MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

1. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL TESTING

Material testing is very important to show the various properties of metals and the defects which
may found in it during production or during its service. Classifications of metal testing are
Destructive tests, Non- destructive tests, Technological tests, Chemical tests, Electrochemical test
and Metallography tests.
In the following the different classes of material tests will be discussed briefly.
1. Destructive tests
Destructive material tests are the kind of tests where the test specimen destroys after the test and
could not be used. The test specimens for destructive tests can be a sample taken out from a piece
of a semi-product (sheet, rod, section) and a sample of the final products (bolts, shafts), or any
simple structure. Destructive tests are tensile test, compression test, bending test, impact test, creep
test, stress relaxation test and fatigue test.
2. Non-destructive materials test
They are tests that carry out on specimens of material products or on specimens of machine parts
or structure during the service without changing their functions to find out their defects. The
following tests are classified as non-destructive tests namely Radio graphic test, Magnetic test,
Electrical test, Ultra-sonic test and some hardness test.
3. Technological tests
It is usually rapid methods, which give an idea whether metal is suitable for a special purpose or
not, e.g. testing a metal to know its liability to forging, rolling, bending or deep drawing.
Technological test such as:
a) Spark test - Some metal can be estimated by spark test wherever some metal gives spark
(Fe) and the others (Mo) not. The spark density, color & shape can also define the type of
metal under the testing.
b) Worm compression test - The shape and distribution of the cracks on carrying out a warm
compression gives an indication about the type and properties of the metal.
c) Bending test - Bending of sheets for several times, it gives an indication for the ability of
deep drawing of metal under testing.
d) Folding test - by folding the sheet to show its ability of forming.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 1

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

e) Hammering test - from the sound of hammer or the deformation resulting from the
hammering, some indications could be obtained about the metal.
Technological tests do not give a quantitative result, but give an idea about the different properties
of the metals or its stability for the working purposes.
4. Chemical tests
Chemical analysis is carried out on the metals and alloys for the following purposes i) To identify
the quantity and types of the inclusions (sulphides, oxides) and ii) To show the percentage of the
alloying elements.
5. Electrochemical test
The well-known electrochemical test is the corrosion test, to show the activity of the metals and
alloys in different environments; i.e. in different chemical medium and under different current
density. Other electrochemical experimental tests are the metal wining test (such as copper
refining) and metal plating.
6. Metallographic test
It is the study of microstructure of the specimen on the prepared cross section under an optical
microscope (up to a magnification of 2000X) or studying the macrostructure under low
magnification stereomicroscope (up to 20X). The purposes of metallographic are:-
a) Structure of phases; i.e. shape and distribution of graphite in grey cast iron, cementite in white
cast iron and distribution and area fraction of reinforcing component in composite materials.
b) Density and length of micro-cracks.
c) Grain size of the micro and macrostructure.
d) Type and morphology of the inclusions.
e) The form and distortion of the grain gives an indication about the type of deformation (rolling,
bending).
f) Identification of the type of stress leading to the failure of the damaged materials (creep failure,
fatigue, stress corrosion cracking).

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 2

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

2. METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
AIM: To conduct a Metallographic test to study the microstructure of different specimens
using metallurgical microscope and identify the materials.

APPARATUS: Metallurgical microscope

Fig:2.1; Metallurgical Microscope

THEORY: Optical Metallography, one of three general categories of metallography, entails

examination of materials using visible light to provide a magnified image of the micro and
macrostructure. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the second category, the surface of the
specimen is bombarded with a beam of electrons to provide information for producing an image.
Lastly, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) consists of passing a beam of electrons through
a very thin specimen and analyzing the transmitted beam for structural information. Microscopy
(Microstructural examination) involves magnifications of approximately 50X or higher
macroscopy (macrostructural examination), 50X or lower.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 3
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

The microstructures of metals and alloys are determined by composition, solidification processes,
and thermo mechanical treatment. Microstructure of a material dictates their response to service
environments. Because of the relationships between structure and properties, metallographic
characterization is used in materials specification, quality control, quality assurance, process
control, and failure analysis.
Typical structure-property relationships that have been established using optical metallography
include:
 A general increase in yield strength and hardness of a metal with decreasing grain size.
 A general tendency for a decreased ductility with increasing inclusion content.
 Correlations of weld penetration, heat-affected zone (HAZ) size, and weld-defect density with
the nature and character of the welding.
 Evaluation of such surface treatments as carburizing and induction hardening by determinations
of the depth and micro structural characteristics of the hardened region.
 Correlations of fatigue crack growth rates and fracture-toughness parameters with such structural
variables as inclusion content and distribution.
 Association of failure initiation sites with micro structural in homogeneities such as second-
phase particles.
 Correlations of anisotropic mechanical behavior with elongated grains and/or preferred grain
orientations.

Specimen Preparation:
1. Selection of specimen: Selection must be homogeneous in composition & characteristic of the
material, it should be of size convenient to handle (say 10mm dia X 10 mm). It is cut from the
metal / alloy with hacksaw or water-cooled slitting wheel.
2. Coarse grinding: It is necessary to obtain a flat specimen. This is done by using a specially
designed motor driven emery belt. The specimen should be kept cool by frequently dipping it
during grinding operation.
3. Polishing: Polishing is carried on water proof emery papers of progressively finer grades (220,
320, 400& 600) that are attached on a plane glass plate. The specimen is drawn back & forth along
with entire length of paper so that scratches produced are roughly at right angles, to those produced
by the preliminary grinding operation. Having removed the primary grinding scratch marks, the

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 4

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

specimen is washed thoroughly. Polishing is continued on 320, 400 & 600 papers by turning the
specimen 90 0 until the previous scratch marks are removed. Thoroughly wash the specimen in
water.
4. Fine scratches are removed by polished using a rotary polishing machine. The specimen is
polished by rubbing on a soft, moist velvet cloth mounted on a flat rotating disc with polishing
paste (alumina). During polishing, constant feed of water to the rotating pad is a must. After
polishing (by obtaining a scratch free/ mirror finish) the specimen is washed thoroughly in water.
5. Etching: Grain boundaries can be easily revealed revealed by using etching reagents which
selectively corrode the polished surface. Etching reagents used are 3% Nital (3cc Nitric acid and
97cc Ethanol) for ferrous materials and 50 cc Ammonium hydroxide, 20-50cc, hydrogen peroxide,
50cc water for brass and bronze. Etching time is 30 sec.
The specimen is immersed/ swabbed with above etchants for a short duration (10-30 sec) until the
polished surface becomes slightly dull/ discolored. It is thoroughly washed with water, alcohol and
dried. Now the specimen is ready for microstructure determination.

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Prepare the Metallurgical specimen as explained.
 Place the specimen below the objective lens of the microscope (on the specimen table).
 Illuminate the lamp by rotating the knob.
 Move the specimen table up or down by operating the knob of the table and to adjust the
light to be focused of sample material surface till clear image of specimen structure is
observed.
 Draw the sketch of the structure and identify the constituents and their distribution using
the image analysis software, photographs and compare.
 Identify the material on the basis of microstructure.
 Tabulate the material name, material number and the structure.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 5

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

OBSERVATIONS:

Specimen No Microstructure Name of the Material

RESULT:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 6

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 7

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

3. HARDNESS TEST

INTRODUCTION
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to permanent deformation such as indentation,
wear, abrasion, scratch. Principally, the importance of hardness testing has to do with the
relationship between hardness and other properties of material. Hardness and tensile tests measure
the resistance of materials to plastic flow, and results of these tests closely parallel each other.
Hardness test is preferred because it is simple, easy, and relatively nondestructive.

Hardness test is a mechanical test for material properties which are used in engineering design,
analysis of structures, and materials development. The principal purpose of the hardness test is to
determine the suitability of a material for a given application, or to find the particular treatment to
which the material has been subjected. The ease with which the hardness test can be conducted
has made it the most common method of inspection of materials.

