nonlinear B-H relationship which
exhibits both saturation and hysteresis.
• The B-H relationship for cyclic H is the hysteresis loop
shown in Fig for two values of maximum flux density.
• It is easily observed from this figure that B is a
symmetrical two-valued function of H; at any given H,
B is higher if H is reducing compared to when H is
increasing.
• This is the basic hysteresis property in which B lags
behind H
• Area of the hysteresis loop is the energy loss (it appears in
the form of heat energy) per unit volume in one cycle of
magnetization.
• This loss depends upon
– the quality of material and
– the maximum flux density at which the material is operated.
• Hysteresis loop as such is of little use in engineering
applications except in illustrating the waveform of the
exciting current.
• It is the normal (dc) magnetization curve which is of direct
application in magnetic circuit calculations and design. In
short form it will be referred as the magnetization curve.
• The hysteresis loss represented by the loop area is usually
lumped with the eddy-current loss (Sec. 2.6) and the two
together are known as the core (or iron) loss which is
parameterized by material thickness and frequency and is
expressed as loss per unit volume (specific loss).
• When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic
magnetization, two kinds of power losses
occur in it—
– hysteresis and
– eddy-current losses—which together are known
as core-loss.
• The core-loss is important in determining
heating, temperature rise, rating and
efficiency of transformers, machines and other
ac run magnetic devices.
 Hysteresis Loss
• Fig shows a typical hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic
material. As the mmf is increased from zero to its
maximum value, the energy stored in the field per unit
volume of material is

f
 Hysteresis Loss
• Fig shows a typical hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic
material. As the mmf is increased from zero to its
maximum value, the energy stored in the field per unit
volume of material is

• As H is now reduced to zero,

dB being negative, the energy
is given out by the magnetic f f
field (from the exciting coil
back to the voltage source)
and has a value
• The net energy unrecovered in the process is area ofabco
which is lost irretrievably in the form of heat and is called
the hysteresis loss.
• The total hysteresis loss in one cycle is easily seen to be
the area of the complete loop (abcdefa) and let it be
indicated as wh (hysteresis loss/unit volume).

• Then hysteresis loss in

volume V of material
when operated at f Hz is
• In order to avoid the need for computation of the
loop area, Steinmetz gave an empirical formula
for computation of the hysterisis loss based on
experimental studies according to which

• where
– kh - a characteristic constant of the core material,
– Bm - the maximum flux density and n, called the
Steinmetz exponent, may vary from 1.5 to 2.5
depending upon the material and is often taken as 1.6
Eddy Current Loss
• When a magnetic core carried a time varying
flux, voltages induced in all possible paths
enclosing the flux. (Just like the coil wound on
the legs of the core causing self induced emf)
• This include the core which is also a magnetic
material
 + +

e e

- -

Mutually
Self Induced emf
Induced emf
 Eddy current

+
+
e e
V

- -

Mutually
Self Induced emf
Induced emf
Eddy Current Loss
• When a magnetic core carried a time varying flux,
voltages induced in all possible paths enclosing
the flux. (Just like the coil wound on the legs of
the core causing self induced emf)
• This include the core which is also a magnetic
material and hence conductor.
• This voltage drives a circulating current in the
core, known as Eddy current which causes power
loss (i2R)
• This loss depends upon the resistivity of the
material and lengths of paths of circulating
currents for a given cross section
 How to reduce Eddy
current loss?
1. Higher resistivity and long
paths increase the effective
resistance offered by the
material which reduces the
eddy current loss.(current is
reduced)

