Slides

for Part IA CST 2021/22

Discrete Mathematics
<www.cl.cam.ac.uk/teaching/2122/DiscMath>

Prof Marcelo Fiore

[email protected]

—0—
 What are we up to ?

◮ Learn to read and write, and also work with, mathematical

arguments.

◮ Doing some basic discrete mathematics.

◮ Getting a taste of computer science applications.

—2—
 What is it that we do ?

In general:

Build mathematical models and apply methods to analyse

problems that arise in computer science.

In particular:

Make and study mathematical constructions by means of

definitions and theorems. We aim at understanding their
properties and limitations.

—4—
 Lecture plan

I. Proofs.

II. Numbers.

III. Sets.

IV. Regular languages and finite automata.

—6—
 Proofs
Objectives

◮ To develop techniques for analysing and understanding

mathematical statements.

◮ To be able to present logical arguments that establish

mathematical statements in the form of clear proofs.

◮ To prove Fermat’s Little Theorem, a basic result in the

theory of numbers that has many applications in
computer science.

— 16 —
 Proofs in practice

We are interested in examining the following statement:

The product of two odd integers is odd.

This seems innocuous enough, but it is in fact full of baggage.

For instance, it presupposes that you know:

◮ what a statement is;

◮ what the integers (. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . .) are, and that amongst them

there is a class of odd ones (. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, . . .);

◮ what the product of two integers is, and that this is in turn an
integer.

— 18-a —
More precisely put, we may write:

If m and n are odd integers then so is m · n.

which further presupposes that you know:

◮ what variables are;

◮ what

if . . . then . . .
statements are, and how one goes about proving them;

◮ that the symbol “·” is commonly used to denote the product

operation.

— 19-a —
Even more precisely, we should write

For all integers m and n, if m and n are odd then so

is m · n.
which now additionally presupposes that you know:

◮ what

for all . . .
statements are, and how one goes about proving them.

Thus, in trying to understand and then prove the above statement,

we are assuming quite a lot of mathematical jargon that one needs
to learn and practice with to make it a useful, and in fact very pow-
erful, tool.
— 20 —
 Some mathematical jargon

Statement
A sentence that is either true or false — but not both.

Example 1
‘ei π + 1 = 0’

Non-example

‘This statement is false’

— 21 —
 Predicate
A statement whose truth depends on the value of one
or more variables.

Example 2

1. ‘ei x = cos x + i sin x’

2. ‘the function f is differentiable’

— 23 —
 Theorem
A very important true statement.
Proposition
A less important but nonetheless interesting true statement.
Lemma
A true statement used in proving other true statements.
Corollary
A true statement that is a simple deduction from a theorem
or proposition.

Example 3
1. Fermat’s Last Theorem

2. The Pumping Lemma

— 24 —
 Conjecture
A statement believed to be true, but for which we have no proof.

Example 4

1. Goldbach’s Conjecture

2. The Riemann Hypothesis

— 27 —
 Proof
Logical explanation of why a statement is true; a method for
establishing truth.

Logic
The study of methods and principles used to distinguish
good (correct) from bad (incorrect) reasoning.

Example 5

1. Classical predicate logic

2. Hoare logic

3. Temporal logic

— 28-a —
 Axiom
A basic assumption about a mathematical situation.
Axioms can be considered facts that do not need to be
proved (just to get us going in a subject) or they can be
used in definitions.

Example 6

1. Euclidean Geometry

2. Riemannian Geometry

3. Hyperbolic Geometry

— 29 —
 Definition
An explanation of the mathematical meaning of a word (or
phrase).
The word (or phrase) is generally defined in terms of prop-
erties.

Warning: It is vitally important that you can recall definitions

precisely. A common problem is not to be able to advance in
some problem because the definition of a word is unknown.

— 30 —
 Definition, theorem, intuition, proof
in practice

Definition 7 An integer is said to be odd whenever it is of the form

2 · i + 1 for some (necessarily unique) integer i.

Proposition 8 For all integers m and n, if m and n are odd then so

is m · n.

