AQA

GCSE 9–1 Sociology

AQA GCSE 9–1 Sociology

Student Book
The third edition of this tried and tested textbook has been fully
updated by experienced teachers and examiners to provide complete
coverage of the 2017 AQA GCSE Sociology specification, with fresh
new case studies, engaging activities and a focus on research skills,
theory and making connections between topics.
• Learn with confidence: Collins AQA GCSE Sociology covers
all the key terms and concepts in the 2017 AQA specification.

AQA GCSE 9–1

• Build your understanding of the work of key sociologists with
our ‘Focus on key thinkers’ feature.
• Develop and practise your sociology skills with varied written

Sociology
and discussion activities throughout the book.

Student Book
• Gain insights into modern sociology with up-to-date case
studies, research and examples.
• Prepare for your assessment with exam-style questions,
sample answers and helpful examiner commentary for
every AQA topic.
• Take your learning further with ‘Stretch and challenge’
features.
Student Book
Pauline Wilson has a wealth of experience teaching GCSE, AS and
A-level Sociology. She has a PhD in the Sociology of Education and
has also worked as a researcher.
Allan Kidd has taught GCSE, AS and A-level sociology for 25 years
and has been a Head of Sociology for the past 18 years.
Simon Addison is a teacher and has extensive examining experience
with some of the biggest exam boards in the UK.

AQA GCSE 9–1 Pauline Wilson

Allan Kidd and
Sociology
Teacher’s Guide

ISBN 978-0-00-822014-3 Simon Addison

Jon-Paul Craig
Allan Kidd and
Pauline Wilson

AQA GCSE 9–1 9 780008 220143

Sociology Teacher’s Guide
978-0-00-822015-0
 The sociological approach

Topic 1: What is sociology?

Topic 2: What are social structures, processes and issues?

Topic 3: What key concepts do sociologists use?

Topic 4: What does the term ‘socialisation’ mean?

Topic 5: What are the key ideas of Karl Marx?

Topic 6: What are the key ideas of Emile Durkheim?

Topic 7: What are the key ideas of Max Weber?

Topic 8: What is the ‘consensus versus conflict’ debate?

Topic 9: Focus on skills

10 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 10 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1

11

20143_P010_P029.indd 11 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 1

What is sociology? Objective

• Explain what sociology involves

Sociology is the study of human social life and social relationships.

Sociologists investigate and explain the social world and our
Glossary terms
behaviour in it. This involves examining how people live together ethnicity, gender, social
in society and how they interact with each other in small groups, policies, society, theory
communities and large organisations. Sociologists try to understand
not only the ways in which society influences us in our daily lives but
also the ways in which we shape society.
In Britain, people tend to think of themselves as unique individuals
who make their own free choices about most aspects of their lives.
For example, teenagers make choices about their friends, their clothes
and the music they listen to. People also choose whether to marry
and what career to pursue. Sociologists are interested in the ways our
choices may be constrained (or limited) by factors such as our social
class background, gender and ethnicity. They are also interested in
the ways that our choices may be enabled (or helped) by such factors.

Topics that sociologists study

Sociologists study a wide range of topic areas, as the diagram below shows.

Making connections
Crime Religions
The media and Rather than seeing these
secularisation
topic areas as completely
Health and separate, sociologists always
illness Families and look for connections or links
family life
between them.
Sociology focuses In pairs, choose two of these
on the whole range
Disability of social life, including topics and discuss how they
Education
big issues (such as are connected. Then make
poverty and war) and
aspects of everyday
brief notes to describe the
life. Topics include: connection.
Ageing and
ageism Work

Ethnicity
and racism Poverty and
wealth
Gender Social class
inequality inequality

The sociological approach

Sociology involves a distinctive way of seeing the social world.

It focuses on how society influences our behaviour and the choices
we make. In doing so, it asks important questions about human social
life, groups and society. Here are some examples of these questions:

12 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 12 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 1
Why are some Why don’t all Are females
How do family What What role do Why do girls Do the police
people obsessed apprentices more likely
relationships causes social media play perform better and courts
with finding fame complete to engage in
change over urban in organising than boys at treat women
through reality their training violence today
time? riots? demonstrations? GCSE? and men
TV? programmes? compared to
differently?
30 years ago?