Measuring Hardness
Hardness tests are conducted in a variety of ways, as indicated by the names of the tests as follows:
 Static indentation tests: A ball, cone, or pyramid is forced into the surface of the metal
being tested. The relationship of load to the area or depth of indentation is the measure of
hardness, such as in Brinell, Knoop, Rockwell, and Vickers hardness tests.
 Rebound tests: An object of standard mass and dimensions is bounced from the surface of
the work piece being tested, and the height of rebound is the measure of hardness.
Scleroscope and Leeb tests are examples.
 Scratch file tests: The idea is that one material is capable of scratching another. Moh’s and
file hardness tests are examples of this type. Moh’s hardness ranges from 1 to 10.
 Plowing tests: A blunt element (usually diamond) is moved across the surface of the
sample specimen under controlled conditions of load and shape. The width of the groove
is the measure of hardness. The Bierbaum test is an example.
 Damping tests: Hardness is determined by the change in amplitude of a pendulum having
a hard pivot, which rests on the surface of the workpiece being tested. The Herbert
Pendulum test is an example.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 8

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

 Cutting tests: A sharp tool of given shape is caused to remove a chip of standard
dimensions from the surface of the workpiece being tested.
 Abrasion tests: A workpiece is loaded against a rotating disk, and the rate of wear is the
measure of hardness.
 Erosion tests: Sand or other granular abrasive is impinged on the surface of the workpiece
being tested under standard conditions, and loss of material in a given time is the measure
of hardness. Hardness of grinding wheels is measured by this testing method.
 Electromagnetic testing: Hardness is measured as a variable against standards of known
flux density.
 Ultrasonic testing: A type of indentation test

Macro Hardness Test Methods

1. Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
cone or a hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a
preliminary minor load 0 (Fig. 3.1) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached,
an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to
changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. An additional
major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 3.1). When equilibrium
has again been reached, the additional major load is removed but maintaining the
preliminary minor load. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so
reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 3.1). The permanent increase in depth of
penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used
to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 9

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 3.1; Rockwell Principle

Fig: 3.2; Rockwell hardness tester

There are several considerations for Rockwell hardness test

- Require clean and well positioned indenter and anvil
- The test sample should be clean, dry, smooth and oxide-free surface
- The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter
- Low reading of hardness value might be expected on cylindrical surfaces
- Specimen thickness should be 10 times higher than the depth of the indenter
- The spacing between the indentations should be at least 3 times of the indentation diameter
- Loading speed should be standardized.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 10
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

2. Brinell Hardness Test

Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened
steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500
kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. Full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in cases
of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals-check for softer materials. The
diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. Brinell
harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation. When
the indentor is retracted two diameters of the impression, d1 and d2, in perpendicular directions, as
shown in fig.3.2(b), are measured using a microscope with a calibrated graticule and then averaged.

Fig: 3.3; Brinell Hardness Machine.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 11

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 3.4; Brinell Principle

Use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A
well-structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB
10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter
hardened steel with a 500 kgf load applied for a period of 30 seconds. For tests on extremely hard
metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test
methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the
hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain
structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for
achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with
heterogeneous structures.

3. Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter,
in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds.
The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load
are measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of
the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf
load by the area of indentation, in square mm.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 12

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 3.5; Diamond pyramid indenter used for the Vickers test and resulting indentation in the workpiece. d,
mean diagonal of the indentation in millimeters.

Fig: 3.6; Vicker’s indentations with equal diagonals but different areas, center one is right

Fig: 3.7; Vickers Principle

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 13

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 3.8; Vickers Hardness Test

Fig: 3.9; Vickers Hardness Test Parts

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 14

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be
calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness
should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a
10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on
uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other hardness
testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings
can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments.
Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials,
under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the
Brinell or Rockwell machines.
Disadvantages of the Vickers test are:

Test is slow and not well adapted for routine testing. Typical test and measurement times are in
the one-minute range. Careful surface preparation of the specimen is necessary, especially for
shallow indentations. Measurement of diagonals is operator dependent, with possible eyestrain and
fatigue adding to test errors.
Results
Samples will be selected to be tested by Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness test, the results
are given to students in the class lab.
a) For Brinell experiment, student has to calculate the BHN and depth of impression (h)
through the following formulas for each material tested:

- (3.1)

In the class, the values of P and d have been given to students.

b) For Rockwell experiment, student has to calculate the depth (ℎ2-ℎ1) due to the major load
through the following formulas for each used indenter:

- (3.2)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 15

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

c) For Vickers experiment, student has to calculate the VHN through the following formula for
each material tested:

- (3.3)
In the class, the values of P and d ( 1 and 2) had been given to students.

4. Scleroscope Hardness Test

The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass
tube under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of
the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is
arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which represent the average
rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than 100 to include
metals having greater hardness. The Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity
of the material and the hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds, the
harder the material, the higher the rebound.

5. Moh's Hardness Scale

The Moh's hardness scale for minerals has been used since 1822. It simply consists of 10 minerals
arranged in order from 1 to 10. Diamond is rated as the hardest and is indexed as 10; talc as the
softest with index number 1. Each mineral in the scale will scratch all those below it as follows:
The steps are not of equal value and the difference in hardness between 9 and 10 is much greater
than between 1 and 2. The hardness is determined by finding which of the standard minerals the
test material will scratch or not scratch; the hardness will lie between two points on the scale - the
first point being the mineral which is scratched and the next point being the mineral which is not
scratched. Some examples of the hardness of common metals in the Moh's scale are copper
between 2 and 3 and tool steel between 7 and 8. This is a simple test, but is not exactly quantitative
and the standards are purely arbitrary numbers.
The materials engineer and metallurgist find little use for the Moh's scale, but it is possible to sub-
divide the scale and some derived methods are still commonly used today. The file test is useful
as a rapid and portable qualitative test for hardened steels, where convention hardness testers are
not available or practical. Files can be tempered back to give a range of known hardness and then
used in a similar fashion to the Moh's method to evaluate hardness.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 16
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 3.9; Mohs Hardness for different materials

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 17

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

3.1 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM : To conduct a Brinell hardness test on the given specimen and to determine the Brinell
Hardness no of given metal.

APPARATUS: Brinell hardness tester, micrometer microscope, Indenters.

Theory: See pages 11-12

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Select the load and type of the indenter for the given metal from the standard table.
 Put the required load on the hanger in the back of the tester. Fix the indenter in the proper
place.
 Place the specimen on the anvil. Rotate the disc until the indenter touches the metal
surface. Further rotate the disc to apply the minor load till the pointer in the small dial
coincides with red mark.
 By operating the lever apply the load and wait till the lever becomes horizontal.
 Lower the anvil by rotating in the reverse direction and remove the metal.
 Determine the diameter of the indentation by microscope micrometer.
 Using the equation (3.1), material, load applied P, diameter of indenter calculates the
BHN and compare with that obtained from chart.
OBSERVATION:
Diameter of the Indenter, D = mm
Indentation diameter, d = mm

FORMULA: Equation (3.1), p15

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 18

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

TABULAR COLUMN:

Diameter of
Indentor indentation
B H N from B H N from
Sl. No. Material Load in Kg Diameter(D)
calculation Chart
in mm
d1 d2 d

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 19

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

3.2 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To conduct a Rockwell Hardness test on the given specimen and to determine the
Rockwell hardness no of given metal.

APPARATUS: Rockwell Hardness tester, micrometer microscope, Indenters.

Theory: See pages 9-10

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Prepare the specimen surface. There should be no rust, scale and uneven surface.
 Select the load and type of the indenter for the given metal from the standard table.
 Put the load on the hanger in the back side of the tester and fix the indenter in the proper
place.
 Place the specimen properly on the anvil. Rotate the disc until the indenter just touches the
metal surface, further rotate the disc to apply the minor load until the pointer in the small
dial coincides with red mark.
 By operating the lever apply the load and wait till the lever becomes horizontal.
 Lower the anvil by rotating in the reverse direction and remove the specimen.
 Determine the RHN by directly reading from the dial gauge.
 Repeat the tests for T1, T2, T3 what are these.