2. Higher resistivity is achieved by adding silicon to steel

and hence silicon steel is used for cores
• Dividing up the material into thin laminations along
the flow of flux, with each lamination lightly insulated
(varnish generally used) from the adjoining ones
increases the path length of the circulating currents
with consequent reduction in eddy current loss.
• This loss depend upon the square of
lamination thickness.
• The lamination thickness
– 0.3 to 5 mm for electro-magnetic devices used in
power systems and
– 0.01 to 5 mm for devices used in electronic
applications where low core loss is desired
• The eddy current loss can be expressed
empirically
• Where ke=ke’d2/ρ
• d-thickness of lamination and ρ , the resistivity of
the material.
• It is only an academic exercise to split the core
loss into its two components
• The core loss arises from two types of flux
variations:
– flux that has a fixed axis and varies sinusoidally with
time as in transformers
– Flux density is constant but the flux axis rotates
• Actually in ac machines as well as in armature of
dc machines the flux variation comprises both
these types occurring simultaneously
• The core loss is measured experimentally on
material specimen and presented graphically
• Typical values of the specific core loss (W/kg
of material) are displayed in figures for cold
rolled grain oriented (CRGOS) steel
• It is easy to see from these figures that for
reasons mentioned above specific core loss is
much higher in machines than in transformers
 Class 8,9 and 10:
Electromechanical Energy conversion,
Energy in Magnetic System
 Introduction
• The chief advantage of electric energy –
– The ease and high efficiency with which it can be
transmitted over long distances.
– It acts as a transmitting link for transporting other forms of
energy eg. Mechanical, sound, light, etc from one physical
location to another.
• Electric energy is seldom available naturally and is
rarely directly utilized.
• Obviously two kinds of energy conversion devices are
needed –
– to convert one form of energy to the electric from and
– convert it back to the original or any other desired form
• Our interest in this topic are the devices for
electromechanical energy conversion
– These devices are: transducers for processing and
transporting low energy signals (low energy conversion)
– A second category: electromagnets, relays,
actuators, etc (limited energy conversion)
– A third category: the continuous energy
conversion devices like motors or generators (bulk
energy conversion and utilization)
• Electromechanical energy conversion takes place
via the medium of a magnetic or electric field.
• The magnetic field is most suited for practical
conversion devices
• Because of the inertia associated with
mechanically moving members, the fields must
necessarily be slowly varying, i.e quasi-static in
nature
• The conversion process is basically a reversible
one though practical devices may be designed
and constructed to particularly suit one mode of
conversion or the other
 Energy in Magnetic System
• Energy can be stored or retrieved from a magnetic system by
means of an exciting coil connected to an electric source.
• Consider, for example the magnetic system of an attracted
armature relay of fig shown
 Energy in Magnetic System
• Energy can be stored or retrieved from a magnetic system by
means of an exciting coil connected to an electric source.
• Consider, for example the magnetic system of an attracted
armature relay of fig shown
• The resistance of the coil is shown by a series lumping outside
the coil which then is regarded as an ideal loss-less coil.
• The coil current causes magnetic flux to be established in the
magnetic circuit.
• It is assumed that all the flux φ is confined to the iron core
and therefore links all the N turns creating the coil flux
linkages of
λ=Nφ
• The flux linkage causes a reaction emf of
e=dλ/dt
(a) If the armature is Fixed
• The relationship i-λ or F- λ is a functional one corresponding to the
magnetic circuit which in general is nonlinear (and is also history-
dependent, i.e. it exhibits hysteresis).
• The energy absorbed by the field for finite change in flux linkages
for flux is
• As the flux in the magnetic circuit undergoes a cycle φ1→φ2→φ3,
an irrecoverable loss in energy takes place due to hysteresis and
eddy-currents in the iron, assuming here that these losses are
separated out and are supplied directly by the electric source.
• This assumption renders the ideal coil and the magnetic circuit as
a conservative system with energy interchange between
themselves so that the net energy is conserved.
• The energy absorbed by the magnetic system to establish flux f (or
flux linkages l) from initial zero flux is

• This then is the energy of the magnetic field with given mechanical
configuration when its state corresponds to flux f (or flux linkages l).
 (b) If the armature is moving
• X increases, l decreases,
R decreases, and φ
increases, (Reluctance
R=l/μA, φ=F/R)
• Φ Increases, λ increases

• The i-λ relationship is indeed the magnetization curve

which varies with the configuration variable x
• (Fig. 4.1: the air-gap between the armature and core
varies with position x of the armature. The total
reluctance of the magnetic path decreases as x
increases).
• The i-λ relationship for various values of x is indicated
in Fig. 4.2.
• From this relationship it can be expressed as

