This is called the augmented matrix, and each row corresponds to an equation in the given system.

The first row, r 1 = (1, 1, 3), corresponds to the first equation, 1 x + 1 y = 3, and the second row, r 2 =
(3, −2, 4), corresponds to the second equation, 3 x − 2 y = 4. You may choose to include a vertical line
—as shown above—to separate the coefficients of the unknowns from the extra column representing
the constants.

Now, the counterpart of eliminating a variable from an equation in the system is changing one of the
entries in the coefficient matrix to zero. Likewise, the counterpart of adding a multiple of one
equation to another is adding a multiple of one row to another row. Adding −3 times the first row of
the augmented matrix to the second row yields

The new second row translates into −5 y = −5, which means y = 1. Back‐substitution into the first row
(that is, into the equation that represents the first row) yields x = 2 and, therefore, the solution to the
system: (x, y) = (2, 1).

Gaussian elimination can be summarized as follows. Given a linear system expressed in matrix form,
A x = b, first write down the corresponding augmented matrix:

Then, perform a sequence of elementary row operations, which are any of the following:

Type 1. Interchange any two rows.

Type 2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.

Type 3. Add a multiple of one row to another row.

The goal of these operations is to transform—or reduce—the original augmented matrix into one of
the form where A′ is upper triangular (aij ′ = 0 for i > j), any zero rows appear at the bottom of
the matrix, and the first nonzero entry in any row is to the right of the first nonzero entry in any
higher row; such a matrix is said to be in echelon form. The solutions of the system represented by
the simpler augmented matrix, [ A′ | b′], can be found by inspectoin of the bottom rows and back‐
substitution into the higher rows. Since elementary row operations do not change the solutions of
the system, the vectors x which satisfy the simpler system A′ x = b′ are precisely those that satisfy the
original system, A x = b.

Example 3: Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination:

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The augmented matrix which represents this system is

The first goal is to produce zeros below the first entry in the first column, which translates into
eliminating the first variable, x, from the second and third equations. The row operations which
accomplish this are as follows:

The second goal is to produce a zero below the second entry in the second column, which translates
into eliminating the second variable, y, from the third equation. One way to accomplish this would be
to add −1/5 times the second row to the third row. However, to avoid fractions, there is another
option: first interchange rows two and three. Interchanging two rows merely interchanges the
equations, which clearly will not alter the solution of the system:

Now, add −5 times the second row to the third row:

Since the coefficient matrix has been transformed into echelon form, the “forward” part of Gaussian
elimination is complete. What remains now is to use the third row to evaluate the third unknown,
then to back‐substitute into the second row to evaluate the second unknown, and, finally, to back‐
substitute into the first row to evaluate the first unknwon.

The third row of the final matrix translates into 10 z = 10, which gives z = 1. Back‐substitution of this
value into the second row, which represents the equation y − 3 z = −1, yields y = 2. Back‐substitution
of both these values into the first row, which represents the equation x − 2 y + z = 0, gives x = 3. The
solution of this system is therefore (x, y, z) = (3, 2, 1).

Example 4: Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination:

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For this system, the augmented matrix (vertical line omitted) is
First, multiply row 1 by 1/2:

Now, adding −1 times the first row to the second row yields zeros below the first entry in the first
column:

Interchanging the second and third rows then gives the desired upper‐triangular coefficient matrix:

The third row now says z = 4. Back‐substituting this value into the second row gives y = 1, and back‐
substitution of both these values into the first row yields x = −2. The solution of this system is
therefore (x, y, z) = (−2, 1, 4).

Gauss‐Jordan elimination. Gaussian elimination proceeds by performing elementary row operations

However, it is possible to reduce (or eliminate entirely) the computations involved in back‐
substitution by performing additional row operations to transform the matrix from echelon form to
reduced echelon form. A matrix is in reduced echelon form when, in addition to being in echelon
form, each column that contians a nonzero entry (usually made to be 1) has zeros not just below that
entry but also above that entry. Loosely speaking, Gaussian elimination works from the top down, to
produce a matrix in echelon form, whereas Gauss‐Jordan elimination continues where Gaussian left
off by then working from the bottom up to produce a matrix in reduced echelon form. The technique
will be illustrated in the following example.