OBSERVATION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 20

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

TABULAR COLUMN:

Indentor diameter R H N from

Load in Average value
Sl. No. Material & Type dial reading
kg of R H N
T1 T2 T3

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 21

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

3.3 VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To conduct a Vickers’s Hardness test on the given specimen and to determine its
Vicker’s hardness number.

APPARATUS: Vicker’s Hardness tester, specimen.

Theory: see pages 12-16

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Select the weight according to the given metal
 Place the specimen on the anvil
 Set the weight and time of application of the load
 Bring the indenter to the position and press start switch.
 The load will be applied for the set duration and the indenter comes back
 Bring the microscope lens on the indentation and set the indentation position to take the
reading(diagonal)
 Calculate the V H N by formula and from the chart.

FORMULA: Equation (3.3), p 16

TABULAR COLUMN:

Length of diagonal
Average of VH N VH N
Sl. Load in
Material diagonal from from
No kg
d 1 in mm d2 in mm d=(d1+d2)/2 calculation Chart

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 22

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 23

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

4. HEAT TREATMENT
AIM: To conduct a Heat treatment of steels by Annealing, Normalizing, Quenching
(Hardening) and Tempering & to determine the changes in the Hardness of the metal.

APPARATUS: Heat treatment furnace, tongs, salt or oil bath and Hardness testers.

THEORY:
Principles of Heat Treating of Steels
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content between a few hundredth of a percent
up to about 2 wt%. Other alloying elements can amount in total to about 5 wt% in low-alloy steels
and higher in more highly alloyed steels such as tool steels and stainless steels. Steels can exhibit
a wide variety of properties depending on composition as well as the phases and micro constituents
present, which in turn depend on the heat treatment. Various types of heat treatment are described
below.

Annealing- Place the given specimen inside the furnace and switch on the furnace. Set the
temperature to the specified value by operating the temperature selecting knob.
% of carbon in steel Annealing temperature
0.1 to 0.5 950 oC to 810 oC
0.5 to 0.9 810 oC to 760 oC
0.9 to 1.3 760 oC to 780 oC
Hold the specimen at that temperature for 15 min (2.5 to 3 min per 1mm thickness), cool the
specimen in furnace or in good heat insulating material and after temperature reaches room
temperature measure the hardness.

Normalizing- Place the given specimen inside the furnace and switch on the furnace. Set the
temperature to the specified value by operating the temperature selecting knob between 8300C to
950 0C, hold the specimen at that temperature for 15 min (2.5 to 3 min per 1mm thickness). Cool
the specimen in the still air by placing it outside the furnace. After temperature reaches room
temperature measure the hardness.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 24

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Hardening (Quenching) - Place the given specimen inside the furnace and switch on the furnace.
Set the temperature to the specified value by operating the temperature selecting knob between
800 oC to 900 oC, hold the specimen at that temperature for 15 min (2.5 to 3 min per 1mm thickness).
Cool the specimen by dipping it in oil or water. After temperature reaches room temperature,
measure the hardness.
Tempering - Place the given specimen inside the furnace and switch on the furnace. Set the
temperature to the specified value by operating the temperature selecting knob between 150oC to
450 oC, hold the specimen at that temperature for 15 min (2.5 to 3 min per 1mm thickness). Cool
the specimen in the still air or any desired state by controlling the cooling temperature. After
temperature reaches room temperature measure the hardness.
[Reference from the book “Metallurgy for Engineers” by E. C. Rollason, 4 th Edition, Edward Arnold
Ltd.,1975 ]

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Preparation of specimen to measure hardness.
 Measure the hardness of the given specimen before the heat treatment
 Carry out the heat treatment as explained for each type
 Remove the scale formed on the surface of the heat-treated specimen and fond the hardness
of the specimen.

OBSERVATION:

Annealing Normalizing Hardening Tempering

Material
temperature temperature temperature temperature

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 25

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

TABULAR COLUMN:

Vickers
Temperature for Rockwell hardness no Percentage
Material hardness no
Heat treatment difference
Before After Before After

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 26

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

5. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Non-destructive Testing is one part of the function of Quality Control and is complementary to
other long-established methods. By definition non-destructive testing is the testing of materials,
for surface or internal flaws or metallurgical condition, without interfering in any way with the
integrity of the material or its suitability for service. The technique can be applied on a sampling
basis for individual investigation or may be used for 100% checking of material in a production
quality control system. Whilst being a high technology concept, evolution of the equipment has
made it robust enough for application in any industrial environment at any stage of manufacture -
from steelmaking to site inspection of components already in service.
A certain degree of skill is required to apply the techniques properly in order to obtain the
maximum amount of information concerning the product, with consequent feed back to the
production facility. Non-destructive Testing is not just a method for rejecting substandard material;
it is also an assurance that the supposedly good is good. The technique uses a variety of principles;
there is no single method around which a black box may be built to satisfy all requirements in all
circumstances. What follows is a brief description of the methods most commonly used in industry,
together with details of typical applications, functions and advantages. The methods covered are:
 Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
 Magnetic Particle Crack Detection
 Dye Penetrant Testing
 Radiography
 Eddy Current and Electro- Magnetic testing
 Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

1. Introduction to Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

This technique is used for the detection of internal and surface (particularly distant surface) defects
in sound conducting materials. The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short
pulse of ultrasound is generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezo electric crystal,
which vibrates for a very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of the crystal. In flaw
detection this frequency is usually in the range of one million to six million times per second (1
MHz to 6 MHz). Vibrations or sound waves at this frequency have the ability to travel a
considerable distance in homogeneous elastic material, such as many metals with little attenuation.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 27

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

The velocity at which these waves propagate is related to the Young’s Modulus for the material
and is characteristic of that material. For example, the velocity in steel is 5900 meters per second,
and in water 1400 meters per second.
The standard method of presenting information in ultrasonic testing is by means of a cathode ray
tube, in which horizontal movement of the spot from left to right represents time elapsed. The
principle is not greatly different in digitized instruments that have an LCD flat screen. The rate at
which the spot moves is such that it gives the appearance of a horizontal line on the screen. The
system is synchronized electronically so that at the instant the probe receives its electrical pulse
the spot begins to traverse the screen. An upward deflection (peak) of the line on the left-hand side
of the screen is an indication of this occurrence. This peak is usually termed the initial pulse.
Whilst the base line is perfectly level the crystal is quiescent. Any peaks to the right of the initial
pulse indicate that the crystal has received an incoming pulse reflected from one or more interfaces
in the material. Since the spot moves at a very even speed across the tube face, and the pulse of
ultrasonic waves moves at a very even velocity through the material, it is possible to calibrate the
horizontal line on the screen in terms of absolute measurement. The use of a calibration block,
which produces a reflection from the back wall a known distance away from the crystal together
with variable controls on the flaw detector, allows the screen to be calibrated in units of distance,
and therefore determination of origins of returned pulses obtained from a test piece.

Fig:5.1; Illustration of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 28

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Advantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

• Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested.
• Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
• Instant test results.
• Portable.
• Extremely sensitive if required.
• Capable of being fully automated.
• Access to only one side necessary.
• No consumables.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
• No permanent record available unless one of the more sophisticated test results and data
collection systems is used.
• The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not whilst the test is in progress.
• Indications require interpretation (except for digital wall thickness gauges).
• Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information from the test.
• Very thin sections can prove difficult.

2. Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in magnetic
material, mainly steel and iron.
The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines running
along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the flux lines approach a
discontinuity, they will stray out in to the air at the mouth of the crack. The crack edge becomes
magnetic attractive poles North and South. These have the power to attract finely divided particles
of magnetic material such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are of an oxide of iron in the size
range 20 to 30 microns, and are suspended in a liquid which provides mobility for the particles on
the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack edges. However, in some
instances they can be applied in a dry powder form.
The particles can be red or black oxide, or they can be coated with a substance, which fluoresces
brilliantly under ultra-violet illumination (black light). The object is to present as great a contrast
as possible between the crack indication and the material background. The technique not only

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 29

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

detects those defects which are not normally visible to the unaided eye, but also renders easily
visible those defects which would otherwise require close scrutiny of the surface.
In the direct method high amperage current is passed through the subject and magnetic flux is
generated at right angles to the current flow. Therefore, the current flow should be in the same line
as the suspected defect.
If it is not possible to carry out this method because of the orientation of the defect, then the indirect
method must be used. This can be one of two forms:
1. Passing a high current through a coil that encircles the subject.
2. Making the test piece form part of a yoke, which is wound with a current carrying coil? The
effect is to pass magnetic flux along the part to reveal transverse and circumferential defects.