When sociologists try to answer such questions, they do not take

anything at face value (accept that things are exactly as they appear
to be). Instead, they undertake careful investigation to explore what
is really going on beneath the surface. In trying to make sense of the
social world, sociologists use:
• a body of terms (specialised vocabulary) and concepts (key ideas)
that they have built up
• a body of theories about the relationship between the
individual and society
• a tool kit of research methods such as questionnaires, interviews Why do girls perform better than boys
and observation to gather evidence in an organised and systematic at GCSE?
way. As a result, sociology can provide factual information that is
more reliable than information from other sources.
However, sociology is not just about carrying out research and
contributing to our knowledge of modern society. Many sociologists
believe that research should go much further than this by having a
practical purpose. They argue that findings from research studies
should feed into policy making, shape social policies (such as
government policies on education) and make a difference to our lives.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Imagine...
In the 21st century, we take things such as television, computers, mobile phones, the internet, air travel,
the education system and the National Health Service for granted. Our lives would probably be very
different if we were born in another place or at another time.
1 Imagine that you were born 100 years ago. How would this shape who you are, what you know,
what you can do, and the opportunities and choices open to you?
2 In a small group, discuss and compare your ideas.
3 Note down two points arising from your discussion.

Key points
Sociology, psychology and journalism
• Sociology is the systematic
Sociologists study the social influences on human life and focus on study of human social life,
groups and societies.
group behaviour. Psychologists also study human behaviour but
they focus on individuals rather than groups. Journalists sometimes • Sociologists ask questions
research into social issues, but journalists’ research is less thorough about the workings of
than that of sociologists, partly because they often have tight society; for example,
how family relationships
deadlines to meet.
change over time.
• Through their research
Check your understanding studies, sociologists
contribute to our
Identify and describe one possible use of sociological research. knowledge and
 (3 marks) understanding of society.

What is sociology? 13

20143_P010_P029.indd 13 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 2

What are social Objective

• Explain the terms ‘social
structures’, ‘social processes’ and

structures, processes ‘social issues’

and issues?
Social structures and processes Glossary terms
poverty, social issue, social
In investigating society and how it is organised, sociologists examine problem, social process,
the various parts that make up society. They use the term ‘social social stratification, social
structures’ to refer to the parts of society such as families, the structure
education system, the political system and the criminal justice system.
Sociologists are interested in understanding the connections or
relationships between the different structures (or parts) of society.
They might study, for instance, the relationship between students’
family backgrounds and their achievements at GCSE. Making connections
Sociologists are also interested in exploring social processes such as Choose two social structures
socialisation and social control. from the table on the next
page and identify one link
The term ‘socialisation’ refers to the process by which we learn
or connection between
the culture or the way of life of the society we are born into. In
them.
exploring how this process operates, sociologists focus on how we
learn the culture, who is involved in this learning and what role social
structures such as families and schools play in the process.
The term ‘social control’ refers to the way our behaviour is regulated.
In exploring how this process works, sociologists ask questions about:
• how control is exercised
• who exercises control
• how far individuals or groups resist or challenge the processes of
social control
• in whose interests social control operates.
Families are social structures where social
By studying these social processes, we can understand more about processes (such as socialisation) take place. They
the workings of society. For example, we learn how such processes face social issues (such as care of the elderly).

take place (the means or mechanisms) and why they take place.

Social issues

Social issues are the issues that affect communities, groups and
people’s lives. Contemporary social issues relating to education, for
example, include academies and grammar schools. Issues relating to
families include care of the elderly and forced marriage. Often, social
issues are also social problems.
Social problems are the problems facing society such as racism,
sexism, ageism, poverty, domestic violence and hate crime. Social

14 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 14 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 2
problems are damaging to society and, as a result, they need to be
tackled through social policies.
The table below gives some examples of social structures, social
processes and social issues. As you read through the different chapters
in this book, you will learn more about these key sociological themes.

Social structures Social processes Social issues

Families Socialisation; Social control; The quality of parenting; Forced marriage;
The exercise of power Care of the elderly; Relationships between
­parents and children
The education system Socialisation; Social control; Educational reform; Higher education funding;
The exercise of power; Academies
Labelling; Discrimination
The criminal justice Social control; Social order; Violent crime; The media coverage of crime;
system The exercise of power; The treatment of young offenders; The prison
Discrimination; Labelling system
Social ­stratification Discrimination; The exercise Inequalities linked to class, gender, ethnicity,
systems of power; Globalisation age, ­disability and sexuality; Racism, sexism
and ageism; Homophobia; Poverty

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Government spending on benefits
One way in which governments can try to address social issues such
as poverty is through spending on benefits. However, government FOCUS ON SKILLS:
spending is a controversial issue. DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
Controversial issues
Study the table below, then answer the questions that follow.
During this course, you will
Attitudes to government spending on different benefits, 2002–2015
come across social issues such
Percentage who would like to see more 2002 2015 as the quality of parenting,
government spending on benefits for: reform of the education
People who care for those who are sick or disabled 82% 75% system, the causes of teenage
crime and the treatment of
Parents who work on very low incomes 69% 61%
young offenders.
Disabled people who cannot work 69% 61%
1 In a small group, discuss
Retired people 73% 49% why such issues cause
Single parents 39% 36% public concern and
debate.
Unemployed people 21% 17%
2 How do you think
Source: adapted from NatCen’s British Social Attitudes 33, Welfare. Table 1. p. 5. sociologists could
1 What percentage of those surveyed in 2015 would like to see contribute to these
more government spending on benefits for single parents? debates?
2 Has this proportion increased or decreased over time? 3 Note down three points
from your discussion.
3 For which group has support for more spending decreased by
the biggest percentage?
Key points
• Sociologists focus on social
structures, social processes
and social issues.
Check your understanding
• Many social issues are also
Identify and describe one example of a social structure. (3 marks) social problems.

