A PROJECT REPORT ON

MODIFICATION OF APPENDICULAR SKELETON IN

VERTEBRATE

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

HANDIQUE GIRL’S COLLEGE

SUBMITTED BY
NAME- Borsha Das
ROLL No.- US-211-018-0198
Registration no. – 21046345

BSc. 4TH SEMESTER (ZOOLOGY HONS)

YEAR: 2023
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank our Zoology Department and our Principal sir,
Mr. Rajib Kr. Das , for providing us with this opportunity to this
informative project on “Comparative Modifications of Appendicular
Skeleton in Vertebrates”.
My sincere thanks to our Head Of Department Dr.Evarani Kalita
Ma’am and Dr.Abhinit Dey Sir for their constant guidance and
support.
Lastly, I would like to thank my classmates who have help me a lot.

Thanking you,
Borsha Das,
Roll no. US-211-018-0198
 HADIQUE GIRL’S COLLEGE
DEPARENT OF ZOOLOGY GUWAHATI-781001
ASSAM

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Borsha Das of Bsc. 4th semester , Zoology (Major), Roll
no. US-211-018-0198 Registration number 21046345 year 2023 of Handique
Girls’ College has successfully completed the project on “Modifictions of
Appendicular Skeleton in Vertebrates”.The project is prepared and submitted
to the depatment of Zoology , Handique Girls’ College as per B.Sc. curriculum
of Gauhati University .
I wish her every success in life .

Signature of Guiding Teacher

Deparment of Zoology
Handique Girls’ College
 INTRODUCTION

The appendicular skeleton is one of two major bone groups in the body,
the other being the axial skeleton. The appendicular skeleton is
comprised of the upper and lower extremities, which include the
pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle.

The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates

consisting of the bones that support the appendages. There are 126
bones. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within
the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle.The
word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage, which itself
means a part that is joined to something larger.
CONTENTS :

 Introduction on Appendicular Skeleton

 Appendicular skeleton and its constituents

 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle
 Forelimb
 Hindlimb
 Modification of Appendicular skeleton in Vertrbrates
1. Pectoral girdle

* Fish * Amphibia * Reptilia

* Aves * Mammalia

2. Pelvic girdle

* Fish * Amphibia * Reptilia

* Aves * Mammalia

3. Forelimbs

* Amphibia * Reptilia

* Aves * Mammalia

4. Hindlimbs

* Amphibia * Reptilia

* Aves * Mammalia

 Conclusion

 Bibliography
APPENDICULAR SKELETON AND THEIR CONSTITUENTS
Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126.

Functionally it involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and

manipulation of objects in the environment (upper limbs).

The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the

endochondral ossification.

The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major

regions:

 Shoulder girdle (4 bones) - Left and Right

clavicle (2)
and scapula (2).
 Arms and forearms (6 bones) – Left and right
humerus
(2), ulna (2) and radius (2).
 Hand (54 bones) – Left and right carpals
(16),
metacarpals (10), proximal phalanges (10),
intermdiate phalanges (8) and distal
phalanges (10)
 Pelvis (2 bones) – Left hip bone and right hip
bone (2)
 Thighs and legs (8 bones) – Left and rigt
femur (2),
patella (2), tibia (2) an fibula (2).
 Feet and ankles (52 bones) – Left and right tarsals (14),
metatarsals (10), proximal phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8), distal
phalanges (10).

The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together
form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial
skeleton, the appendicular skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater
ranges of motion

However, these bones show several modifications which involve reduction in number
due to adaptations for different modes of life .
Pectoral girdle:
The shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle is the set of bones in the appendicular skeleton
which connects to the arm on each side. In humans it
consists of the clavicle and scapula; in those species
with three bones in the shoulder, it consists of the
clavicle, scapula, and coracoid. Some mammalian
species (such as the dog and the horse) have only the
scapula.The pectoral girdles are to the upper limbs as
the pelvic girdle is to the lower limbs; the girdles are
the parts of the appendicular skeleton that anchor the appendages to the axial
skeleton.

In humans, the only true anatomical joints between the shoulder girdle and the axial
skeleton are the sternoclavicular joints on each side. No anatomical joint exists
between each scapula and the rib cage; instead the muscular connection or
physiological joint between the two permits great mobility of the shoulder girdle
compared to the compact pelvic girdle; because the upper limb is not usually
involved in weight bearing, its stability has been sacrificed in exchange for greater
mobility. In those species having only the scapula, no joint exists between the
forelimb and the thorax, the only attachment being muscular.