(a) (b)

Fig: 5.2; Schematic arrangement for detecting a) Longitudinal defects b) transverse and
circumferential defects

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Simplicity of operation and application.
• Quantitative.
• Can be automated, apart from viewing. (Though modern developments in automatic defect
recognition can be used in parts of simple geometry e.g. billets and bars. In this case a special
camera captures the defect indication image and processes it for further display and action)
Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection
• Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
• Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
• Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not carried out properly.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 30

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

3. Introduction to Dye Penetrant Testing

This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non-ferromagnetic
materials. The subject to be examined is first of all chemically cleaned, usually by vapor phase, to
remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the surface generally, and also from
within the cracks.
Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-violet fluorescent)
is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for approximately fifteen minutes.
Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack during this period.
The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely and thin coating of powdered
chalk is applied. After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the crack,
rather like blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good contrast to the
background.
The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used may be applied
in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the simplest end to dipping in large tanks on
an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system requires sophisticated tanks, spraying and
drying equipment but the principle remains the same.

Fig: 5.3 Illustration of Dye Penetrant Testing

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 31

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Simplicity of operation.
• Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
• Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing. (See automatic defect
recognition in Magnetic Particle Inspection)
• Quantative.

Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Restricted to surface breaking defects only.
• Decreased sensitivity.
• Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 32

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

5.1 ULTRA SONIC FLAW DETECTION TEST

AIM: To conduct an Ultra sonic flaw detection test on the given specimen and to determine
Sub-surface cracks and defects in the specimen.

APPARATUS: Ultrasonic flaw detector, Oscilloscope, Calibration block, Test probes.

Theory: see pages 27-29

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Clean the surface of the specimen to be tested.

 Apply oil on the surface of the specimen and surface of the probe.
 Make connections to the CRO and adjust the time interval in milli seconds.
 Observe the input pulse and output pulse on the screen.
 Calculate the location of the defect with time pulse.
 Repeat this for different location and tabulate the reading.

OBSERVATION:
Surface Flaws
Distance from the By Measurement
Sl. No By U S F Detector
reference

Internal Flaws

Sl. No Distance from the reference By U S F Detector

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 33

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 34

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

5.2 MAGENTIC CRACK DETECTOR

AIM: To conduct a Magnetic crack detector test on the given specimen and to determine
Surface and sub-surface cracks.

APPARATUS: Magnetic yoke, ferrous powder and blower.

Theory: see pages 29-30

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Clean the surface of the component to remove oil and dust.

 Sprinkle the iron powder on the location where the test is to be carried out
 Connect the magnetic probe to the power supply.
 Place the two probes to the location of test
 By pressing the knob of the probe blow the air gently on the iron powder.
 The iron powder will be sticking to the surface of the specimen below which the crack or
discontinuity will exists.
 Identify the location of the defect.

OBSERVATION:
Visual inspection of the material

Model No. Defects Identified Remarks

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 35

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Observed defects on the surface =
Location of the defect on the sub surface =

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 36

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

5.3 DYE PENETRANT TEST

AIM: To conduct a Dye penetrant test on the given specimen and to determine surface and
Sub surface cracks.

APPARATUS: Cleaner, Developer, Penetrator, Waste cloth.

Theory: see pages 31-32

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Clean the surface of the component to remove dust and oil.
 Using wire brush remove scale and other dirt.
 Spray the cleaner liquid on the surface and wash it with cloth
 Apply the penetrator on the surface.
 Remove the excess penetrator on the surface by cloth
 Apply the developer and wait for few seconds
 Identify the red mark on the surface where the penetrator starts coming out of the crack.
 Record the defects present on the surface.

OBSERVATION:
Visual inspection of the material

Defects
Model No. Remarks
identified

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 37

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Observed defects on the surface =

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 38

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

6. TENSILE TEST
AIM: To conduct a tensile test on the mild steel specimen and to determine Young’s modulus
and yield stress as well as σ – ε characteristics of the material.

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine (electronic), Vernier caliper, extensometer and

Scale.

THEORY:
The Tension Test is one of the most commonly used tests for evaluating materials. In its simplest
form, the tension test is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of a test item within the load
frame of a test machine. A tensile force is applied by the machine, resulting in the gradual
elongation and eventual fracture of the test item. During this process, force-extension data, a
quantitative measure of how the test item deforms under the applied tensile force are monitored
and recorded. When properly conducted, the tension test provides data to quantify several
important mechanical properties of a material.
These mechanical properties determined from tension tests include, but are not limited to, the
following:
 Elastic deformation properties, such as the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) and
Poisson's ratio
 Yield strength and tensile strength
 Ductility properties, such as elongation and reduction in area
 Strain-hardening characteristics

Fig:6.1; Schematic of a basic servo hydraulic, closed-loop testing machine

Note: While the yield strength of steels varies from 100MPa - 2000MPa with composition
and heat treatment, the modulus of elasticity varies only slightly 195GPa - 210 GPa.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 39

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 6.2; 40Ton (40T) Universal Testing Machine

(a) (b)

Fig: 6.2; a) Attachment for Tension Test for shouldered and threaded specimens b) Tension Test

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 40

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 6.3; A typical tensile specimen used for the test

Fig: 6.4; Engineering stress-strain curve. Intersection of the dashed line with the curve determines the offset
yield strength.

Fig: 6.5; Deformed shape of the specimen

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 41

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 6.5; Stress strain curve for mild steel

Fig: 6.6; Vernier Caliper

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Measure the diameter of the specimen at different locations along the gauge length;
calculate the average diameter, mark and measure the gauge length of the specimen by
marking the reference end points using Vernier caliper.
 Using the controls of the machine firmly fix the specimen into the grips between upper and
middle cross head.
 Fix the extensometer in the gauge length region and connect it to the control unit.
 In the software open the main menu
Select create - new from file menu
Specify the file name

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 42

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Select the test type

Substitute the diameter and gauge length
Enter the controlling parameter
The graph will appear and specify the X-axis and Y –axis limits
Select tare load.
 After starting the UTM. In the software select start.
 Note down the corresponding load and displacement values at regular intervals.
 Note down yield point.
 Continue noting load and displacements values. Note the maximum load at fracture point.
 After failure remove the specimen and place the broken specimen together and determine the
diameter at fracture and final gauge length.
 Remove the Extensometer.
 Tabulate the values and calculate stresses and strains
 Draw the graph of stress v/s strain, from the graph take slope in the linear region (elastic) and
calculate the Young’s modulus
 Calculate other mechanical properties using the formula.

OBSERVATION:
Initial gauge length, Li = mm

Initial Diameter, Di = mm

Final gauge length, Lf = mm

Final Diameter, Df = mm

Maximum load, Pmax = kN

Load at yield point, Py = kN

Load at fracture, Pf = kN

Specimen Calculations:

Initial area, Ai = π/4 x Di2 = mm2

Final area, Af = π/4 x Df 2 =

mm2
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 43
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Yield stress, σy = Py / Ai = N/mm2

Ultimate stress, σu = Pmax / Ai = N/mm2

Fracture stress, σf = Pf/ Ai = N/mm2

Percentage reduction in area = (Ai- Af / Ai ) x 100 =

Percentage increase in length = (Lf -Li / Li ) x 100 =

Young’s modulus – Stress / Strain (taken in linear region) = Slope of the line=

SKETCH OF THE SPECIMEN -

Tabular column-
Least Count of the Vernier Caliper =

Diameter of the specimen

Sl no MSR CVD TR= MSR+ (CVD x LC)

Initial diameter
Final diameter

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 44

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Extension (dl ) Stress P / Ai

Sl.No. Load(P) in kN Strain dl / Lo
in mm in kN/mm2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 45

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 46

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 47

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Ultimate stress, σu =

Fracture stress, σf =

Percentage reduction in area =

Percentage increase in length =

Young’s modulus =

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 48

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

7. COMPRESSION TEST
AIM: To conduct a compression test on the given specimen and to determine Young’s
modulus and fracture stress (ultimate stress).