i=i(λ,x) - If λ is the independent variable

λ =λ(i,x) -If i is the independent variable

Therefore, the field energy is in general a function

of two variables
Wf=Wf(λ,x)
Wf=Wf(i,x)
• According to above two Eqs field energy is determined
by the instantaneous values of the system states ((λ, x)
or (i, x) and is independent of the path followed by
these states to reach the present values.
• This means that the field energy at any instant is
history independent.
Conclusion of two cases:
• A change in λ with fixed x causes electric-magnetic
energy interchange governed by the circuit Eq. (4.3)
and the energy Eq. (4.6).
• Similarly, if x is allowed to change with fixed λ, energy
will interchange between the magnetic circuit and the
mechanical system.
• The general case of such energy interchanges (electric-
magnetic-mechanical) is the subject matter of Sec. 4.3.
 Linear Case
• Electromechanical energy conversion devices
are built with air-gaps in the magnetic circuit
which serve to separate the stationary and
moving members.
• As a result the i-λ relationship of the magnetic
circuit is almost linear; also the losses of
magnetic origin are separately accounted for
by semi-empirical methods.
• With the linearity assumption the analysis is
greatly simplified. Losses and certain
nonlinear effects may then be incorporated at
a later-stage.
Derivation of Field Energy
Derivation of co-Energy
 Class 12:
Mechanical Force
• Consider once again the attracted armature
relay excited by an electric source as in Fig.
4.4.
• The field produces a mechanical force Ff in the
direction indicated which drives the
mechanical system
• The mechanical work done by the field when
the armature moves a distance dx in positive
direction is
 from the definition of co-energy
‘
• In this form of expression for the mechanical
force of field origin, λ is the independent
variable, i.e. it is a voltage-controlled system
as voltage is the derivative of λ.
• In linear systems where inductances are
specified it is more convenient to use co-
energy for finding the force developed (Eq.
(4.25)).
• If the system is voltage-controlled, the current
can be determined by writing the necessary
circuit equations (see Examples 4.11 and
4.12).
• It is needless to say that the expressions of Eqs
(4.25) and (4.29) for force in a translatory
system will apply for torque in a rotational
system with x replaced by angular rotation θ.
Mechanical Force and Mechanical
Energy
 Direction of Mechanical Force
Developed
• Ff is positive (i.e. it acts in the positive reference
direction of x) if ∂Wf (λ, x)/∂x is negative
• This means that stored energy of the field is
reduced with increase of x while flux linkages λ
are held fixed.
• In the particular case of Fig. 4.4 as x increases
(i.e., the armature moves towards left), the field
energy for fixed λ is reduced because the air-gap
is reduced.
• It means that Ff in this case acts in the positive
direction.
• It is therefore, concluded that the mechanical force
produced by the field acts in a direction to reduce
field energy or in other words the system seeks a
position of minimum field energy.
• Similarly, it can be concluded from Eq. (4.25) that the
system seeks a position of maximum co-energy.
• Also in Fig. 4.4, the force acts in a direction to
increase x thereby reducing the magnetic circuit
reluctance and increasing the coil inductance.
Determination of Mechanical Force
Nonlinear case:
• It was seen above that the mechanical force is
given by the partial derivatives of co-energy or
energy as per Eqs (4.25) and (4.29).
• In the general nonlinear case, the derivative
must be determined numerically or
graphically by assuming a small increment Δx.
Thus
• It must be remembered here that there is no
difference between λ as independent variable
or φ as independent variable as these are
related by a constant (λ = Nφ).
• It follows from Eq. (4.33) that the force acts in
a direction to reduce reluctance of the
magnetic system, a statement that has been
made already
• which means that half the electrical energy input gets stored in the field and the other half is output as mechanical energy
• In this kind of operation the armature must move from position xa to xb infinitely slowly for the excitation coil current to remain constant.
• The actual armature movement lies between the two ideal
cases illustrated above.
• The corresponding i-l relationship is a general path from a to b
as shown in Figs. 4.7(a) and (b). In this general case
• Since ab is a general movement, this area
which represents the mechanical energy
output has to be computed graphically or
numerically
 Flow of Energy in Electromechanical
Devices
• Electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible
process and Eqs (4.25) and (4.29) govern the
production of mechanical force.
• In Fig. 4.4 if the armature is allowed to move on
positive x direction under the influence of Ff,
electrical energy is converted to mechanical form via
the coupling field.
• If instead the armature is moved in the negative x
direction under the influence of external force,
mechanical energy is converted to electrical form via
the coupling field.
• This conversion process is not restricted to
translatory devices as illustrated but is equally
applicable to rotatory devices (see Ex. 4.4).
• Electrical and mechanical losses cause
irreversible flow of energy out of a practical
conversion device.
• The flow of energy in electromechanical
conversion in either direction along with
irrecoverable energy losses is shown in Figs.
4.8(a) and 4.8(b).