QUANTUM MECHANICS

Two slit experiment:

It is a 19th century investigation about the properties of light that demonstrates the wave nature of
light.

In the 17th century, Isaac Newton proclaimed that light consists of a stream of particles. His view
remained the generally accepted theory until the early 19th century, when Thomas Young devised
the two-slit experiment to prove that light has wave nature.

In the right Δ PMS1,

S1M = D,
𝑑
PM = 𝑥 − 2

∴ (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = (𝑆1 𝑀)2 + (𝑃𝑀)2

𝑑 2
= 𝐷2 + (𝑥 − 2 )

Similarly, in right ΔPNS2,

S2N = D,
𝑑
PN = 𝑥 + 2
∴ (𝑆2 𝑃)2 = (𝑆2 𝑁)2 + (𝑃𝑁)2

𝑑 2
= 𝐷2 + (𝑥 + 2 )

Then,

2 2 2
𝑑 2 2
𝑑 2
(𝑆2 𝑃) − (𝑆1 𝑃) = 𝐷 + (𝑥 + ) − 𝐷 − (𝑥 − )
2 2

= 2𝑥𝑑

(𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃)(𝑆2 𝑃 + 𝑆1 𝑃) = 2𝑥𝑑

2𝑥𝑑
(𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃) =
𝑆2 𝑃 + 𝑆1 𝑃

For d << D,

𝑆1 𝑃 ≈ 𝐷

𝑆2 𝑃 ≈ 𝐷

𝑥𝑑
∴ Path difference, 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 =
𝐷
i) Condition for BRIGHT fringes:
𝑥𝑑
Path difference = = 𝑛𝜆; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …..
𝐷

𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑥=
𝑑
Then,
𝜆𝐷 2𝜆𝐷
𝑥1 = ; 𝑥2 =
𝑑 𝑑

𝜆𝐷
∴ Fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =
𝑑
ii) Condition for DARK fringes:
𝑥𝑑 𝜆
Path difference = = (2𝑛 − 1) 2; n =1, 2, 3, …..
𝐷

𝜆𝐷
𝑥 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2𝑑
 Then,
𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷
𝑥1 = 2𝑑 ; 𝑥2 = 2𝑑

𝜆𝐷
∴ Fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =
𝑑
Question: In a Young’s double slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen
is placed 1.4 m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the 4 th bright fringe is
measured to be 1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment.

Answer: 600 nm

Question: If the separation between 2nd maxima and 4th minima (on the same side of central
maxima) is 0.5 m. Find the fringe width β.

Answer: 0.33 m

de Broglie’s hypothesis:
In 1924, Louis de Broglie suggested that if electromagnetic radiations can behave as both waves
and particles, then the particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. should also exhibit the
wave nature.

According to de Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle. Such a wave is called
MATTER WAVE and the wavelength associated with matter wave is known as de Broglie
wavelength.

Expression for de Broglie wavelength:

According to Planck’s Quantum theory, energy E of a photon of frequency 𝜗 is given by

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 …….(1)

h is Planck’s constant.

Again, according to Einstein mass energy relation, for a photon of mass m and velocity c, we can
write

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 …….(2)

From equations (1) and (2),

ℎ𝜗 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 2 [∴ 𝜗 = 𝜆]

ℎ ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 or 𝜆 = 𝑝; p is momentum of photon such that p = mc

If photon is replaced by material particle, then

ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣; v is the velocity of the material particle.

ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑝 …….(3)

p is momentum of the material particle such that p = mv

Equation (3) is known as the de Broglie relation and it connects the momentum of a particle
with the wavelength of the wave corresponding to this particle.

Experimental Evidence for de Broglie matter waves:

de Broglie’s hypothesis was confirmed experimentally in 1927 by Davisson and Germer, and
later by Thomson, who obtained interference patterns with electrons.

DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT:
In their experiment, Davisson and Germer scattered a 54 eV monoenergetic beam of electrons
from a nickel (Ni) crystal. The electron source and detector were symmetrically located with
respect to the crystal’s normal. Although the electrons are scattered in all directions from the
crystal, the intensity was found to be minimum at θ = 35° and maximum at θ = 50°, i.e., the bulk
of the electrons scatter only in well-specified directions. They showed that the pattern persisted
even when the intensity of the beam was so low that the incident electrons were sent one at a
time. This can only result from a CONSTRUCTIVE interference of the scattered electrons.