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine (electronic), Vernier caliper, extensometer and

scale.

THEORY:
The compression test consists of deforming a cylindrical specimen to produce a shorter
cylinder of larger diameter (upsetting). The compression test is a convenient method for
determining the stress-strain response of materials at large strains (ε > 0.5) because the test is not
subject to the instability of necking that occurs in a tension test. It is more convenient because the
compression test specimen is relatively easy to make, and it does not require a large amount of
material. The compression test is frequently used to evaluate the workability of materials,
especially at elevated temperature, because most deformation processes, like forging, have a high
component of compressive stress. The test is also used with brittle materials, for which it is
extremely difficult to machine a specimen and tensile test it in perfect alignment.
There are two inherent difficulties with the compression test that must be overcome by the
test technique: buckling of the specimen and barreling of the specimen. Both conditions cause non
uniform stress and strain distributions in the specimen that make it difficult to analyze the results.
Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by an unstable lateral material deflection caused by
compression. Buckling is controlled by selecting specimen geometry with a low length-to-
diameter ratio. L/D less than 2 and a compression specimen with L/D = 1 is often used. It also is
important to have a very well aligned load train and to ensure that the end faces of the specimen
are parallel and perpendicular to the load axis. Barreling is the generation of a convex surface on
the exterior of a cylinder that is deformed in compression. This is due to the prevention of the
lateral movement of the specimen parts adjacent to the compression plates and can be reduced by
lubricating the faces to reduce friction that causes constraint on the movement.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 49

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

(a) (b) (c)

Fig: 7.1; a) Compression Specimen b) & c) Stages of compression

Fig: 7.2; Photography of samples after compression test

Fig: 7.3; a) Photography of a specimen showing flow of grains and b) A schematic of the same.

Fig: 7.4; Photography of sample stages after compression test

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 50

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 7.5; 40Ton (40T) Universal Testing Machine

Fig: 7.6; Vernier Caliper

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Measure the diameter of the specimen at different locations calculates the average
diameter along the length and find the length of the specimen using Vernier caliper.
 Locate the specimen centrally between lower and middle cross head firmly.
 In the software open the main menu
Select create - new from file menu

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 51

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Specify the file name

Select the test type - compression
Substitute the diameter and gauge length
Enter the controlling parameter
The graph will appear and specify the X-axis and Y –axis limits
Select tare load.
 After starting the UTM in the software select start
 Note down the corresponding load and displacement values at regular interval.
 Note down yield point and fracture point with corresponding load values.
 After failure remove the specimen and place the broken specimen together and determine the
diameter and final length.
 Tabulate the values and calculate stress and strain
 Draw the graph of stress v/s strain, from the graph take slope in the linear region (elastic) and
calculate the young’s modulus
 Calculate other mechanical properties using the formula.

SKETCH OF THE SPECIMEN

OBSERVATION:

Initial gauge length, Li = mm

Initial Diameter, Di = mm

Final gauge length, Lf = mm

Final Diameter, Df = mm

Maximum load, Pmax = kN

Load at fracture, Pf = kN
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 52
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Specimen Calculations:

Initial area, Ai = π/4 x Di2 = mm2

Final area, Af = π/4 x Df 2 = mm2

Ultimate stress, σu = Pmax / Ai = N/mm2

Fracture stress, σf = Pf / Ai = N/mm2

Percentage increase in area = (Af - Ai / Ai) x 100 =

Percentage decrease in length= (Li - Lf / Li) x 100 =

Young’s modulus – Stress / strain =

(taken in linear region)

TABULAR COLUMN:
Least Count of the Vernier Caliper =

Diameter of the specimen

Sl. No MSR CVD TR= MSR+ (CVD x LC)
Initial diameter

Final diameter

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 53

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Deformation (dl) Stress P / Ai

Sl. No. Load(P) in kN Strain dl / Lo
mm in kN/mm2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 54

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 55

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 56

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:

Yield stress, σy =

Ultimate stress, σu =

Fracture stress, σf =

Percentage reduction in area =

Percentage increase in length =

Young’s modulus =

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 57

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

8. BENDING TEST
AIM: To conduct a Bending test on the given specimen and to determine Young’s modulus
and maximum bending stress.

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine (electronic), Vernier calipers, extensometer, scale,

Dial gauge.

THEORY:
Bend Tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material. The tests
typically used are discussed in this article with details on test methods, apparatus, procedures,
specimen preparation, and interpretation and reporting of results. The section “Bending Ductility
Tests” also includes representative test data for many metals.
Bend or flexure testing is common in springs and brittle materials whose failure behaviors
are linear such as concretes, stones, woods, plastics, glasses and ceramics. Other types of brittle
materials such as powder metallurgy processed metals and materials are normally tested under a
transverse flexure. Bend test is therefore suitable for evaluating strength of brittle materials where
interpretation of tensile test result of the same material is difficult due to breaking of specimens
around specimen gripping. The evaluation of the tensile result is therefore not valid since the failed
areas are not included in the specimen gauge length. Smooth rectangular specimens without
notches are generally used for bend testing under three-point or four-point bend arrangements as
shown in figs 8.1 a) and b) respectively.

Fig: 8.1; Bend testing of a rectangular bar under a) three-point bend and b) four-point bend arrangements
Considering a three-point bend test of an elastic material, when the load P is applied at the midspan
of specimen in an x-y plane, stress distribution across the specimen width (w = 2c) is demonstrated
in figure 8.1 a). The stress is essentially zero at the neutral axis N-N. Stresses in the y axis in the

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 58

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

positive direction represent tensile stresses whereas stresses in the negative direction represent
compressive stresses. Within the elastic range, brittle materials show a linear relationship of load
and deflection where yielding occurs on a thin layer of the specimen surface at the midspan. This
in turn leads to crack initiation which finally proceeds to specimen failure. Ductile materials
however provide load-deflection curves which deviate from a linear relationship before failure
takes place as opposed to those of brittle materials previously mentioned. Furthermore, it is also
difficult to determine the beginning of yielding in this case. The stress distribution of a ductile
material after yielding is given in figure 8.2 b). Therefore, it can be seen that bend testing is not
suitable for ductile materials due to difficulties in determining the yield point of the materials under
bending and the obtained stress-strain curve in the elastic region may not be linear. The results
obtained might not be validated. As a result, the bend test is therefore more appropriate for testing
of brittle materials whose stress-strain curves show its linear elastic behavior just before the
materials fail

Figure: 8.2; Stress distributions in a rectangular bar when a) elastically bended and b) after yielding

Fig: 8.3; Vernier Caliper

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 59

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 8.4; 40Ton (40T) Universal Testing Machine

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Measure the breadth and depth of the specimen at different locations along its length.
Calculate the averages and find the length of the specimen using Vernier caliper.
 Place the specimen on the two-roller support properly.
 Measure the distance between the rollers supports place the specimen between lower and
middle cross head.
 In the software open the main menu
Select create - new from file menu
Specify the file name
Select the test type – Tension (bending)
Substitute the b and d of the rod and gauge length
Enter the controlling parameter
The graph will appear and specify the X-axis and Y –axis limits
Select tare load.
 After starting the UTM in the software select start
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 60
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

 Note down the corresponding load and displacement values at regular intervals.
 Note down yield point and fracture point with corresponding load values.
 Tabulate load v/s deflection and draw the graph and take slope in the linear region
 Using the formula calculate young’s modulus and bending stress.