Pelvic girdle :
The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is the lower part of the trunk, between the
abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called
pelvic region), together with its embedded
skeleton(sometimes also called bony pelvis, or
pelvic skeleton).The pelvic region of the trunk
includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the
space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor,
below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum, below
the pelvic floor.The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum
and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones.
The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to the
sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two
femurs at the hip joints. The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity,
is the section of the body underneath the
abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive
organs (sex organs) and the rectum, while the
pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in
supporting the organs of the abdomen.

Forelimbs :
A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached
on the cranial (anterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. With
reference to quadrupeds, the term foreleg or front leg is often used instead. In
bipedal animals with an upright posture (e.g. humans and some primates), the term
upper limb is often used.

All vertebrate forelimbs are homologous, meaning that they all evolved from the
same structures. For example, the flipper of a turtle or of a dolphin, the arm of a
human, the foreleg of a horse, and the wings of both bats and birds are ultimately
homologous, despite the large differences between them.

Specific uses of the forelimbs may be analogous if they evolved from different sub-
structures of the forelimb, such as the flippers of turtles and dolphins, and the wings
of birds and bats.

In mammals, the bony pelvis has a gap in the middle,

significantly larger in females than in males. Their young pass
through this gap when they are born.

Hind limbs :
A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached
on the caudal (posterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso.With
reference to quadrupeds, the term hindleg or back leg is often used instead. In
bipedal animals with an upright posture (e.g. humans and some primates), the term
lower limb is often used.
MODIFICATION OF APPENDICULAR SKELETON IN
VERTEBRATES

1. PECTORAL GIRDLE :
o FISH
Elasmobranchs- (ex -scoliodon)

Pectoral girdle of scoliodon is U shaped, made

of right and left half united mid ventrally

 It is embedded in lateral and ventral

body wall posterior to the gills. PECTORAL GIRDLE WITH PECTORAL FIN OF scoliodon

 It provides attachment to body myotomes, to muscle working for swallowing and

breathing.

PECTORAL FINS :

 Two pectoral fins are attached to the pectoral girdle one on either ventro lateral
side
 Pectoral fin has 3 basalia, termed as pro, meso and metapterygium and a number
of samactidia arranged around them.
 The distal samactidia bear two sets of horny fin rays or ceratotrichia

MEDIAN FINS :

 There are four umpaired median fins

present in scoliodon, they are two dorsal
fins, one caudal fin, one ventral or anal fin

Teleost- (ex- labeo rohita )

 Pectoral girdle lies just behind the last

branchial arch and consist of separate MEDIAN FIN OF scoliodon
lateral halves.
 They do not meet mid ventrally as in scoliodon
 Basalia are absent while radials are reduced to small ossicles which lie within the
body wall.

PECTORAL FINS:

 Each pectoral fin is supported by 19 fin rays or lepidotrichia proximally

joinedwith 4 radials or somactidia, 3 of which attached with glenoid articulation
of scapula and coracoid.

MEDIAN FINS :

The thick basal part of a median fin is supported

by a series of parallel, rod like bones, radials or
somactidia

 Typically somactid is made of three

segments: Proximal, middle and distal.
PECTORAL GIRDLE WITH PECTORAL
 The distal piece is small and connected to FIN OF L..rohita
dermal bony fin rays called lepidotrichia

o AMPHIBIA
(Ex- Rana tigrina)
Pectoral girdle is an arch enclosing the chest. The two halves are united midventrally
and closely related to the sternum. (In toads the two halves overlap). Each half
has a coracoid, precoracoid, clavicle, paraglenoid cartilage, scapula and
suprascapula.

The two precoracoid catilages fuse ventrally. The

clavicle is the only dermal bone. It is fused to and
reinforces a cartilaginous precoracoid. Glenoid cavity is
bordered by coracoid, paraglenoid, and scapula. A
partly bony suprascapula reinforces the scapula. On the
inner margin of the coracoid is an epicoracoid cartilage.
Anura have two kinds of pectoral girdles-(a)
firmisternal in which the two epicoracoid cartilages are
fused mesially along their entire lengths, (b) arciferal in which the two epicoracoids
are fused only along their anterior edges.

A sternum having two separate parts is fused to the middle of the pectoral girdle. The
pectoral girdle is reinforced anteriorly by an omosternum and posteriorly by a
mesosternum and their cartilaginous expansions, the episternum and xiphisternum
respectively.

o REPTILIA
(Ex- Varanus)
In reptiles the girdles and limbs are well-developed, except in snakes and limbless
lizards, but vestigial pelvis and hindlimbs are found in some snakes.

