Teaching and TeacherEducation, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp.

353-357, 1998
Pergamon © 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
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MODELS AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

L O R I N W. A N D E R S O N
University of South Carolina

AN ESSAY-REVIEW OF MODELS OF LEARNING-TOOLS FOR TEACHING

Joyce, B., Calhoun, E., & Hopkins, D. (1997).

Buckingham: Open University Press (ISBN 0-335-19990 9)

Abstract--Bruce Joyce has been writing about models of teaching for over two decades. His book
on this topic with Marcia Weil was initially published in 1975 and is in its fifth edition (Joyce and
Weil, 1975; Joyce and Weil, 1996). Models of learning - toolsfor teaching is one of his most recent
forays into this arena. © 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

An Overview this section the authors remind the reader that

"each model is an inquiry into learning and
The purpose of the b o o k is to "introduce some
thinking .... Rather than being formulas to be
of the array of models of teaching that have
followed slavishly, each model encourages us
been developed, polished and studied during
to study how our students learn and makes us
the modern era of educational research . . . .
reflective action researchers in our classrooms"
Well implemented, some of these models both
(pp. 9-10).
accelerate rates of learning ... and ... bring
Consistent with this position, Chapter 1 is
within the reach of students types of conceptual
entitled " A n inquiry into learning and
control and modes of inquiry that are impos-
teaching." After presenting four scenarios, the
sible to generate through m a n y of the most
authors offer three theses related to teaching
c o m m o n methods of teaching, such as 'recita-
and learning.
tion' and 'chalk and t a l k ' " (pp. 7-8).
To accomplish this purpose the book • "There exists a considerable array of
contains twelve chapters, two introductory alternative approaches to teaching.
sections ("Scenarios" and "Theme"), a • Methods [of teaching] make a difference in
" C o d a " on educational policy and the study of what is learned as well as how it is learned.
teaching, and two appendices. The section • Students are a powerful part of the learning
entitled "Scenarios" contains four brief descrip- experience being created, and students react
tions of classroom settings and events. differently to any given teaching m e t h o d "
[Scenarios are used throughout the b o o k as (p. 14).
chapter introductions.] The next section,
" T h e m e , " lays out the conceptual framework After a brief discussion of "settings for
underlying the b o o k and the genesis, purpose, learning," the remainder of this chapter
and organization of the book. At the end of (slightly more than seven pages) is devoted to

353
354 LORIN W. ANDERSON

the Hempshill Hall School in Nottingham, for each of the eight models described in the
England. book. Each guide provides the structure
Chapter 2 introduces four families of models: needed by teachers to plan and teach a lesson
information processing, social, personal, and consistent with the model as well as the struc-
behavioral. For each family, a brief general ture needed by a "partner" teacher to observe
description is followed by a listing of specific the lesson and engage in peer coaching.
models within the family. Each model, in turn,
is accompanied by the name(s) of the develo-
per(s) and its primary purpose. A statement on
Reconceptualizing the Families
the importance of teachers developing "broad
teaching repertoires" concludes the chapter.
The next eight chapters (chapters 3 through The authors use traditional psychologically-
10) are organized around the four families. oriented names for their families of models:
More specifically, chapters 3 through 6 describe information processing, behavioral, personal,
models related to the information processing and social. Inherent in their conceptual frame-
family, while chapters 7 and 8 present models work, however, is a classification system that,
associated with the social family. Single chap- while not used, may be more "teacher-
ters 9 and 10 include examples of the personal friendly."
and behavioral models, respectively. The initial sentence in the section entitled
All of these chapters have the same structure. "Theme" reads as follows: "Learning experi-
Each begins with a set of scenarios. They are ences are composed of content, process, and
followed by a discussion of the model, complete social climate" (p. 7) (emphasis mine). [This
with a visual representation of it. Next comes structure of learning experiences is reiterated in
the syntax of the model, which is a description Chapter 12, using the words of Lawrence
of the phases by which the model is imple- Downey (1967). "A school teaches in three
mented. The syntax is presented in both prose ways: by what it teaches, by how it teaches, and
and tabular forms. Research on the model is by the kind of place it is" (p. 137) (emphasis
then summarized and reflections on the model mine)]. In the "Theme" section, the authors
complete the chapter. Despite the common continue: "Through the selection of appro-
organizational structure, there is an unevenness priate models, content can become conceptual
in the treatment of these topics across the chap- rather than particular; process can become
ters. For example, the discussion of the model constructive inquiry instead of passive recep-
is three paragraphs long in Chapter 3 and nine tion; and social climate can become expansive
pages long in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 in its not restrictive" (p. 7). Content, process, and
entirety is eight pages in length. social climate provide another way to group
In Chapter 11, the authors use Gagne's the models into families.
(1965) classes or types of learning to integrate Models in the first family, which the authors
the models presented in chapters 3 through 10. term "information processing," focus on
And, in Chapter 12, they argue for the impor- content. Chapter 3 presents a model of concept
tance of teacher professional development, formation (e.g., "beauty"), while Chapter 4
both for individual teachers and entire school describes a model of concept attainment (e.g.,
staffs. The Coda is a "memorandum to those "spider"). The model in Chapter 5 is composed
whose work at any level makes them respon- of abstract concepts (metaphors, analogies).
sible for where society is going and how educa- Finally, the model in Chapter 6 emphasizes
tion should travel with it . . . . Much of the remembering the names associated with
substance ... deals with the assumptions and concepts once they have been formed or
initiatives that are characteristic of the govern- attained. It is through the models in this family
mental level of policymaker" (p. 147). that content becomes "conceptual rather than
Finally, the first appendix contains a clear, particular."
concise treatment of the concept of effect size. Models in the second family, labeled
The second appendix includes a set of useful "social," emphasize the social climate within
and useable peer coaching guides, one guide which teaching and learning occur. Chapter 7
 Models and Improvement 355