In fact, the maximum intensity of the scattered electrons in the Davisson-Germer experiment
corresponds to the first maximum (n=1) of the Bragg formula,

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑sin𝜙

Where d is the spacing between the Bragg planes and ϕ is the angle between the incident ray and
the crystal’s reflecting planes.

For Ni crystal, d = 0.091 nm

Since only one maximum is seen at θ = 50° for a monoenergetic beam of electrons of kinetic
energy 54 eV, the wavelength associated with the scattered electrons is given by

𝜃
2𝑑sin𝜙 2𝑑cos (2) 2 × 0.091 × cos25°
𝜆= = = = 0.165 𝑛𝑚
𝑛 1 1
Again, λ from de Broglie’s relation can be written as

ℎ ℎ 6.6 × 10−34 Js
𝜆= = = = 0.167 𝑛𝑚
𝑝 √2𝑚𝑒 𝐾. 𝐸. √2 × 9.1 × 10−31 kg × 54eV

which is in excellent agreement with the experimental value.

Question: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for

(a) A proton of kinetic energy 70 MeV (mp = 1.67 × 10-27 kg)

(b) A 100 g bullet moving at 900 ms-1.

Answer: λproton = 3.4 × 10-15 m

λbullet = 7.4 × 10-36 m

Clearly, the wave aspect of the bullet lies beyond human observational abilities. As for the wave
aspect of the proton, it cannot be neglected since its de Broglie wavelength of 3.4 × 10-15 m has
the same order of magnitude as the size of a typical atomic nucleus.
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that “it is impossible to measure both the position and
momentum of a particle accurately and simultaneously”.

If Δx= Uncertainty in the measurement of position along x-direction

Δpx= Uncertainty in the measurement of momentum in the same direction,

By Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

ℏ ℎ
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ; ℏ= = 1.05 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
2 2𝜋
Similarly,

ℏ
∆𝑦∆𝑝𝑦 ≥
2
ℏ
and ∆𝑧∆𝑝𝑧 ≥ 2

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can be generalized to any pair of complementary variables

whose product has dimensions of ML2T-1 as follows:

“It is impossible to devise an experiment that can measure simultaneously two complementary
variables to arbitrary accuracy”

i.e.,
ℏ
∆𝐸∆𝑡 ≥
2
ℏ
∆𝐽∆𝜃 ≥
2

Question: Show that electron cannot exist inside nucleus with the help of uncertainty principle.

Answer: Dimension of nucleus ≈ 2 × 10−15 𝑚

Let us consider that electron exists inside nucleus. If we measure its position, then the maximum
uncertainty in the position will be

(∆𝑥)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 × 10−15 𝑚

Now, minimum uncertainty in measurement of momentum of electron inside nucleus is

 ℏ
(∆𝑝)𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈
2(∆𝑥)𝑚𝑎𝑥

ℎ 6.6 × 10−34
(∆𝑝)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 5.3 × 10−21 kgms−1
4𝜋(∆𝑥)𝑚𝑎𝑥 4 × 3.14 × 2 × 10−15

⸫Minimum kinetic energy of electron is

(∆𝑝)𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 (5.3 × 10−21 )2

(∆𝐸)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝐽 = 95.4 𝑀𝑒𝑉
2𝑚 2 × 9.1 × 10−31
But the experimental observation shows that the energy of electron emitted by nuclei during β–
decay is not greater than 2 – 3 MeV.

Hence electron cannot exist inside nucleus.

Question: An electron has a speed of 4 × 105 ms-1 with accuracy of 0.01%. With what
fundamental accuracy, we can locate position of electron?

Answer: v = 4 × 105 ms-1

Δ v = 0.01% of v = 40 ms-1

Now, p = mv

∆𝑝 = 𝑚∆𝑣 = 3.64 × 10−29 kgms −1

By Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

ℏ
∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥
2
ℎ
∆𝑥 = ≈ 1.82 × 10−2 m
4𝜋 × 3.64 × 10−29

WAVE FUNCTION

In quantum mechanics, a wave function is a mathematical description of a quantum state of a

particle as a function of momentum, position and time. In fact, a material particle is described by
the wave function Ψ(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) corresponding to the matter wave associated with the particle.

Ψ is obtained by solving a second order differential equation called Schrödinger equation,

𝜕Ψ ℏ2 𝜕 2 Ψ
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑉Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics plays the same role as is played by Newton’s
second law of motion in classical mechanics.

