Data Communication

and Networking
CST 232-2
Lecture 02
2 Layered Tasks

We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail.
The process of sending a letter to a friend would
be complex if there were no services available
from the post office.
3 Layered Tasks Cont…
4 OSI Model

The OSI model is an architectural model that

represents networking communications.
It was introduced in 1978 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
standardize the levels of services and types of
interactions for computers communicating over
a network.
5 OSI Model Cont…

Each layer defines networking tasks

Each layer communicates with the layers above
and below it
Layer 7 provides services for programs to gain
access to the network
Layer 1 and 2 define the network’s physical
media and related tasks
6 Layers in OSI Model
Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data-Link

Physical
7 What OSI Model Do

The OSI model defines the generic tasks that are

performed for network communication.
You can think of each layer of the OSI model as
a piece of software that performs specific tasks
for that layer.
Data that is transmitted over the network must
pass through all seven layers.
8 Application Layer

Layer 7. Provides an entrance point for programs

such as Web browsers and e-mail systems to
gain access to network services.
This layer does not represent programs such as
Microsoft Office Word or Microsoft Office Excel.
This layer represents application programming
interfaces (APIs) that developers can use to
perform network functions when building
applications.
9 Application Layer Cont…
10 Presentation Layer

Layer 6. Translates data between different

computing systems on a network.
The presentation layer translates the data
generated by the application layer from its own
syntax into a common transport syntax suitable for
transmission over a network.
When the data arrives at the receiving computer,
the presentation layer on the receiving computer
translates the syntax into the computer’s own
syntax.
11 Presentation Layer Cont…
12 Session Layer

Layer 5. Enables two applications to create a

persistent communication connection.
This layer ensures that both the sender and the
receiver are ready to communicate.
The session layer can also set checkpoints in the
communication process to ensure that it can be
restarted if communication is interrupted.
13 Session Layer Cont…
14 Transport Layer

Layer 4. Ensures that packets are delivered in

the order in which they are sent and without loss
or duplication.
On the sending side, this layer is responsible for
breaking down larger messages into smaller
packets for transmission on the network.
On the receiving side, this layer is responsible for
reassembling the packets into a single message
to pass up to the session layer.
15 Transport Layer Cont…

In the context of the OSI reference model, a

packet is an electronic envelope containing
information formed from the session layer to the
physical layer of the OSI model.
16 Transport Layer Cont…
17 Network Layer

Layer 3. Determines the physical path of the

data to be transmitted based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other
factors.
This is the only layer of the OSI model that uses
logical networking and can move packets
between different networks.
18 Network Layer Cont…
19 Data-Link Layer

Layer 2. Provides error-free transfer of data frames

from one computer to another over the physical
layer.
The media access control (MAC) address of a
network card exists at this layer and is added to the
packet to create a frame.
In the context of the OSI reference model, a frame is
an electronic envelope of information that includes
the packet and other information that is added by
the seven layers of the OSI model.
20 Data-Link Layer Cont…

The data-link layer is responsible for determining

when the frame will be sent on the network and
then passing the data to the physical layer.
Data is passed from the data-link layer to the
physical layer as a stream of 1s and 0s.
21 Data-Link Layer Cont…
22 Physical Layer

Layer 1. Establishes the physical interface and

mechanisms for placing a raw stream of data bits
on the network cabling.
As each bit of information is received from the data-
link layer, the physical layer converts it to an
appropriate format and transmits it on the network.
On a wired network, each bit is translated into an
electrical signal.
On a fiber optic network, each bit is translated into
a light signal.
23 Physical Layer Cont…
24 Data Communication in OSI Model
25 Functions on Each layers at Sender
Side
 Application
 The application layer of the OSI model receives data from the
client-side application and passes it to the presentation layer.
 Presentation
 The presentation layer performs any necessary formatting for the
data to be placed on the network. Formatting can include
encryption or compression. In this example, the data is
compressed.
 Session
 The session layer confirms that the destination computer is ready
to receive data. A connection to the destination is created.
26 Functions on Each layers at Sender
Side Cont…
 Transport
 The transport layer breaks the data into smaller packets for
transmission on the network. The packets are also labeled so that
they can put back together in their proper order at the
destination.
 Network
 The network layer adds logical addressing information to each
packet to ensure that the packets arrive at the correct location.
27 Functions on Each layers at Sender
Side Cont…
 Data-link
 The data-link layer adds physical address information to the
packets. The data-link layer also adds a cyclical redundancy
check (CRC) to each packet. The CRC is a checksum used
ensure that there are no errors in delivery.
 In addition, the data-link layer monitors the network and
determines when it is appropriate to send data. The data is
converted to a stream of 1s and 0s and passed to the physical
layer.
28 Functions on Each layers at Sender
Side Cont…
 Physical
 As each bit of information is received from the data-link layer,
the physical layer converts it to an appropriate format and
transmits it on the network. On a wired network, each bit is
translated into an electrical signal. On a fiber optic network,
each bit is translated into a light signal.
29 Functions on Each layers at Receiver
Side
 Physical
 The physical layer receives electrical signals or light signals from the
cabling and converts the signals to 1s and 0s. Each bit is then passed to
the data-link layer.
 Data-link
 The data-link layer organizes the bits into frames. The CRC on each frame is
verified to ensure that there were no errors in delivery. If there were errors,
the data-link layer requests that the packet be resent. After the CRC is
verified, it is removed from the packet.
 In addition, the data-link layer verifies that the physical address is the
receiving computer. If it is, the physical address information is removed
from each packet, and the packets are passed to the network layer. If the
physical address is not the receiving computer, the packet is dropped.
30 Functions on Each layers at Receiver
Side Cont…
 Network
 The network layer confirms that the logical address is the
receiving computer. If it is, the logical address information is
removed from the packets, and they are passed to the transport
layer. If the logical address is not the receiving computer, the
packet is dropped.
 Transport
 The transport layer organizes all the packets back into a single
chunk of data and passes the data to the session layer.
 Session
 When the data transmission is complete, the session layer closes
the connection between the sender and receiver.
31 Functions on Each layers at Receiver
Side Cont…
 Presentation
 The presentation layer undoes the formatting performed by the
sender. In this case, the data is uncompressed and passed to the
application layer.
 Application
 The application layer receives data from the presentation layer
and passes it to the appropriate application or service. In this
case, the data is passed to the database service running on the
server.

32 Network Devices on OSI Model
33 Repeater

A repeater is and electronic device that works

only on the first layer of the OSI model.
Repeaters are also known as regenerators.
When a signal passes over a network channel
for a long distance it may attenuate that means
lost some of its energy.
In order to overcome this problem, we use
repeaters.
34 Repeater Cont…

A repeater installed on a link receives the signal

before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates the signal and puts this copy back
to the link.
Note that a repeater is not an amplifier.
Repeater does not amplify the signal; it
regenerates it.
35 Repeater Cont…
36 Repeaters vs Hubs

Repeaters regenerate the signal and puts this

copy back to the link.
Hubs can only perform tasks with the electrical
signal on the network cabling. Hubs regenerate
1s and 0s on network cabling.
Repeaters have the same function as hubs.
The term multiport repeater is sometimes used
instead of hub.
37 Bridges

Bridges operate at the data-link layer (layer 2) of

the OSI model.
Bridges are able to control network traffic based
on MAC addresses.
This is useful for limiting traffic across small wide-
area networks (WANs).
In a network with two locations, a bridge is used
to separate the two locations and controls the
packets transmitted between the two locations.
38 Bridges Cont…

The bridges automatically determine the

location of computers by monitoring packets on
the network and looking at the source MAC
address in the packets.
After the bridges have determined the location
of the computers, they prevent local network
traffic from being transmitted over the WAN.
Bridges are most often used over wireless links
between buildings or locations.
39 Bridges Cont…
40 Switches

The earliest switches and today’s cheaper

switches have the same functionality as a
bridge and operate at the data-link layer of the
OSI model.
This functionality allows switches to control
network traffic based on MAC addresses.
Over time, switches create a table that lists the
port location of each computer and direct
packets to only the destination computer.
41 Switches Cont…

This is in contrast to a hub, which propagates

packets to all computers on the network.
Directing the packets to the proper destination
reduces the overall load on the network.
42 Switches Cont…

Many midrange and enterprise-level switches

now have functionality that extends to layer 3 or
layer 4 of the OSI model.
Layer-3 switches can perform routing functions
similar to a router.
Layer-4 switches are application-aware and
can give packets different priority levels based
on the application that generated the packet.
43 Switches Cont…
44 Routers

Routers operate at the network layer (layer 3) of

the OSI model.
They are capable of moving packets from one
logical network to another.
This capability is required for larger local area
networks (LANs) and WANs.
Large networks are sometimes divided into
separate smaller networks to control
communications between computers.
45 Routers Cont…

An example of this would be a company with

several different departments.
Each department would have a small network
that was a part of the larger company network.
A router would be required to move packets
from a computer in one department to a
computer in a different department.
46 Routers Cont…
47 Gateways

A gateway is a device that converts one

protocol to another.
A gateway can operate at any layer of the OSI
model, depending on which protocol is being
converted.
One of the common gateway types in large
organizations is a Systems Network Architecture
(SNA) gateway.
48 Gateways Cont…

 SNA is a protocol used for communication with

mainframe computers.
 An SNA gateway allows computers on a TCP/IP
network to communicate with mainframes by
translating the TCP/IP communication into SNA
communications.
 This is required to allow current computers to access
older applications running on the mainframe.
49 Gateways Cont…
50
Thank You
M. Janotheepan