What are social structures, processes and issues? 15

20143_P010_P029.indd 15 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 3

What key concepts do Objective

• Explain the terms ‘culture’,
‘values’ and ‘norms’

sociologists use?
In Topic 1, you learned that sociologists draw on key concepts (ideas)
in their work. These key concepts include culture, values and norms. Glossary terms
culture, negative sanctions,
Culture norms, positive sanctions,
sanctions, values
The term ‘culture’ refers to the whole way of life of a particular society.
It includes the values, norms, customs, beliefs, knowledge, skills and
language of a society. Sociologists appreciate that culture is not the
same in different societies around the world. It varies according to
place (where you are) and time (when). You can see this when looking
at food and diet. For example, roast guinea pig is a traditional delicacy
in Ecuador, while guinea pigs are often kept as family pets in the UK.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Living in Britain
The information below is for international students studying at a university in England for the first time.
Read through the extract, then answer the questions that follow.

Cafés and bars

Bars and pubs are an important part of British culture, particularly with younger people and
students. In the UK, it is quite acceptable for women to use bars, pubs and restaurants without male
companions, and there is no pressure on anyone to drink alcohol. Soft drinks are always available.
Smoking
Smoking is prohibited in all enclosed public spaces. It is usual to ask, ‘Do you mind if I smoke?’ if you
are socialising with other people, but do not be offended if you are asked not to.
Source: adapted from http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.550495!/file/Int-Living-in-Shef-16.pdf,
pp. 17, 38.

1 In a small group, discuss how useful this information is in describing aspects of British culture.
2 What advice would your group give to international students on the following: respecting personal
space, shaking hands, acceptable topics of conversation, saying ‘please’ and ‘thank you’, and humour?
3 Make a note of your ideas.

New students need to learn the expected behaviour associated

with university culture.

16 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 16 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 3
Values Stretch and challenge

Values are ideas and beliefs that people have about what is desirable
Values
and worth striving for. For example, privacy and respect for human Read through the examples
of values below, then answer
life are highly valued by most people in Britain. Values provide us
the questions that follow:
with general guidelines for conduct.
• acquiring more and more
Not all societies or groups value the same things. Values vary cross- consumer goods
culturally, which means that they differ from one culture to another.
• honesty and truth
In Western societies, for example, wealth and material possessions
are often highly valued and considered worth striving for. In contrast, • respect for life
the Apache of North America gave away the property of relatives • respect for elders
who died rather than inherit it. They believed that keeping this
• privacy
property might encourage the relatives who inherit it to feel glad
when a person died. • educational success
• ‘getting on’ in life at any
Norms price
• helping the poor.
Values provide us with general guidelines for conduct. Norms are 1 In your view, which of
more specific to particular situations. For example, we value privacy, these values is most
and the norms or rules related to this include not reading other important to people in
people’s emails or text messages without permission. Norms tell us British society today?
what is appropriate and expected behaviour in specific social settings Briefly explain your
answer.
such as classrooms, cinemas, restaurants or aeroplanes. They provide
order in society and allow it to function smoothly. 2 Which is least important?
Explain your answer.
Norms are enforced by positive sanctions and negative sanctions.
This means that people are rewarded for conforming to (or
following) the norms, for example, by getting promoted at work.
People are punished for deviating from (or breaking) the norms, for
example by being ‘told off’. Norms and sanctions vary depending on
time and place. For instance, among the Apache of North America,
rule breakers were banished from the group.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Norms
1 Think about the following social settings: a cinema, an
aeroplane, a GP’s waiting room.
a Choose one setting and identify two norms related to this
setting.
Key points
b Identify two sanctions that might be applied to people
who deviate from the norms in this setting. • The term ‘culture’ refers
2 Explain the norms for giving and receiving gifts such as to the whole way of life
birthday presents. of a particular society,
including its values and
norms.
• Values provide general
guidelines for conduct and
norms define expected
Check your understanding behaviour in particular
social settings such as in
Describe what sociologists mean by ‘culture’. (3 marks) cinemas.