describes a classroom environment in which reasonable way of integrating the models than
student-student interaction, interdependence, the use of Gagne's three-decade old classifica-
and cooperation are critical elements. The tion system. From a psychological point of
model presented in Chapter 8 focuses on the view, Gagne's writings in the 1960s are gener-
roles people play in social situations, including ally regarded as neo-behavioristic (Rohwer and
classrooms. Role is defined as a "unique and Sloane, 1994). His six "varieties of perfor-
accustomed manner of relating to others" (p. mances" (p. 131) lie along a continuum ranging
107) (emphasis mine) and role playing is the from simple ("specific responding") to complex
means by which new roles are practiced and ("problem solving"). Furthermore, each lower
understood. Through models in this family, "variety" is hypothesized to be necessary but
then, social climate becomes "expansive not not sufficient for learning the next higher
restrictive." "variety."
Models in the third and fourth families The use of Gagne's classification system
("personal" and "behavioral") focus on produces a rather interesting "integration" of
process. The process in Chapter 9 is explicitly models and their families (as summarized in
non-directive a la Carl Rogers. In Chapter 10 Table 11.1, page 135). "Chaining" (Level 2),
on the other hand, simulations and games "Multiple Discriminations" (Level 3), and
provide the context within which the learning "Classifying" (Level 4) require no integration
process takes place. Both of these models rede- across families at all. For all three levels
fine the traditional roles of teachers and models in the information processing family
students. The student becomes the active parti- will suffice. "Rule Using" (Level 5) permits the
cipant while the teacher serves as counselor integration of the information processing and
(Chapter 9) or coach (Chapter 10). Models behavioral families, while "Specific
such as these enable the process to become Responding" (Level 1) permits the integration
"constructive inquiry instead of passive recep- of the information processing, behavioral, and
tion." social models. Only "Problem Solving" (Level
Conceptualizing the families of models in this 6) permits the integration of models from all
way in no way implies that the models in the four families. The reconceptualization
first family are concerned only with content, presented here not only permits integration
the models in the second family are concerned across families, but would seem to require it if
only with social climate, and the models in the learning experiences of the type valued by the
third family are concerned only with process. authors are to be encountered by students on a
For as the title of Chapter 8 clearly indicates, regular basis.
the content most frequently associated with the
role playing model is human values. Similarly,
the processes typically associated with concept What do the Models Model?
formation (Chapter 3) and concept attainment
(Chapter 4) are quite different, with concept
formation approached inductively and concept From the title of the book, the initial assump-
attainment, deductively. tion is that we are dealing with models of
Rather, this conceptualization allows one to learning. Very early in the book, however, we
more clearly see the necessary interplay among encounter the phrase "models of teaching."
the models. The concept attainment model Furthermore, the phrase used in the titles of all
(content) can be integrated with the simulation tables included in Chapters 3 through 10 is
model (process) within the context of the "models of learning and teaching." To confuse
group investigation model (social climate). Or, matters further, the authors on three occasions
the scientific inquiry model (content) can be assert that models of teaching are really
integrated with the conceptual systems model models of learning (pp. 7, 8, and 14). So what
(process) within the context of the structured kind of models are these and does it really
social inquiry model (social climate). matter?
In fact, this reconceptualization and Part of the problem stems from the fact that
renaming of families seems a much more the different models included in the book are,
356 LORIN W. ANDERSON