OBSERVATION:

Breadth of the specimen, b = mm

Depth of the specimen, d = mm

Length of the specimen, L = mm

(Length between supports)
Gauge length of the specimen, Lo = mm
Load at fracture (Max load), Wmax = kN

Maximum defection, Ymax = mm

Specimen Calculations:

Bending Equation M/I = σ/y = E/R

Moment of inertia, I = (b x d 3) / 12

= mm4

Bending moment, M = Wmax x L / 4

= kN-mm (also = N-m)

Young’s modulus E = [∂W/∂y) Lo3] / 48 I, where ∂W/∂y is slope of liner portion of the curve.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 61

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Maximum bending stress σb = [ (M x Lo ) / 4 ] / {(b x d 2) / 6}

Maximum deflection Ymax = [Wmax.x Lo3 ] / 48 E I

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. No Load(W) in N Deflection (y) in mm

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 62

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 63

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 64

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:

Young’s modulus E = N//mm2

Maximum bending stress σb = N//mm2

Maximum déflection Y max = mm

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 65

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

9. TORSION TEST
AIM: To conduct a torsion test on the given specimen and to determine modulus of rigidity
and ultimate shear stress.

APPARATUS: Torsion testing machine (electronic), Specimen, Vernier caliper.

THEORY:
Torsion tests can be carried out on most materials, using standard specimens, to determine
mechanical properties such as modulus of rigidity, yield shear strength, ultimate shear strength,
modulus of rupture in shear, and ductility. Torsion tests can also be carried out on full-size parts
(shafts, axles, and twist drills) and structures (beams and frames) to determine their response to
torsional loading. In torsion testing, unlike tension testing and compression testing, large strains
can be applied before plastic instability occurs, and complications due to friction between the test
specimen and dies do not arise. Torsion tests are most frequently carried out on prismatic bars of
circular cross section by applying a torsional moment about the longitudinal axis.
The shear stress versus shear strain curve can be determined from simultaneous
measurements of the torque and angle of twist of the test specimen over a predetermined gage
length.
In torsional testing of prismatic bars of circular cross section, it is assumed that:
Bar material is homogeneous and isotropic.

Twist per unit length along the bar is constant.

Sections that are originally plane to the torsional axis remain plane after deformation.

The maximum shear stress can be calculated from knowledge of the torsional loading and bar
geometry. When the surface shear stress (Tzθ) max of a solid bar during torsional loading reaches
the yield shear stress (k) of the test material, plastic deformation (flow) occurs. The deformation
zone begins at the surface of the bar and advances inward as an annulus surrounding an elastic
core. The stress distributions are shown schematically in Fig9.1 for a non-work-hardening and a
work-hardening material.

Torsion Equation T/J = Gθ /L = τ /r (9.1)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 66

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 9.1; Stress Distribution

Fig: 9.2; Graph showing Torque v/s Angle of twist

Fig: 9.3; Specimen under Torsion

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 67

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 9.4; Types of failures in torsion

Fig: 9.5; Torsion Testing Machine

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 68

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

SKETCH OF THE SPECIMEN:

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Measure the diameter of the specimen at different places along the length and calculate
the average length.
 Measure the gauge length of the specimen.
 Mark a line along the length of the specimen.
 Fix the specimen in the grips.
 Set the dial reading to zero and adjust the range of values in the dial by placing the proper
weight in the hanger behind the machine.
 Start rotating the crank and note down the values of the Torque and angle of twist for
regular interval.
 Continue this till the fracture and note down the maximum torque.
 Draw the graph of torque v/s angle of twist. and find the slope in the linear region
 Calculate the modulus of rigidity and maximum shear stress by formula.

OBSERVATION:

Diameter of the specimen, d = mm

Gauge Length of the specimen, L = mm

Maximum angle of twist, θ = radians

Maximum torque, T max = N-mm

Specimen Calculations:

Torsion Equation T/J = Gθ /L = τ /r

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 69

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Polar Moment of inertia, J = (π x d 4) / 32

= mm4

Modulus of rigidity, G = (L / J) x (T / θ)

(T / θ) is slope of linear portion of the curve.

Maximum Shear stress, τ = T max x (d/2) / J

Tabular column:

Least count of Vernier caliper =

Diameter of the specimen

Sl. No MSR CVD TR= MSR + (CVD x LC)

Torque (T) Angle of twist (θ)

Sl. No
Kg-cm N-mm Degrees radians

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 70

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 71

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 72

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Modulus of rigidity G = N/mm2
Maximum Shear stress = N/mm2

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 73

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

10. SHEAR TEST

AIM: To conduct a shear test on the given specimen and to determine maximum shear stress
in Single shear and Double shear.

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine (electronic), Vernier caliper, extensometer, scale,

Dial gauge.

THEORY:
Shear Loading
The torsion test described above subject’s material to shear stress in a twisting mode, but
shear stresses also occur in a translational mode. In all of these examples, the average shear stress
acting on the shear planes is:
τ = F/As where F is the load transmitted and As is the total area of the shear planes. For design
against failure, this shear stress must be less than the shear strength of the material.

Fig: 10.1; Double and single shear

Fig: 10.2; Vernier Caliper

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 74
MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Measure diameter of the specimen using venire caliper.
 Fix the specimen in the shear attachment for either single shear or double shear
 By operating up and down movement button place the shear attachment in between lower
and middle cross head.
 In the software open the main menu
Select create - new from file menu
Specify the file name
Select the test type – Tension (bending)
Substitute the diameter of the rod
Enter the controlling parameter
The graph will appear and specify the X-axis and Y –axis limits
Select tare load.
 After starting the UTM in the software select start
 note down the maximum load at fracture
 Using the formula calculate maximum shear stress.

OBSERVATION:

Diameter of the specimen d = mm

Max Shear force, P = kN

Specimen Calculations:

Cross sectional area A= (π x d 2) / 4 = mm2

Maximum Shear stress (single shear) = P/A

Maximum Shear stress (double shear) = P / 2A

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 75

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Tabular column:

Diameter of the specimen

Ultimate shear
Type of shear test Diameter Area Load at fracture
stress

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 76

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Maximum Shear stress (single shear) = N/mm2

Maximum Shear stress (double shear) = N/mm2

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 77

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

11. IMPACT TEST

Toughness is defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy. It is usually characterized by
the area under a stress-strain curve for a smooth (un-notched) tension specimen loaded slowly to
fracture. Notch toughness represents the ability of a material to absorb energy usually determined
under impact loading in the presence of a notch. Notch toughness is measured by using a variety
of specimens such as the Charpy V-notch impact specimen, the dynamic-tear specimen, and plane-
strain fracture-toughness specimens under static loading (KIc) and under impact loading (KId).

Ductile-to-Brittle Fracture Transition. Traditionally, the notch-toughness characteristics of low-

and intermediate-strength steels have been described in terms of the transition from ductile to
brittle behavior as test temperature increases. Most structural steels can fail in either a ductile or a
brittle manner depending on several conditions such as temperature, loading rate, and constraint.
The most widely used specimen for characterizing the ductile-to-brittle transition behavior of
steels has been the Charpy V-notch impact specimen, which is described in ASTME 23. These
specimens may be tested at different temperatures and the impact notch toughness at each test
temperature may be determined from the energy absorbed during fracture, the percent shear
(fibrous) fracture on the fracture surface, or the change in the width of the specimen (lateral
expansion). An example of the ductile-to-brittle transition with temperature for each of these
parameters is presented in Fig 11.1. The actual values for each parameter and the locations of the
curves along the temperature axis are usually different for different steels and even for a given
steel composition.

Fig: 11.1; Ductile to brittle transition

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 78

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 11.2; Dimensional details of Charpy test specimens most commonly used for evaluation of notch
toughness. (a) V-notch specimen (ASTM E 23 and ISO 148). (b) Keyhole specimen (ASTM E 23). (c) Unotch
specimen (ASTM E 23 and ISO 83)

Fig: 11.3; Different Impact test

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 79

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Izod impact testing uses a specimen with a V-notch (Fig.11.3) that is similar to the Charpy V-
notch specimen. The principal difference is that the specimen is gripped at one end only, allowing
the cantilevered end to be struck by the pendulum (Fig.11.3). An advantage of this method is that
several notches can be made in a single specimen and the ends broken off one at a time. The
disadvantage that has caused it to lose popularity is that the required time for and method of
clamping the specimen in an anvil precludes low-temperature testing. Izod specimens can also be
round. Many testing machines can be used for both Charpy and Izod testing.