Pectoral girdle is well formed and joined to the sternum. Each half has a bony
coracoid and scapula, between which is a glenoid cavity. There is an expanded
suprascapula of calcified cartilage. Between the coracoids of the two sides is an
expanded epicoracoid cartilage formed by the
fusion of two. In each half there are three fenestrae
between the coracoid and epicoracoid.

A T-shaped unpaired dermal bone called

interclavicle (episternum) lies midventrally. On the
arms of the interclavicle are two clavicles bracing
the girdle, but they do not meet ventrally. Clavicles
and interclavicle are dermal bones. Attached to the
coracoids is a sternum made of cartilage.

In turtles the coracoids and scapulae are slender

rods, while the clavicle and interclavicle form
dermal bony plates of the plastron.

o AVES :
(Ex- Gallus)
The appendicular skeleton of birds is remarkably uniform. The pectoral girdles and
forelimbs are modified for flight. The pelvic girdles and hindlimbs are modified to
support the weight of the body in standing and walking. Bones are tubular, spongy,
and pneumatic so that they are light, but lightness is achieved without any sacrifice
of strength. The marrow cavity has no marrow but there are supporting bony struts
which make the bones strong to bear stresses.

The pectoral girdle lies far backwards towards the centre of the body. It has a large,
stout coracoid attached to the sternum at the coracoid groove by means of a
synarthrosis or immovable articulation. Coracoid is joined at its other end at right
angle with a sword-like scapula lying over and bracing the ribs. A glenoid cavity is
formed by an imperfect union of scapula and coracoid.

It is greatly displaced above the centre of gravity, consequently the coracoids are
elongated. In front of and attached to each coracoid is a thin clavicle. The two
clavicles are joined ventrally to a small, flat interclavicle forming a furcula or
“wishbone”. In flying birds the furcula is joined
to coracoids and is well developed. In non-flying
birds it is reduced or absent.

The arched clavicles and strong coracoids brace

the sternum and resist the inward pressure of
the powerful down-stroke of the wings. At the
junction of coracoid, scapula, and clavicle is a
foramen triosseum through which the tendon of
a pectoralis minor muscle passes and is inserted
on the humerus.

o MAMMALIA
The appendicular skeleton of mammals shows much variation from a reptile like
condition to a high degree of specialisation.

Pectoral girdle of Ornithorhynchus, (a monotreme), has a scapula, coracoid, and a

cartilaginous precoracoid (epicoracoid) on each side and there is an expanded
suprascapula. Between coracoid and scapula is a glenoid cavity on each side.

Ventrally the two coracoids are connected with the manubrium of the sternum.
Between the precoracoids is a median T-shaped episternum (interclavicle) forming a
connection between the girdle and sternum. Two clavicles rest on the episternum and
each is attached to a simple acromion of the scapula. Clavicles and episternum are
dermal bones. Such a pectoral girdle is like that of a reptile.

In most mammals the precoracoids and interclavicle are lost, and the coracoids are
much reduced, the clavicle may be a strong bony arch from the scapula to the
sternum or it may be reduced or even lost. When the clavicles are lost all connection
between the pectoral girdle and axial skeleton (sternum) disappears.

(Ex- rabbit)

Each half of the pectoral girdle has a triangular

scapula or shoulder blade, at the end of which is
a glenoid cavity. Near the glenoid cavity there is
a coracoid process formed by the reduced
coracoid. On the outer surface of the scapula is a
spine which has two projections, an acromion
process and a metacromion process for
attachment of muscles.

There is a clavicle, a dermal bone forming a

slender rod attached by ligaments to the
acromion process and manubrium of the
sternum. Clavicles are retained only in those mammals which have an extensive
movement of forelimbs, in others they are reduced or lost.
2. PELVIC GIRDLE :
o FISH

Elasmobranchs-

 Pelvic girdle of scoliodon consist of

simple, flat and transverse
cartilaginous rod called ischiopubic
bar
 It lies embedded in the ventral
abdominal wall
 It has a small blunt iliac process on PELVIC GIRDLE WITH PELVIC FIN OF scoliodon

either end, projecting above the

acetabular facet for articulation of basal cartilage of pelvic fin.
PELVIC FINS:
 Skeleton of pelvic fins include a single large and curved basal cartilage,
basipterygium, 15 or more somactidia and numerous finrays or ceratotrichia

 In male dogfish, a clasper is attached to the distal end of basipterygium.