What key concepts do sociologists use? 17

20143_P010_P029.indd 17 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 4

What does the term Objective

• Explain the term ‘socialisation’

‘socialisation’ mean?
You have seen that culture varies between societies and historically.
Sociologists argue that culture is based on learning rather than on
Glossary terms
instinct – it is not inborn. The term socialisation describes the process agency of socialisation,
by which we learn the culture, norms and values of the society we established or state church,
are born into. gender role, gender
socialisation, political
socialisation, primary
FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY socialisation, religion,
Learning to hunt secondary socialisation,
The extract below describes an aspect of the socialisation of boys secularisation, socialisation,
of the Hidatsa people of North America. Read through the extract, status
then answer the questions that follow.

‘Widespread was the practice of boys being taught how to hunt

and trap by their fathers, older relatives or a trusted family
friend; their roles as hunters were thus conditioned from an
early age. Typical are the experiences of the Hidatsa men, Wolf
Chief and Goodbird...Wolf Chief told of his early use of the bow
and arrow: “I began using a bow, I think, when I was four years
of age...I very often went out to hunt birds for so my father
bade me do.” Armed with blunt arrows and snares, the Hidatsa
boys learned skills they would need as hunters and warriors.’
Source: Taylor, C.F. (1996) Native American Life, London: Salamander Books, p. 87.

1 Identify one aspect of the Hidatsa culture or way of life.

2 Drawing on this example, explain one way in which the boys
were socialised into their culture.

Primary and secondary socialisation

Sociologists distinguish between primary and secondary socialisation

and highlight the role of the different agencies of socialisation.
Primary socialisation refers to early childhood learning during
which, as babies and infants, we learn the basic behaviour patterns,
language and skills that we will need in later life. The agencies of
primary socialisation are the groups or institutions responsible for
primary socialisation. These are usually families and parents. Through
interaction within their families, children acquire language and other
essential skills.
Secondary socialisation begins later in childhood and continues
throughout our adult lives. Through this process, we learn society’s
norms and values. The agencies of secondary socialisation are the
groups or institutions that contribute to this process. Examples
include: peer groups, schools, workplaces, religions, mass media.

18 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 18 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 4
Peer groups
Peer groups are groups of people who share a similar social
status and position in society, such as people of a similar
age or occupational status. They can exert pressure on their
members to conform to group norms and values in settings
such as schools or workplaces.
People who do not conform to the group’s norms risk being
rejected.

Schools Individuals in a peer group may be similar in

age and share a group identity.
During compulsory schooling, students learn how to interact in groups
larger than the family. They develop important new skills. They also
learn that they are expected to conform to rules and regulations –
regarding punctuality and dress, for example. Some students,
however, resist the rules and oppose their teachers’ authority.
FOCUS ON SKILLS:
Workplaces DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
On starting a new job in an office, factory or hospital, for example, The influence of social
newly appointed employees must learn the culture of the workplace. groups
They learn the formal rules regarding dress, punctuality, and health We are all members of
and safety. They may also pick up tips informally from colleagues on groups such as families,
things such as how much work is expected and which of the bosses to religious, cultural, friendship
avoid. or workplace groups.

Religions 1 Identify two groups that

you are a member of.
Religions provide guidelines for behaviour and sanctions when those
2 In pairs, discuss how
guidelines are broken. Christianity, for example, provides the Ten these groups have
Commandments as a guide to how followers should behave. Muslims influenced you, your
are expected to put into practice the Five Pillars of Islam, including behaviour, your beliefs
the alms tax (giving a proportion of one’s wealth to the poor). or your identity (how
However, some sociologists argue that a process of secularisation you see yourself).
is taking place and the influence of religion is declining in society. 3 Note down two points
For example, church attendance within the Church of England (the arising from your
established or state church) is falling. If secularisation is occurring, discussion.
it would suggest that religion has less of a role in the socialisation
process today.
Stretch and challenge
Mass media
The mass media, which include television, radio and newspapers, are How far do you think human
behaviour is learned and
a powerful source of information and knowledge about the world.
how far is it instinctive?
Magazines, for example, often give advice on life and relationships. Explain your thinking.
The media sometimes put forward messages about gender roles by,
for example, showing women advertising washing-up liquid and
men advertising cars. In this way, the media contribute to gender Key point
socialisation. The media (along with families and workplaces) also
contribute to political socialisation, that is, the process by which In studying society,
sociologists draw on the
people acquire their political views.
concept of socialisation. This
term refers to the process by
which we learn the culture,
Check your understanding norms and values of the
society or group we are born
Describe what sociologists mean by ‘socialisation’. (3 marks) into.