in fact, different types of models. Some are In this syntax, some of the activities are student
models of learning (e.g., inductive thinking, activities while others are teacher activities.
mnemonics, group investigation). Others are Thus, this is a model of leaming and teaching.
models of learning and teaching (e.g., concept Finally, consider the syntax of the role
attainment, synectics, non-directional playing model.
teaching). Still others are models of teaching
• Phase 1: orientation
(e.g., role playing, simulation).
Present the broad topic of the simulation
Where are the clues that support this delinea-
and the concepts to be incorporated into the
tion of the models? They can be found in each
simulation activity at hand.
model's syntax; that is, in the model's stages of
Explain simulation and gaming.
implementation. Consider the syntax of the
Give overview of the simulation.
mnemonic model, for example.
• Phase 2: participant training
• Phase 1: attending to the material Set up the scenario (rules, roles, procedures,
Use techniques of underlying, listing, scoring, types of decision to bemade, goals).
reflecting. Assign roles.
• Phase 2: developing connections Hold abbreviated practice session.
Make material familiar and develop connec- • Phase 3: simulation operations
tions using key-word, substitute-word, and Conduct game activity and game administra-
link-word system techniques. tion.
• Phase 3: expanding sensory images Obtain feedback and evaluation (of perfor-
Use techniques of ridiculous associations mance and effects of decisions).
and exaggeration. Revise images. Clarify misconceptions.
• Phase 4: practicing recall Continue simulation.
Practice recalling the material until it is • Phase 4: participant debriefing (any or all o f
completely learned (p. 85). the following activities)
Summarize events and perceptions.
All of the activities in these stages are student Summarize difficulties and insights.
activities. This, then, is a model of Analyze process.
learning. Compare simulation activity to the real
In contrast, consider the syntax of the non- world.
directive model. Relate simulation activity to course content.
Appraise and redesign the simulation.
• Phase 1: defining the helping situation
The teacher encourages the experience of While many readers might have initially consid-
feelings. ered the role playing model to be a model of
• Phase 2: exploring the problem learning, an analysis of the syntax suggests
The student is encouraged to define the that it is, in fact, a model of teaching.
problem. What difference does it make what types of
The teacher accepts and clarifies the models they are? I would argue that only
student's feelings. models of learning allow teachers to understand
• Phase 3: developing insight the learning process. Only models of learning
The student discusses the problem. keep teachers" concerns focused on the
The teacher supports the student. students. Only models of learning permit
• Phase 4: planning and decision making teachers to be flexible and creative in their
The student plans initial decision making. teaching. Only models of learning are consis-
The teacher clarifies possible decisions. tent with the authors' contention that, "The
• Phase 5." integration challenge of designing learning experiences is
The student gains further insight and the central substance of the study of teaching"
develops more positive actions. (p. 14).
The teacher is supportive. Despite warnings to the contrary, models of
• Action outside the interview teaching tend to be viewed as more prescrip-
The student initiates positive actions (p. 119). tions than guidelines. This problem is nicely
 Models and Improvement 357

illustrated by the authors in their chapter on of peer coaching guides in the appendix makes
integrating the models (Chapter 11). In a brief it possible to begin to implement each model
section entitled "Teaching Tasks," teachers are in the classroom. In combination, these chap-
advised to inorporate seven functions in their ters and the appendix are the heart of the book.
lessons and curriculum units. They are: Unfortunately, most of the remainder of the
book is somewhat disjoint or rather superficial.
"1. informing the learner of the objective; Numerous pages are spent on scenarios which,
2. presenting stimuli;
once described, are rarely used to illuminate
3. increasing learner's attention; the components of the models or to make or
4. helping the learner recall what he or she support a point. [A noteworthy exception is
has previously learned; the incorporation of the material on the
5. providing conditions that will evoke perfor- Hempshill Hall School into the end-of-chapter
mance; authors" reflections.] The chapter on teacher
6. determining sequences of learning; professional development and the Coda are
7. prompting and guiding the learning" (p.
too short to be meaningful. Few insights are
134). offered; the calls for the development of teacher
This is a model of teaching; in fact, a very centers and the need to invest in people have
familiar model referred to as "direct instruc- been made many times before.
tion" or "direct teaching." The authors place Despite these weaknesses, the book is worth
direct teaching in the behavioral family of reading. There is much to learn from the
models. There is ample evidence that several authors. Models are means by which theory
models in this family (e.g., DISTAR) either and research can find their way into practice.
encourage or require rather strict adherence by And the models included in this book should
teachers to guidelines or scripts. Such adher- be in the repertoire of virtually every classroom
ence seems to be inconsistent with the authors' teacher.
statement that "inquiry into teaching and
learning makes the life of teachers" (p. 139).
Models of learning, in contrast, are consistent References
with this belief.
Downey, L. (1967). The secondary phase of education.
Boston: Ginn.
Gagne, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York:
Concluding Comments Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Joyce, B. and Weil, M. (1975). Models of teaching. Engle-
Models o f learning - tools for teaching possesses wood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-Hall.
several strengths. The eight chapters describing Joyce, B. and Weil, M. (1996). Models of teaching, Fifth
the models are clearly written; concise, yet edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Rohwer, W. D., Jr. and Sloane, K. (1994). Psychological
reasonably comprehensive. The use of the perspectives. In L. W. Anderson and L. A. Sosniak
same format for all eight chapters permits easy (Eds.), Bloom's taxonomy: A forty-year retrospective.
comparison across the models and the inclusion Chicago: University of Chicago Press.