TELEOSTS

 In labeo rohita, pelvic girdle lies in

the ventral abdominal wall
anterior to anal fin, its two halves
meet in midventral line.
 Each half is made of single large
PELVIC GIRDLE WITH PELVIC FIN OF L.rohita
replacing bone, basipterygium
 Its anterior road part with forked end is connected in front by ligament to rib of
12th trunk vertebra while posterior narrow rod like part tapers behind into a small
cartilage and unites with other side in mid ventral line.
PELVIC FINS :
 Each pelvic fin is supported by 9 lepidotrichia (fin ray), 3 somactidia and a
supernumerary fin ray.
 o AMPHIBIA (ex- Rana tigrina)

It is V-shaped and has a long ilium on each side. It

articulates with the transverse processes of the sacral
(9th) vertebra. The ilia act as shock absorbers when the
animal lands after a jump. Pubis and ischium are small.
The pubis is only partly ossified. The two pubes and two
ischia are fused together to form a solid fulcrum.

All three bones join at the acetabulum cavity. Pelvic

girdle is different from that of any other vertebrate; with very long ilia it forms a long
lever for transferring the force from the hindlimbs to the vertebral column in
jumping.

o REPTILIA (ex- Varanus)

All three bones are fused inseparably to form a single innominate bone in each half.
Ilium points backwards and is firmly united with two sacral ribs of the sacrum so that
the articulation is post-acetabular. Both pubis and ischium meet their fellows to form
pubic and ischiac
symphyses. At the pubic
symphysis is an epipubis
cartilage and at the ischiac
symphysis is a
hypoischium cartilage.

The pubis has a small

foramen for the obturator
nerve. Between two innominate bones is a large cordiform (or ischiopubic) foramen
divided by a ligament into two obturator foramina. Acetabulum is bordered by all
three bones.

o AVES ( ex- Gallus)

It has a longitudinal curvature which distributes the body weight evenly in bipedal
locomotion. Ilia and ischia have become long and wide and lie longitudinally. Large
expanded ilium extends in front and behind the
acetabulum, and is fused to the synsacrum along its
entire length. Ischium is broad and extends
posteriorly. It lies parallel to and is fused with the
ilium, an ilioischiatic foramen lies between the two
bones.

A slender pubis extends backwards and ends freely.

Between the ischium and pubis is an obturator
foramen. All three bones are fused together to form an
innominate bone which has an incompletely ossified
acetabulum with a foramen.

Pubic and ischiac symphyses are absent so that large-shelled eggs can be laid. But in
ostrich (Struthio) there is a pubic symphysis, while in Rhea, the South American
ostrich, there is an ischiac symphysis.

o MAMMALIA
(ex- rabbit)

In each half the ilium,

ischium, and pubis fuse to
form an innominate bone.
The two halves meet by a
midventral pubic symphysis.
In rabbit and some others
there is a small acetabular
(cotyloid) bone at the lower
margin of the acetabulum.
The acetabulum lies where all three bones meet (except the pubis). There is a large
obturator foramen between the pubis and ischium on each side. The two ilia
articulate with the transverse processes of the first vertebra of the sacrum.
 3. FORELIMBS :

o AMPHIBIA

(ex- Rana tigrina)

Humerus has a prominent deltoid

ridge. Radius and ulna fuse into a
radioulna. There are five carpals in
two rows, in the first row the
intermedium and ulnare are fused
together, and there is a radiale. There is a single centrale. The three carpals of the
second row are fused together. Thus, the number of carpals is reduced. Only four.

o REPTILIA (ex- Varanus)

It is typical with no unusual feature.

Humerus is broad, radius and ulna are
separate, carpals are in two rows: four in
the first row including a centrale, and
five in the second row. There are five
digits ending in claws.

o AVES (ex- Gallus)

Forelimb and its skeleton are modified for flight. The

wings are attached high up on the thorax towards the
centre of the body for balancing the weight in flying.
The forelimb has a stout humerus with a deltoid
ridge. Humerus has a pneumatic foramen through
which an air sac enters making the bone spongy and
light.

Air in pneumatic bones oxygenates blood and adjusts

air pressure when a bird descends from a great
height. Such bones have no marrow. Radius and ulna are well formed. The ulna is
more strongly developed than the radius; the ulna is large for attachment of flight
feathers. Carpus has four carpals in two rows-in the first row are radiale and ulnare,
but the carpals of the second row fuse to three fused metacarpals to form a
carpometacarpus.