What does the term ‘socialisation’ mean? 19

20143_P010_P029.indd 19 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 5

What are the key ideas Objective

• Describe the key ideas of
Karl Marx

of Karl Marx?
Three key thinkers – Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber –
are seen as the founders of sociology as an academic subject. Marx Glossary terms
wrote during the 19th century, while the work of Durkheim and
bourgeoisie, capitalism,
Weber spanned the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were all capitalist, class struggle,
writing during times of rapid economic and social change (such as classless society, communism,
the development of capitalism and industrialisation) and their work lumpenproletariat, Marxism,
attempts to make sense of these changes. Even today, their ideas are means of production, petty
still discussed and debated in sociology. bourgeoisie, proletariat,
social change, theoretical
perspective
FOCUS ON KEY THINKERS
Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Place of birth: Germany
Key contribution to the development of sociology: Karl Marx’s
ideas are linked to an important theoretical perspective – the
Marxist approach, or Marxism. This perspective has inspired a lot of
research on social class. Sociologists are still debating Marx’s ideas
today and many have adapted them to fit contemporary societies.
Karl Marx was writing at an early stage in the development of
capitalism (an economic system in which private owners of capital
invest money in businesses to make a profit). He wanted to explain
the changes taking place in society at that time. In 1849, Marx moved
to England and focused on the workings of capitalism in Britain.

Marx argued that in order to understand the development of societies

in the past and today, we must begin by examining production. People from around the world visit London’s
In other words, it is necessary to examine how people go about Highgate Cemetery to see Karl Marx’s grave.
producing the things they need in order to subsist. Marx used the
term ‘mode of production’ to describe how people produce the
things they need to subsist. One example is the capitalist mode of
production. Marx identified two key aspects of a mode of production:
the means of production and the social relations of production.
• Means of production: the materials, such as the raw materials or
machinery, that people use in production. Under capitalism, these
include capital, big businesses, machinery, factories and land.
• Social relations of production: the relations between people
as they engage in production. Under capitalism, there are two
main social classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

Social classes

Marx identified two main social classes under capitalism: the

bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
• The bourgeoisie are the capitalist class who own the means of
production and private property. Marx saw the bourgeoisie

20 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 20 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 5
as the ruling class in capitalist society. As owners, they have
economic power and this gives them political power.
• The proletariat – the working class – own nothing but their ability
to work as wage labourers and Marx saw them as the subject class.
Other classes under capitalism included:
• the petty bourgeoisie, who own small businesses
• the lumpenproletariat, the ‘dropouts’ who sometimes sell their
services to the bourgeoisie.
Marx saw the relationship between the bourgeoisie and proletariat
as based on exploitation. The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by
profiting from their labour. The bourgeoisie aim to maximise their
profits and do this by paying low wages. The proletariat’s interests
lie in ending exploitation. These different interests lead to conflict
between the classes.
Marx argued that the gap in the resources of the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat would get much wider over time. Members of the petty
bourgeoisie would be unable to compete with bigger companies and
would sink into the proletariat.
Over time, society would split more and more ‘into two great hostile
camps’. In Marx’s view, the class struggle between the proletariat
and the bourgeoisie is the key to bringing about social change. Stretch and challenge
Eventually, members of the proletariat would come to see themselves
as a social class with common interests and they would take action Karl Marx argued that
philosophers interpret the
to overthrow the capitalist class. This would lead to a period of social
world but the point is to
revolution and the move to communism. Under communism, the change it.
means of production would be held communally rather than by a
small minority. In this situation, there would be no private ownership, What do you think he meant
by this?
no exploitation and a classless society.

FOCUS ON THEORY: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Social classes
Identify and describe two social classes that did not benefit from
the capitalist mode of production, according to Karl Marx. Key points
• Karl Marx developed his
ideas during the 19th
Criticisms of Marx century, when capitalism
was at an early stage of
• Marx analysed class but overlooked other social divisions such as development.
gender and ethnicity. • He identified two main
• He saw social class as based on economic divisions. However, classes under capitalism:
critics argue that class is also based on status (social standing or the bourgeoisie and
prestige) differences between groups. the proletariat. The
bourgeoisie own the
means of production and
Check your understanding exploit the proletariat.
1 Describe what sociologists mean by the term ‘bourgeoisie’. • Marx believed that
(3 marks) eventually the proletariat
would overthrow the
2 Identify and explain one difference between the bourgeoisie bourgeoisie and build a
and the proletariat. (4 marks) classless, communist society.

What are the key ideas of Karl Marx? 21

20143_P010_P029.indd 21 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 6

What are the key ideas Objective

• Describe the key ideas of Emile
Durkheim

of Emile Durkheim?
Emile Durkheim is one of the founders of sociology as an academic
subject. His worldview or perspective is very different from that of Glossary terms
Marx in important respects. function, functionalism,
social cohesion, structural
approach, worldview
FOCUS ON KEY THINKERS
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Place of birth: France
Key contribution to the development of sociology: Durkheim
was a main figure in the origins of functionalism, an important
perspective in sociology. This approach was popular, particularly
among North American sociologists in the mid-20th century.
Durkheim made a major contribution to sociologists’ understanding
of the functions of crime, education and religion. He also showed
how individual actions such as suicide are shaped by the wider
society.
Durkheim was a key thinker
behind functionalism.