(a) (b)

Fig: 11.4; a) Mounting of Specimen b) Impact testing machine

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 80

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

11. 1 CHARPY IMPACT TEST

AIM: To conduct an Impact test on the given specimen and to determine relative impact
Strength by Charpy impact test.

APPARATUS: Impact testing machine, Vernier caliper, Scale.

Theory: Pages 75-77

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Determine the dimension of the specimen along with the notch
 Without fixing the specimen check the arrangement of the pendulum and dial pointer
 Fix the pendulum holder at an angle of 141.48 for Charpy test and adjust the pointer on the
scale to read 168 J.
 Without the specimen fixed in the table release the pendulum and observe the pointer note
down any deviation as error.
 Fix the specimen as shown in fig and adjust the pointer to read 168 J.
 Release the pendulum and note down the reading counting the divisions from zero reading
of the scale.
 Calculate impact strength by formula.

OBSERVATION:

Length of the specimen, l = mm

Breadth of the specimen, b = mm

Depth of the specimen, d = mm

Depth of the Notch, d1 = mm

Weight of the pendulum, W = N

Length of the pendulum, L = m

Angle of fall, α =

Angle of Rise, β =

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 81

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

FORMULAE:

Fracture energy U = W L (Cos β – Cos α)

Area, A = b (d - d 1)

= mm2

Impact Energy per unit area = U / A = J / mm2

Tabular column:

Impact strength by Impact strength

scale by formula

Impact Strength, J

Impact Strength per

unit area, J/mm2

RESULT:
Charpy Impact strength per unit area = J / mm2

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 82

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

11.2 IZOD IMPACT TEST

AIM: To conduct an Impact test on the given specimen and to determine relative impact
strength by Izod impact test.

APPARATUS: Impact testing machine, Vernier caliper, Scale.

Theory: Pages 75-77

INSTRUCTIONS:
 Determine the dimension of the specimen along with the notch
 Without fixing the specimen check the arrangement of the pendulum and dial pointer
 Fix the pendulum holder at an angle of 90o for Charpy test and adjust the pointer on the
scale to read 168 J.
 Without the specimen fixed in the table release the pendulum and observe the pointer note
down any deviation as error.
 Fix the specimen as shown in fig and adjust the pointer to read 168 J.
 Release the pendulum and note down the reading counting the divisions from zero reading
of the scale.
 Calculate impact strength by formula

OBSERVATION:
Length of the specimen, l = mm

Breadth of the specimen, b = mm

Depth of the specimen, d = mm

Depth of the Notch, d1 = mm

Weight of the pendulum, W = N

Length of the pendulum, L = mm

Angle of fall, α =

Angle of Rise, β =

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 83

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

FORMULAE :

Fracture energy U = W L (Cos β – Cos α)

Area, A = b (d-d1)

= mm2

Impact Energy per unit area = U / A

= J / mm2

Tabular column:

Impact strength by Impact strength

scale by formula

Impact Strength, J

Impact Strength per

unit area, J/mm2

RESULT:
Izod Impact strength per unit area = J / mm2

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 84

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

12. Wear Test

AIM: To Determine the wear coefficient of the given material and to find volume loss and
Weight loss for the given load.

APPARATUS: Pin on disc testing machine, Vernier caliper, weighting balance, stop watch.

THEORY:
Wear is the progressive loss of substance from the operating surface. The usual classification of
types of wear is abrasive wear; most examples in practice are a combination of two or more of
these.
“Abrasive wear”– abrasion is virtually a cutting action which may result from loose, hard particles
sliding between two mating surfaces. It can also arise when one pair of rubbing surfaces is itself
rough. The loose particles may be dirt from the environment or wear debris.
Adhesive wear:
If a tangential force is applied between two sliding blocks, shearing can take place either at the
original interface or along a path below or above it, causing adhesive wear. Adhesive wear arises
when junctions weld together, becomes broken by relative motion and wear particle result. In the
case of a steel shaft rotating in a broken bearing, it is not uncommon to find traces of broken film
on the shaft thus indicating adhesive wear.
Fretting wear:
When a small relative slipping motion takes between two surfaces the result is an amount of fine
wear debris and this wear is designated as fretting wear.
Fatigue wear:
Wear due to dynamic loading is called fatigue wear. Balls and rollers are subject to very high
alternating stresses and when these are above the endurance limit, small cracks will result followed
by pitting and spalling.
Erosive wear: Wear due to impact of particles is called erosive wear. A popular example is sand
blasting.
There are several testing materials for measure of wear. The simplest is pin on disc machine in
which a loaded pin is pressed on to rotating disc. The amount of wear after a given amount of
rubbing is measured either by loss of weight of specimen or dimensional changes.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 85

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Common types of wear and mechanical surface damage

Category Characteristics
Sliding wear Tangential motion and traction between surfaces
2 body abrasive
wear Wear by fixed hard particles moving along a surface
3 body abrasive
wear Wear by hard particles passing between opposing bodies
Adhesive wear Wear arising from the localized adhesion of one surface to another, which
results in plastic deformation and fracture with the transfer of detached
material to the opposing surface
Fretting wear Wear arising from short-amplitude oscillations or tangential contact
vibrations
Fatigue wear Wear involving the nucleation and propagation of surface and/or subsurface
cracks under cyclic tangential forces arising from sliding contact
Polishing wear Fine-scale wears by the action of hard particles, electromechanical
processes or both
Impact wear Normal forces acting cyclically on surfaces
Single-body impact
Wear Wear from the repeated impact of a second body

Rolling contact Wear from the accumulation of surface damage during the cyclic stressing
Wear of one body rolling over or along another v Surface damage other than
wear (examples) Loss or displacement of material from a surface owing
to mechanical contact in some form.
Chipping Removal of material from a surface, generally involving brittle crack
propagation and the production of shell-like features. Chipping commonly
occurs at sharp corners or edges of brittle contact surfaces.
Scratching Production of one or more shallow grooves in a surface by a hard-counter
body moving tangentially along the surface

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 86

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 12.1; Schematic diagram of pin-on-abrasive disk wear apparatus. I, current; V, potential; Ng, normal
acceleration (up and down motion of pin specimen as a result of interaction with abrasive disk); f, frictional
force of pin-abrasive disk couple; Vs, sliding speed of disk.

Fig:12.2; Pin on disc wear testing machine

Fig:12.3; Wear curve for ASTM A 514, type B low-alloy steel showing nonlinear and linear portions of
volume loss versus sliding distance data. Normal force, 1.4 N (0.3 lbf); sliding speed, 0.1 m/s.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 87

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 12.4; Wear curves of volume loss versus time for different materials worn against high silica quartzite.

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Select the material to be tested in the form of cylindrical rod (pin)

 Clean it thoroughly and find out the length & weight of the pin (LI, W1)
 Fix the specimen in the chuck
 Find out the distance if the central axis and the Centre of the pin R, and put the weight on
the hanger
 Start the motor so that the disc rotates at desired speed
 After 3 or 4 min as set time the motor will stop automatically.
 Remove the pin and find the length and weight of the pin (L2, W2)
 Repeat the experiment for different material
 Also note down the friction force during each experiment when motor is running.
 Tabulate the readings and calculate the result.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 88

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

OBSERVATION:

Material Mild steel Aluminum Brass Bronze

Initial weight of the PIN

(Specimen) W1
final weight of the PIN
(Specimen) W2
Initial Length of the PIN
(Specimen) L1
Final Length of the PIN
(Specimen) L2
Diameter of the specimen, d

Distance between the centers, R

Rotational speed, N

Time , t in min

FORMULAE :
Mass of the material removed, δW = W1 –W2 =

Length of the material removed, δL = L1 –L2 =

Sliding distance, S = (2 π r n) t =

Wear volume = (π d 2 / 4) x δL =

Wear coefficient,

Weight basis = δW / (S x W) =

Volume basis = δV / (S x W) =

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 89

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. Load, W Friction Force, F

Pin Material Coefficient of Friction
No. in Kg in N
(F /W)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 90

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
Wear coefficient

Weight basis Kw =

Volume basis Kv =

Coefficient of Friction =

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 91

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

13. FATIGUE TEST

AIM: To conduct a Fatigue test on the given specimen and to determine stress cycles for
failure and to draw the SN diagram.