Of the three metacarpals the first is much reduced, all three are fused proximally, but
distally the second and third are free forming two rods. There are three digits- the
first has one phalanx, second has two phalanges, and third has one phalanx. The
digits are reduced to almost a one-fingered condition. Muscles of the upper arm are
large and strong, those of the forearm are reduced, and those of the hand have
atrophied.

o MAMMALIA
(ex- rabbit)

The limbs of most mammals

are capable of extensive
rotation, extension and
bending. Humerus is stout
with a deltoid ridge; the
distal end has two expanded
condyles between which are
a pulleys or trochlea for
articulation with ulna. Above the trochlea is an olecranon fossa perforated by a
supratrochlear (supracondyle) foramen for the passage of a nerve and brachial
artery.

Radius and ulna are separate but tightly bound together. In primates, with prehensile
forelimbs, the radius and ulna are not fixed but the radius can rotate over the ulna to
turn the hand to either a prone or a supine position.

The ulna is produced into an elbow or olecranon process, in front of which is a

sigmoid notch for articulation with the humerus. Carpus has eight bones, three in the
first row, then a small centrale and four distal carpals. There are five metacarpals
having five digits with 2, 3, 3, 3, 3 phalanges ending in claws.
In primates the first digit or pollex is independent of the others. It can be brought
opposite the other digits and palm. This opposable thumb can handle minute objects.
This factor has led to a superior position of primates.
 4. HIND LIMBS :
o AMPHIBIA (ex- Rana
tigrina)

The tibia and fibula fuse into a

tibiofibula or crural bone. There
are five tarsals in two rows, the
proximal row has two long bones,
an inner astragalus (ulnare) and
outer calcaneum (fibulare) which
make the ankle very long for jumping.

There are five digits of which the first is called hallux. There is an additional digit
called calcar or prehallux enclosed in the skin. It probably represents an additional
tarsal and may be regarded as a remainder of a fin ray of the ancestral fin. It helps in
stretching the web of the foot.

o REPTILES (ex- Varanus)

It is typical, but the tibia begins to

become larger than the fibula. The tarsals
are reduced by fusion, the proximal row
has two bones and distal row has three,
between the two rows of tarsals is an
intratarsal ankle joint where bending
takes place. There are five digits ending in
claws.

In some reptiles, but not in Varanus, two structures appear for the first time in the
hindlimbs, first the calcaneum bears a posterior calcaneal process or heel, secondly a
sesamoid bone forms a patella or knee cap in front of the tibia.

o AVES (ex- Gallus)

These are modified for bipedal locomotion. A strong femur articulates at the
acetabulum. Fibula is much reduced and is short. The tibia has a chemical crest, in
front of the junction of femur and tibia. A sesamoid
bone forms a patella. The tibia is fused with the
proximal tarsals (astragalus and calcaneum) to form a
tibiotarsus.

The distal tarsals fuse with the second, third, and

fourth fused metatarsals to form a compound bone, the
tarsometatarsus. The ankle joint is between the two
rows of tarsals is intratarsal in position. The first
metatarsal is free and projects near the lower end of the
tarsometatarsus.

In the fowl and some other birds a bony spur projects backwards from the
tarsometatarsus, it has a horny epidermal covering. The spur is more developed in
male birds for fighting. The digits are never more than four, having 2, 3, 4, 5
phalanges. The last phalanx of each digit bears a claw. The first digit (hallux) usually
points backward, while the other three digits are directed forward.

o MAMMALIA

(ex- Rabbit)

Femur is strong with a head for articulation with the acetabulum. There are three
trochanters for attachment of muscles, distal end of femur has two smooth condyles.
Tibia is strong and has a
cnemial crest, above is a
sesamoid bone or patella
formed in the tendon of triceps
femoralis muscle. It forms a
knee cap which reinforces the
ligaments of the knee joint.

Fibula is reduced and fused

distally to the tibia but separate
proximally. Tarsus has six
bones, proximal row has astragalus and calcaneum, its postior projection, the
calcaneal process forms a heel. Centrale lies in front of the astragalus, distal row has
three tarsals.

There are four metatarsals bearing digits. Each digit has three phalanges ending in
claws. First digit or hallux is absent. In some primates the hallux is opposable in the
same way as the pollex of the hand.
 CONCLUSION

The appendicular skeleton keeps a human body in motion and helps in

perform daily activities. This part of the skeleton system comprises of
bones of the upper limbs (movement of forearms and shoulders), lower
limbs (helps in motion), pectoral girdle (support the upper limbs), pelvic
girdle (protect the vital organs of the abdominal cavity and transfer the
weight to the lower limbs).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Google.com
 Wikipidia