The functionalist perspective FOCUS ON SKILLS:

WRITTEN ACTIVITY
The functionalist approach explains social institutions (such as Comparing society to the
human body
families, education systems and social stratification systems) in terms
of the functions they perform for the wider society.
Brain
To understand functionalism, a biological analogy (or comparison)
can be used. In other words, we can compare society to the human
body. If we want to understand the human body and how it works,
we could start by identifying the vital organs such as the heart, lungs Lungs
Heart
or liver. We might then focus on one organ such as the heart and
look at its job or function in pumping blood around the body. Next, Liver
we might examine how the heart is connected to other parts of the
body such as the blood vessels. Finally, we could look at how the Kidneys
heart contributes to the survival of the body as a whole.
In the same way, functionalism views society as made up of different
parts that interlock and fit together. The different social institutions
such as the family, education and religion are important organs in The different parts of the body each have
a function.
the body of society. Functionalism examines these institutions in
terms of their functions, that is, the job they perform to help society 1 Identify one similarity
run smoothly. The different social institutions meet the needs of between society and a
society by performing functions to ensure its survival. human body.
2 How useful do you think
Durkheim studied crime, religion and education by focusing on the
it is to compare society
functions they fulfil in meeting the needs of society. For example, to a living body?
he argued that the punishment of criminals has an important

22 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 22 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 6
function in helping to bring people together. Punishment
reinforces the values and beliefs that the majority of people in Stretch and challenge
society hold. By binding people together in this way, crime can How far do you think
contribute to social cohesion. that religion binds people
together? Explain your ideas.
FOCUS ON THEORY: WRITTEN ACTIVITY
Durkheim and Marx
Durkheim focused on the functions of crime and the way crime can bind people together and contribute
to social cohesion.
Did Marx focus more on social cohesion or on conflict between social groups? Write a sentence to
explain your thinking.

Similarities between functionalism and Marxism

Although functionalism and Marxism are different in important

ways, they are both structural approaches. This means that they
focus on the structure of society and how this influences and directs
human behaviour.
However, not all sociologists agree with structural approaches. Critics
argue that these approaches view people as being like puppets who
are at the mercy of social forces beyond their control.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Are people simply puppets?
One debate between sociologists focuses on how far society moulds us and controls our behaviour and
how far we create and influence society.
To what extent do you agree that society influences us and directs our behaviour? Can you think of
ways in which we can influence, challenge or change society?
Make a note of your ideas.

Criticisms of functionalism

The functionalist approach focuses on the positive functions that

things such as crime and religion perform for society. However, critics
argue that functionalism overlooks their dysfunctional (or negative)
aspects. In reality, crime and religion do not always perform positive
Key points
functions for society. For example, knife crime can have devastating • Durkheim is one of the
effects on individual victims and on communities; religion can cause founders of sociology and
long-term conflicts between different social groups such as Catholics a key figure behind the
and Protestants in Northern Ireland. functionalist perspective.
• Durkheim made an
important contribution
Check your understanding to sociologists’
1 Describe what sociologists mean by the term ‘function’.(3 marks) understanding of the
functions of crime,
2 Identify and explain one criticism of functionalism. (4 marks) education and religion.

What are the key ideas of Emile Durkheim? 23

20143_P010_P029.indd 23 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 7

What are the key ideas Objective

• Describe the key ideas of Max
Weber

of Max Weber?
FOCUS ON KEY THINKERS Glossary terms
Max Weber (1864–1920)
Place of birth: Prussia (now Germany) power, social class, social
stratification, status
Key contribution to the development of sociology: Weber made
a major contribution to a range of sociological topics, including
social class, status and power.

Social class

Both Marx and Weber were interested in issues such as the

development of capitalism and social class. Marx saw social class
as the key division in society and he defined class in terms of
economic factors. Weber agreed with Marx that ownership and
non-ownership of property is the most important basis of class
divisions. However, Weber argued that class divisions are not just
based on economic factors; they are also linked to the skills and
qualifications that people have. These skills and qualifications affect
the sorts of occupation or job that people get. People with high-level
qualifications (such as university degrees) and specialised skills (such
as those held by surgeons or architects) are more marketable than Weber is one of the founders of sociology.
people without these qualifications and skills.

Status

Weber identified other aspects of social stratification (the way

society is structured or divided into strata or layers) in addition to
class. One of these is status. Status refers to how much prestige or
social standing a group has. There are differences between groups in
terms of how much status they have. Some groups, such as surgeons
and judges, have high status in the UK today. They also have
relatively high incomes. However, Weber argued that status does not
always go hand-in-hand with income.
There are groups who earn high incomes but have relatively low
status in society. For instance, some second hand car dealers earn
much more money than junior doctors, nurses or teachers but have
less status. There are other groups, such as religious leaders, who
have high status but low incomes.