Example 5: The height, y, of an object thrown into the air is known to be given by a quadratic function
of t (time) of the form y = at2 + bt + c. If the object is at height y = 23/4 at time t = 1/2, at y = 7Back
at time
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t = 1, and at y = 2 at t = 2, determine the coefficients a, b, and c.
Since t = 1/2 gives y = 23/4

while the other two conditions, y(t = 1) = 7 and y(t = 2) = 2, give the following equations for a, b, and c:

Therefore, the goal is solve the system

The augmented matrix for this system is reduced as follows:

At this point, the forward part of Gaussian elimination is finished, since the coefficient matrix has
been reduced to echelon form. However, to illustrate Gauss‐Jordan elimination, the following
additional elementary row operations are performed:

This final matrix immediately gives the solution: a = −5, b = 10, and c = 2.

Example 6: Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination:

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The augmented matrix for this system is
Multiples of the first row are added to the other rows to produce zeros below the first entry in the
first column:

Next, −1 times the second row is added to the third row:

The third row now says 0 x + 0 y + 0 z = 1, an equation that cannot be satisfied by any values of x, y,
and z. The process stops: this system has no solutions.

The previous example shows how Gaussian elimination reveals an inconsistent system. A slight
alteration of that system (for example, changing the constant term “7” in the third equation to a “6”)
will illustrate a system with infinitely many solutions.

Example 7: Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination:

The same operations applied to the augment matrix of the system in Example 6 are applied to the
augmented matrix for the present system:

Here, the third row translates into 0 x + 0 y + 0 z = 0, an equation which is satisfied by any x, y, and z.
Since this offer no constraint on the unknowns, there are not three conditions on the unknowns, only
two (represented by the two nonzero rows in the final augmented matrix). Since there are 3
unknowns but only 2 constrants, 3 − 2 =1 of the unknowns, z say, is arbitrary; this is called a free
variable. Let z = t, where t is any real number. Back‐substitution of z = t into the second row (− y + 5 z
= −6) gives

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Back substituting z = t and y = 6 + 5 t into the first row ( x + y − 3 z = 4) determines x:

where t is any real number. There are infinitely many solutions, since every real value of t gives a
different particular solution. For example, choosing t = 1 gives ( x, y, z) = (−4, 11, 1), while t = 3 gives (
x, y, z) = (4, −9, −3), and so on. Geometrically, this system represents three planes in R 3 that intersect
in a line, and (*) is a parametric equation for this line.

Example 7 provided an illustration of a system with infinitely many solutions, how this case arises,
and how the solution is written. Every linear system that possesses infinitely many solutions must
contain at least one arbitrary parameter (free variable). Once the augmented matrix has been
reduced to echelon form, the number of free variables is equal to the total number of unknowns
minus the number of nonzero rows:

This agrees with Theorem B above, which states that a linear system with fewer equations than
unknowns, if consistent, has infinitely many solutions. The condition “fewer equations than
unknowns” means that the number of rows in the coefficient matrix is less than the number of
unknowns. Therefore, the boxed equation above implies that there must be at least one free variable.
Since such a variable can, by definition, take on infinitely many values, the system will have infinitely
many solutions.

Example 8: Find all solutions to the system

First, note that there are four unknwons, but only thre equations. Therefore, if the system is
consistent, it is guaranteed to have infinitely many solutions, a condition characterized by at least
one parameter in the general solution. After the corresponding augmented matrix is constructed,
Gaussian elimination yields

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The fact that only two nonzero rows remain in the echelon form of the augmented matrix means that
4 − 2 = 2 of the variables are free: