Data Communication

and Networking
CST 232-2
Lecture 04
 To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic
2
signals
3 Analog and Digital Data

Data can be analog or digital.

The term analog data refers to information that
is continuous; digital data refers to information
that has discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
4 Analog and Digital Data Cont…

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.
5 Analog and Digital Signals

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range.
Digital signals can have only a limited number of
values.
6 Analog and Digital Signals Cont…

An Analog Signal

7 Analog and Digital Signals Cont…

A Digital Signal
8 Periodic Analog Signals

In data communications, we commonly use

periodic analog signals and non-periodic digital
signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as
simple or composite.
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
9 Sine Wave

The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a

periodic analog signal.
10 Sine Wave Cont…

A sine wave can be represented by three

parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency,
and the phase.
The power in your house can be represented by
a sine wave with a peak amplitude of 230V.
11 Two signals with the same phase and
frequency, but different amplitudes
12 Frequency & Period

Frequency and period are the inverse of each

other.
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 =
𝑻 𝒇
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds,
a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s.
13 Frequency & Period Cont…

Period is formally expressed in seconds.

Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz),
which is cycle per second.
14 Frequency & Period Cont…

Two signals with

the same
amplitude and
phase, but
different
frequencies
15 Units of Period and Frequency

unit equivalent unit Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s Hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 10-3 s Kilohertz (kHz) 103 Hz

Microseconds (μs) 10-3 s Megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns) 10-3 s Gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 10-3 s Terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

16 Frequency & Period Cont…

The power we use at home has a frequency of

60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
𝟏 1
𝑻= = = 0.0166 𝑠 = 0.0166 𝑋 103 𝑚𝑠 = 16.6 𝑚𝑠
𝒇 60

This means that the period of the power for our

lights at home is 0.0116 s, or 16.6 ms.
Our eyes are not sensitive enough to distinguish
these rapid changes in amplitude.
17 Exercise 01

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its

frequency in kilohertz?
18 Answer

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒔

𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟐
𝒇= = −𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎 𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝑻 𝟏𝟎
19 Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to

time.
Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.
20 Frequency Cont…

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
21 Phase

Phase describes the position of the waveform

relative to time 0.
22 Phase Cont…

Three sine
waves with the
same
amplitude and
frequency, but
different
phases
23 Exercise 02

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to

time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
24 Answer

1
𝑋 360 = 60𝑜
6

2𝜋 𝜋
60𝑜 𝑋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1.046 𝑟𝑎𝑑
360 3
25 Wavelength and Period
26 The time-domain and frequency-
domain plots of a sine wave
 A complete sine wave in the time
domain can be represented by one
27
single spike in the frequency
domain.
28 The time domain and frequency
domain of three sine waves
29 The time domain and frequency
domain of three sine waves Cont…
The frequency domain is more compact and
useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave.
For example, The above image shows three sine
waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency.
All can be represented by three spikes in the
frequency domain.
30 Signals and Communication

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

data communications
We need to send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
According to Fourier analysis, any composite
signal is a combination of simple sine waves with
different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
31 Composite Signals and Periodicity

If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals with
discrete frequencies.
If the composite signal is non-periodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of sine
waves with continuous frequencies.
32 Composite Periodic Signal
33 Composite Periodic Signal Cont…

The above image shows a periodic composite

signal with frequency f.
This type of signal is not typical of those found in
data communications.
We can consider it to be three alarm systems,
each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.
34 Decomposition of a composite periodic
signal in the time and frequency domains
35 The time and frequency domains of a
non-periodic signal
36 The time and frequency domains of a
non-periodic signal Cont…
The above image shows a non-periodic
composite signal.
It can be the signal created by a microphone or
a telephone set when a word or two is
pronounced.
In this case, the composite signal cannot be
periodic, because that implies that we are
repeating the same word or words with exactly
the same tone.
37 Bandwidth

The bandwidth of a composite signal is the

difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
38 Bandwidth of Periodic Signal
39 Bandwidth of Non-Periodic Signal
40 Exercise 03

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
41 Answer

Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest

frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then,
B = fh – fl
B = 900 – 100
B = 800 Hz
42 Answer Cont…

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300,

500, 700, and 900 Hz
43 Exercise 04

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The

highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.
44 Answer

Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest

frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then,
B = fh – fl
20 = 60 – fl
fl = 60 – 20
fl = 40 Hz
45 Answer Cont…

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies.

We show this by a series of spikes
46 Exercise 05

A non-periodic composite signal has a

bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency
of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0.
Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
47 Answer

The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the

highest at 240 kHz. Below figure shows the
frequency domain and the bandwidth.
48 Digital Signals

In addition to being represented by an analog

signal, information can also be represented by a
digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive
voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal
can have more than two levels.
In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for
each level.
49 A Digital Signal with Two Levels
50 A Digital Signal with Four Levels
51 Bits Per Level

Consider a digital signal has eight levels. How

many bits are needed per level? We calculate
the number of bits from the formula
Number of bits per level = log2n
= log28
=3
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
52 Bit Rate

The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s,

expressed in bits per second (bps).
53 Exercise 06

Assume we need to download text documents

at the rate of 100 pages per sec. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Consider that a page is an average of 24 lines
with 80 characters in each line. If we assume
that one character requires 8 bits (ascii)
54 Answer

Bit Rate = total pages per second x size of a page

= 100 x (24 x 80 x 8)
= 100 x 15,360
= 1,536,000 bps
= 0.192 MBps
55 Exercise 07

A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a

4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need
to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume
that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the
required bit rate?
56 Answer

Bit Rate = Bandwidth x Bits

= (2 x 4,000) x 8
= 8,000 x 8
= 64,000 bps
= 8 kBps
57 Exercise 08

What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high

quality video signals. The HDTV screen is normally
a ratio of 16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels
per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times
per second. Twenty-four bits represents one
color pixel.
58 Answer

Bit Rate = Pixel per Screen x Renewal per Second x Bits

= 1920 x 1080 x 30 x 24
= 1,492,992,000 bps
= 186.624 MBps
59
Thank You!!!
M. Janotheepan