Power

Weber made a key contribution to the study of power. He argued

that an individual or group exercises power when they can get what

24 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 24 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 7
they want, despite any opposition from other individuals or groups.
In Weber’s view, people have power in so far as they can get other
people to behave as they want them to.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Power
Read through the information below and then answer the
questions that follow.
One way of exercising power is through force or coercion. A
bully, for example, might use physical force – or the threat of
it – to get someone to do what they want. Another way of
exercising power is through authority. Politicians, managers,
police officers and judges, for instance, are authorised to
exercise power over people because of the position they hold
within an organisation. The authority of a religious leader might
be based on their charisma, that is, the exceptional qualities
they have to inspire people.

1 Which form of power (coercion or authority) do you think

is likely to be more effective in influencing other people’s
behaviour? Briefly explain your answer.
2 Choose two groups who have power in the UK today and
briefly explain what their power is based on.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Changing use of language
In the past, Marx, Weber and Durkheim were sometimes referred
to as the ‘Founding Fathers’ of sociology. Some sociologists also
used terms such as ‘man’ or ‘mankind’ in their writing when
referring to people or humankind.
In a small group, discuss why these terms are less likely to be used
today. How far does our use of words such as ‘man’ and ‘mankind’
matter? Can you think of any similar examples of words that are
less likely to be used today compared to the past? Key points
Make a note of the main points arising from your discussion. • Weber agreed with Marx
that ownership and non-
ownership of property is
Making connections the most important basis
of class divisions.
Weber and Marx focused on class divisions in society but they did
• However, Weber argued
not explore inequalities based on gender, ethnicity or age in detail.
that class divisions are not
How important do you think it is for sociologists today to examine based just on economic
gender, ethnicity and age? factors; they are also
based on people’s skills
Explain your thinking. and qualifications.
• Weber also highlighted
the importance of status.
Groups differ in how
Check your understanding much status they have. A
particular group may have
Identify and explain one similarity between Weber and Marx’s high status but no wealth
approach to social class. (4 marks) and a low income.

What are the key ideas of Max Weber? 25

20143_P010_P029.indd 25 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 8

What is the consensus Objectives

• Describe the consensus versus
conflict debate in sociology

versus conflict debate? • Describe feminist approaches in

sociology

Sociologists disagree about how they see the social world and
this means that there are different theoretical perspectives in Glossary terms
sociology. A perspective is a particular way of seeing society and
consensus, discrimination,
explaining how it works. Examples include functionalism, Marxism feminism, feminist
and feminism. perspective, patriarchy, value
One key difference between these perspectives is whether they see consensus
society as based on consensus (agreement) or conflict. This is often
referred to as the consensus versus conflict debate.

The consensus approach

In places such as airports, hospitals and prisons throughout the UK,

complex activities take place every day. Much could go wrong. At
airports, for example, aeroplanes could be delayed or baggage could
go missing. Yet airports are generally ordered places where things
usually run smoothly.
Similarly, in wider society, social life is usually ordered and stable.
According to the consensus approach, order and stability in society
depend on cooperation between individuals and groups who work
together for the common good. Generally, this cooperation happens
when people believe they have shared interests and goals.
Sociologists who work within the functionalist approach see society
as based on value consensus. In other words, people agree with
society’s norms and values. This consensus arises from the process of
socialisation (see Topic 4), during which we learn and come to share
the norms and values of our society. According to the functionalist
perspective, social order is based on consensus and it is maintained
over time because most people support the rules and agree to stick
to them.

The conflict approach

Some approaches argue that the way society is structured gives

power to some groups over others. Marxism and feminism are
examples of conflict theories that see society as based on conflicting
interests between groups rather than on consensus.
The Marxist perspective sees capitalist societies as based on conflict
between two social classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Marxists focus on class struggle. They argue that there is conflict
between powerful and less powerful groups in capitalist society
based on their opposing interests. However, social order is
maintained over time partly because the bourgeoisie have the power
to enforce order. They are able, for instance, to influence the type

26 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 26 2/8/17 9:32 AM

 1. 8
of laws that are passed and to ensure that the legal system works in
their interests.

Feminist perspectives in sociology

Feminist perspectives explore gender inequality and discrimination

in society. They see sex and gender as different categories. The term
‘sex’ refers to biological differences between males and females (for
Feminists demand an end to male violence
example, their roles in reproduction). Gender refers to the different against women. The ‘Reclaim the Night’
cultural expectations, ideas and practices linked to masculinity and marches in London and elsewhere are annual
femininity. women-only marches against sexual violence
and for gender equality.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Masculinity in different cultures
Read through the extract and then answer the questions that follow.
‘In some cultures, men wear long, flowing garments as a matter of course, but in some the idea of a
man in a “dress” is viewed with alarm; in some cultures, men who are good friends walk down the
street holding hands, but in others that behaviour is considered a violation of masculinity norms;
there was a time in North America when the now-familiar mantra that “pink is for girls, blue is for
boys” was reversed and pink was considered a strong, “masculine” colour.’
Source: Lips, H.M. (2013) Gender: The Basics. Abingdon: Routledge, p. 14.