APPARATUS: Fatigue testing machine, Vernier caliper, scale.

THEORY:
Fatigue is the progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material
is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less than
(and often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. This process of fatigue failure
can be divided into different stages, which, from the standpoint of metallurgical processes, can be
divided into five stages:
1. Cyclic plastic deformation prior to fatigue crack initiation
2. Initiation of one or more microcracks
3. Propagation or coalescence of microcracks to form one or more microcracks
4. Propagation of one or more macrocracks
5. Final failure

Fig: 13.1; Schematics of rotating-beam fatigue testing machines. (a) Four-point loading R.R. Moore testing
machine. (b) Cantilever loading rotating-beam machine.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 92

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 13.2; Nomenclature for a typical fatigue specimen. Ends of round specimens may have smooth shanks,
button heads, or threads. Smooth shanks should be long enough to accommodate some type of wedge grip.
Rectangular specimens are generally made with smooth shanks, but may be shouldered to contain a hole for a
pin bearing.

Fig: 13.3; Graph of Alternating stress v/s Number of cycles

Fig: 13.4; Typical fatigue stress cycles a) Reversed stress b) Repeated stress c) Random stress cycle

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 93

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Fig: 13.5; Fatigue Testing Machine

SKETCH OF THE SPECIMEN

INSTRUCTIONS:

 Determine the dimensions of the specimen as required

 Lift the loading pan by hand and switch on the machine to check the direction of the
rotation of the machine so that rotation should be in clockwise direction when looking from
left side of the machine.
 Insert the specimen in to the collets on the either side and tighten the nut screw position of
the grub screw be in between two cuts of the collet.
 Now lower the loading pan so that weight of the pan comes on the specimen through
bearings. Add required weight on the pans as calculated for required stress level. Till then
the spring support on the weights so that they do not make noise nor slide away during
running of the machine.
 Switch on the machine and observe the registering no of counts.
 When the specimen fails note down the reading.
 Tabulate the values and draw the graph.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 94

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Method- 1
In this method large no of specimen in the standard form are taken and different loads are
applied producing different bending stress on the specimens and the no of revolutions at which it
fails is recorded. The S-N diagram is drawn by taking stress on Y-axis and no of revolutions on
X- axis. This diagram tells about behavior of the material under the application of repeated load.

Method -2
In this method generally the bending stress to be applied decided, depending upon design
requirements. If the design requirement is such that it should withstand bending stress of 400MPa

then the load applied is calculated by Pb = ( σ b x d 3 ) / 50.93. This load is applied and no of
revolutions at which the specimen fails is recorded and checked against the expected values.

OBSERVATION:

Diameter of the specimen at throat, d = mm

Effective length of loading, l = mm

Loading lever ratio =

Tare weight on the specimen =

FORMULAE:

Load on the specimen, F = (P x a / a1) + Tare weight ( )

Section modulus, Zxx = Zyy = π d 3 / 32

Bending moment, M =FxL=

Bending Stress, σb =M/Z=

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 95

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Tabular column:

Load Stress
Sl. No No. of cycles for failure Remarks
applied level

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 96

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULT:
No. of cycles for failure =

Maximum bending stress = N/mm2

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 97

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

14. DROP WEIGHT

AIM: To conduct a drop weight impact test and to study impact characteristics of the material.

APPARATUS: Drop weight impact test machine, amplifier, load cell.

Introduction
The behavior of materials is different when they are subjected to dynamic loading. The
testing of materials under dynamic conditions needs an efficient and reliable equipment to
experimentally examine and quantify the dynamic behavior of materials under low velocity impact
loads. The range of such impact loads vary from a few m/s to several hundred m/s (such as a bullet
impact). It is not possible with any one apparatus to cover a velocity range such as this. Various
devices such as explosive or air gun rigs are employed for high velocity impact tests. Drop weight
machines are in use to conduct test at low velocity impact loads.
The drop weight impact test machine was developed to perform low velocity impact tests
up to a maximum velocity of 10 m/s. The machine was designed to test specimens of varying
geometry which can accommodate a maximum cross-sectional area of 22500 (150x150) mm2. The
energy of the impactor can also be varied by changing the mass of the impactor.
Design Principle
A machine based on the impacts produced by dropped mass works on the principle of free fall
velocity under gravity which is given by
V = √2gh, (14.1)
Where,
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h = Drop height (m)
The maximum energy that can be stored in the drop mass ‘m’ is its potential energy which is
given by
Potential energy = m g h (14.2)
Where,
m = Drop mass (kg)
This energy has to absorbed by any specimen under test

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 98

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

Description of the Machine

Figure shows the mechanical
structure of the developed and
commissioned machine.

1. Plunger
2. Impactor
3. Operating switch
4. Specimen
5. Load cell and DAQ

Fig: 14.1; Drop weight

Figure 10.1 shows the mechanical structure of the developed and commissioned machine.
It consists of a frame with two mild steel, channels each 6 m high. The channels were erected
vertically on a sound concrete foundation and fixed to a concrete bed. Ground mild steel guide
strips were attached to the flat faces of the two channels to guide the fall of the dropped mass. The
drop mass (impactor) assembly consists of two flat circular bottom and top masses held between
two horizontal flat plates by four bolts. The plates have grooves at their sides. These grooves
envelope the guide strips and guide the vertical sliding motion of the drop mass. Several masses
can be included between the top and bottom disks to increase the mass of the impactor and there
by the energy of the impactor for testing different materials. The top disk of the impactor is
attached with a mass hanger which in turn is suspended by two brackets pinned to a frame that
grips the mass hanger and lifts the mass. The metal frame is also guided by the guide strips on the
channels. The impactor can be lifted to the required height with the help of a wire rope which runs
over a pulley and rope drum assembly. An impactor release mechanism is devised and fitted to the
sliding metal frame. This impactor release mechanism is used to release the impactor to so as to
affect the sudden drop of the mass. The mass drops on to the test specimen and deforms it while

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 99

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

the later dissipates the kinetic energy of the mass. The deformation of the specimen and the force
that is transmitted to the base which supports the test specimens have to be measured.
OBSERVATION

Deformation behavior of material under axial compression

Thickness, t = mm
Outer diameter of the specimen = mm
Length of the specimen = mm
Max. Force, F(kN) from graph =
Displacement (measured), D = mm
Energy absorbed, EA (Joules) = Force (kN) X Displacement (m)
= F X D (kJ)

Theoretical Velocity, v (m/sec) = √2gh

Mass of the impactor m (kg), =
Height of the impactor h (m), =
Specific energy absorbed, SEA (kJ/kg) = EA / SEA

Load Cell Details

Mas. Load cell capacity = 40 Tons = 400 kN
Sensitivity 10 Volts = 40 Tons
1 Volt = 4 Tons
1 Volt = 4000 kg
1 Volt = 40,000 N

Data Acquisition System

Make : National Instruments
Sampling rate : 500 kilo samples /sec
Channels : 4 Channels bidirectional

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 100

 MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

TABULAR COLUMN

Height of Mass of Specific

Mass of the Energy
Sl. Specimen the Velocity the energy
impactor absorbed
No. details impactor v(m/sec) specimen absorbed
(kg) EA (J)
(m) (kg) SEA (kJ/kg)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 101

MATERIALS TESTING LAB BME303

RESULTS:

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSIONS:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Vemana IT Bangalore 102