Physical Significance of Wave function:

Ψ being a complex function has no significance and it is not an observable quantity. When Ψ is
multiplied by its complex conjugate Ψ∗ , we get a real quantity ΨΨ ∗ = |Ψ|2, which gives the
probability density.

Let Ψ = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

Ψ ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏

Then, ΨΨ∗ = |Ψ|2 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2, which is a real quantity.

The probability of finding a particle at any point at a given time is proportional to |Ψ|2 . A large
value of |Ψ|2 at a point means high possibility of finding the particle at that point at given time
and vice-versa.

For 1-dimensional motion,

Probability of finding a particle between a and b at any time t is

𝑏
∫ |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

And for 3-dimensional motion,

Probability of finding a particle in a cuboid having dimensions l, b and h at a given time t is

𝑙 𝑏 ℎ
∫ ∫ ∫ |Ψ(𝑟⃗, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑉
0 0 0
Properties of Wave function:

i) Ψ must be finite and single valued.

ii) Ψ and its space derivatives must be continuous, i.e., there are no sudden jumps in the
probability density when moving through space.
+∞
iii) Ψ must be a normalized wave function, i.e., ∫−∞ |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1

Question: Find the normalization constant A for the wave function,

𝑖𝑝0 𝑥
Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 ℏ , −𝑎 <𝑥<𝑎

0, otherwise

Answer: By normalization condition,

+∞
∫ Ψ(𝑥)Ψ∗ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞

𝑎 𝑖𝑝0 𝑥 −𝑖𝑝0 𝑥
∫ A𝑒 ℏ × A𝑒 ℏ 𝑑𝑥 =1
−𝑎

1
𝐴=
√2𝑎

Question: At time t = 0, a particle is represented by the wave function

𝐴𝑥
Ψ(𝑥, 0) = , 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
𝑎
𝐴(𝑏−𝑥)
(𝑏−𝑎)
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏

0, otherwise

where A, a and b are constants.

i) Find A in terms of a and b.

ii) Sketch Ψ(𝑥, 0) as a function of x.
iii) What is the probability of finding the particle to the left of a? Check your result in the
limiting cases b = a and b = 2a.
Answer:

3
i) 𝐴 = √𝑏
ii)

𝑎
iii) 𝑃=𝑏
When b=a, P=1
1
b=2a, P=2

WAVE PACKETS:

In classical physics, a particle is well localized in space, for its position and velocity can be
calculated simultaneously.

As for quantum mechanics, a wave function which describes a material particle depends on the
whole space; hence it cannot be localized. If the wave function is made to vanish everywhere
except in the neighborhood of the particle, it can then be used to describe the dynamics of the
particle. That is, a particle which is localized within a certain region of space can be described by
a matter wave whose amplitude is large in that region and zero outside it. This matter wave must
then be localized around the region of space within which the particle is confined.

A localized wave is called a WAVE PACKET. A wave packet therefore consists of slightly
different wavelengths, with phases and amplitudes so chosen that they interfere constructively
over a small region of space and destructively elsewhere.
PHASE and GROUP velocities:

Phase velocity (vph):

The velocity with which a plane monochromatic wave moves through a medium is known as
phase velocity (vph) or wave velocity.
𝜔
∴ 𝑣𝑝ℎ = 𝜗𝜆 =
𝑘
According to de Broglie hypothesis, wavelength of the matter wave is given by
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = …….(1)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

From Einstein’s mass energy equivalence and Planck’s quantum theory,

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 …….(2)

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗…….(3)

Comparing equations (2) and (3), we get

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜗
𝑚𝑐 2
𝜗= …….(4)
ℎ

Now,

𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ 𝑐2
Phase velocity, 𝑣𝑝ℎ = 𝜗𝜆 = × 𝑚𝑣 =
ℎ 𝑣

As v < c, so so 𝑣𝑝ℎ > c, i.e., 𝑣𝑝ℎ > v

This shows that matter wave associated with particle would travel faster than particle itself thus
leaving the particle far behind.

Thus, a material particle cannot be represented by a single wave. Schrödinger equation resolved
this problem by assuming that a material particle in motion is equivalent to group of waves with
slightly different wavelengths which superimpose together and results in a new wave called
WAVE PACKET.

Group velocity (vg):

The velocity with which the group of waves or the wave packet moves in a medium is called
𝑑𝜔
group velocity (vg) and is given by, 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘
.