1 
Identify two examples to show that what is seen as appropriate masculine clothing and behaviour
varies between cultures.
2 How far does this information suggest that masculinity is closely linked to biology?

FOCUS ON SKILLS: DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Nature versus nurture
The nature versus nurture debate concerns how far the differences between men and women are
based on biology (nature) and how far they are linked to socialisation and culture (nurture).
In a small group, discuss how far it is possible to separate out the influences of nature and nurture.
Note down your ideas.

Gender and power Key points

Some feminist approaches argue that society is patriarchal. In other • The consensus approach
words, it is based on male power over women. These approaches is linked to functionalism
explore the workings of patriarchy within social structures such as and argues that society
is based on broad
families, education, the workplace and the criminal justice system.
agreement about norms
They see family life, for example, as based on male dominance and and values.
this can be seen in men’s control of decision-making and in domestic
violence. • The Marxist and feminist
perspectives view society
as based on conflict.
Check your understanding Marxism emphasises class
conflict and struggle,
Identify and explain one difference between consensus and conflict while feminism emphasises
approaches. (4 marks) conflict based on gender.

What is the consensus versus conflict debate? 27

20143_P010_P029.indd 27 2/8/17 9:33 AM

 Chapter 1 . Topic 9

Focus on skills
Using statistical data
Glossary terms
You will come across many examples of statistical tables and charts in
this book and throughout your study of sociology. It is important for data, trend
you to be able to make sense of this information.
When you are examining statistical data, bear in mind the following
checklist:
• What do the statistics refer to?
• What year or years do they refer to?
• Where do they refer to?
• What unit of measurement is used?
• When were they published?
• What is the source of the statistics?
The following activities are designed to give you some practice at
making sense of statistical data.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Births outside marriage
Study the information below and then answer the questions that follow.
Live births outside marriage, England and Wales, 1970–2015 (percentages)

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
8.3% 9.1% 11.8% 19.2% 28.3% 33.9% 39.5% 42.8% 46.8% 47.7%
Source: Office for National Statistics (2016).

1 What percentage of live births were outside marriage in 1990?

2 What percentage of live births were inside marriage in 2000?
3 Briefly describe the trend in the proportion of live births outside marriage between 1970 and 2015.
4 Write down two of your own questions based on these statistics, along with the answers.
5 In pairs, take it in turns to ask each other the questions you have devised.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Attitudes to higher education
As part of the British Social Attitudes survey, the respondents (the people answering the questions)
were asked for their views on whether students in higher education (for example, at universities)
should get grants to help cover their living costs. Study the pie chart on the next page and then answer
the following questions:
1 What percentage of respondents thought that all students should get grants to cover their living
costs?
2 Which response received the most support?
3 What response did 5 per cent of respondents give?
4 In which year did this survey take place?

28 Chapter 1: The sociological approach

20143_P010_P029.indd 28 2/8/17 9:33 AM

 1. 9
Views on higher education grants, England, 2014

It depends 5%

No grants 4%

All students
26%

Some students
65%

Question: Should students get grants to help cover their living costs?
Source: adapted from NatCen’s British Social Attitudes 32, Table 3, p. 7.

FOCUS ON SKILLS: WRITTEN ACTIVITY

Child poverty
Sometimes, statistics are presented within the body of written text rather than in a table or chart. The
information below is an extract from a publication produced by the Child Poverty Action Group. Read
the extract and then answer the questions that follow.

Child poverty in the UK: a few facts

• There were 3.7 million children living in poverty in the UK in 2013–14. That’s 28 per cent of
children, or nine in a classroom of 30.
• Work does not provide a guaranteed route out of poverty in the UK. Two-thirds (64 per cent)
of children growing up in poverty live in a family where at least one member works.
• Children in large families are at a far greater risk of living in poverty. 35% of children in poverty
live in families with three or more children.
Source: Child Poverty Action Group.

1 What percentage of children was living in poverty in the UK in 2013/14?

2 What proportion of children growing up in poverty live in a family where at least one member
works?
3 Write down two of your own questions based on the statistics in this extract, along with the
answers.
4 In pairs, take it in turns to ask each other the questions you have devised.

Check your understanding

1 Describe what sociologists mean by the term ‘data’. (3 marks)
2 Describe what sociologists mean by the term ‘trend’ in relation
to statistical data. (3 marks)

Focus on skills 29

20143_P010_P029.indd 29 2/8/17 9:33 AM