— 31-a —
Intuition:

— 32 —
P ROOF OF Proposition 8:

— 33 —
 Simple and composite statements

A statement is simple (or atomic) when it cannot be broken into

other statements, and it is composite when it is built by using several
(simple or composite statements) connected by logical expressions
(e.g., if. . . then. . . ; . . . implies . . . ; . . . if and only if . . . ; . . . and. . . ;
either . . . or . . . ; it is not the case that . . . ; for all . . . ; there exists . . . ;
etc.)

Examples:

‘2 is a prime number’

‘for all integers m and n, if m · n is even then either n or m are even’

— 40 —
 Implication

Theorems can usually be written in the form

if a collection of assumptions holds,

then so does some conclusion
or, in other words,

a collection of assumptions implies some conclusion

or, in symbols,

a collection of hypotheses =⇒ some conclusion

NB Identifying precisely what the assumptions and conclusions are

is the first goal in dealing with a theorem.
— 41 —
The main proof strategy for implication:

To prove a goal of the form

P =⇒ Q
assume that P is true and prove Q.

NB Assuming is not asserting! Assuming a statement amounts to

the same thing as adding it to your list of hypotheses.

— 42 —
Proof pattern:
In order to prove that
P =⇒ Q

1. Write: Assume P.
2. Show that Q logically follows.

— 43 —
Scratch work:

Before using the strategy

Assumptions Goal
P =⇒ Q
..
.

After using the strategy

Assumptions Goal
Q
..
.
P

— 44 —
Proposition 8 If m and n are odd integers, then so is m · n.
P ROOF :

— 45 —
An alternative proof strategy for implication:

To prove an implication, prove instead the equivalent

statement given by its contrapositive.

Definition:

the contrapositive of ‘P implies Q’ is ‘not Q implies not P’

— 47 —
Proof pattern:
In order to prove that
P =⇒ Q

1. Write: We prove the contrapositive; that is, . . . and state

the contrapositive.
2. Write: Assume ‘the negation of Q’.
3. Show that ‘the negation of P’ logically follows.

— 48 —
Scratch work:

Before using the strategy

Assumptions Goal
P =⇒ Q
..
.

After using the strategy

Assumptions Goal
not P
..
.
not Q

— 49 —
Definition 9 A real number is:

◮ rational if it is of the form m/n for a pair of integers m and n;

otherwise it is irrational.

◮ positive if it is greater than 0, and negative if it is smaller than 0.

◮ nonnegative if it is greater than or equal 0, and nonpositive if it

is smaller than or equal 0.

◮ natural if it is a nonnegative integer.

— 50 —
Proposition 10 Let x be a positive real number. If x is irrational
√
then so is x.

P ROOF :

— 51 —
 Logical Deduction
− Modus Ponens −

A main rule of logical deduction is that of Modus Ponens:

From the statements P and P =⇒ Q,

the statement Q follows.

or, in other words,

If P and P =⇒ Q hold then so does Q.

or, in symbols,
P P =⇒ Q
Q

— 53 —
The use of implications:
To use an assumption of the form P =⇒ Q,
aim at establishing P.
Once this is done, by Modus Ponens, one can
conclude Q and so further assume it.

— 54 —
Theorem 11 Let P1 , P2 , and P3 be statements. If P1 =⇒ P2 and
P2 =⇒ P3 then P1 =⇒ P3 .

P ROOF :

— 55 —
 Bi-implication
Some theorems can be written in the form
P is equivalent to Q
or, in other words,
P implies Q, and vice versa
or
Q implies P, and vice versa
or
P if, and only if, Q P iff Q
or, in symbols,
P ⇐⇒ Q
— 58 —
Proof pattern:
In order to prove that
P ⇐⇒ Q

1. Write: (=⇒) and give a proof of P =⇒ Q.

2. Write: (⇐=) and give a proof of Q =⇒ P.

— 59 —
Proposition 12 Suppose that n is an integer. Then, n is even iff n2
is even.

P ROOF :

— 60 —
Divisibility