The Navigation Control ManualThe Navigation Control Manual Second edition A. G. Bole, Extra Master Mariner, FRIN, FNI W. O. Dineley, Extra Master Mariner, M Phil. C. E. Nicholls, Master Mariner, BSc., MNI BNEWNESContents Preface to the second edition Introduction Acknowledgements PART I Data Sources 1 The compass 1.1 The magnetic compass 1.2 The gyro compass 1.3. Autopilots 1.4 Course recorders 1.5 Effect of errors on dead reckoning 1.6 Extracts from official publications 2 The log 21 The water reference log 2.2 The ground reference log 2.3 Errors 2.4 — Extracts from official publications 3. The echo sounder 34 32 33 34 System introduction Setting-up procedure Corrections before chart comparison Extracts from official publications 4. The radio direction finder 4 42 43 44 45 System introduction Setting-up procedure (Obtaining the bearing Correction of the relative beating Error sources and accuracy 6 15 5 15 16 16 18 18 19 19 20 23 2B 2 24 24 24 46 47 48 5 Radar 5A 5.2 53 54 55 5.6 5.7 5.8 59 5.10 Bal Shore-based direction finding stations Fixing position Extracts from offical publications System introduction Setting-up procedure and adjustment of controls Picture orientation Picture presentation Extraction of data Radar plotting techniques Navigational techniques Computer assistance Additional ARPA facilities Error sources and accuracy Extracts from official publications 6 The Decca Navigator 6.1 System introduction 6.2. Setting-up procedure 6.3 Fixed and variable errors 64 Fixing position 6.5. Navigation warnings 6.6 Extracts from official publications 7 Loran C 7A System introduction 72 73 14 75 Setting-up procedure System faults Error sources and accuracy Fixing position 45 62 67 B 80 84 95 118 118 19 120 124 127 129 132 132 132 134 134 1358 Omega System introduction 8.2. Setting-up procedure 8.3. Correction of readings 8.4 Sources of Omega status warnings 8.5 Error sources and accuracy 8.6 Fixing position 8.7 Extract from official publication 9 Satellite navigation systems 9.41 The Transit satellite system 9.2 93 94 95 9.6 97 98 Setting-up procedure Error sources and accuracy Fixing position Global positioning, system NAVSTAR, GPS receivers Accuracy System status 10 Navigation system comparison uw 10.1 Frequencies for electronic navigation systems 10.2 Position fixing systems: comparison 10.3 Extracts from official publications Publications 11.1 Writeen data accessibility levels 11.2 Chart catalogue and folios 41.3. Sailing Directions and Ocean Passages of the World 41.4 Notices to Mariners 11.5 Admiralty Lists of Lights and Fog Signals 11.6 Admiralty Lists of Radio Signals 11.7. The Mariner's Handbook 11.8 Passage planning charts, routeing charts and DTp publications 11.9 Tide tables 11.10 Tidal stream atlases 11.11 Navigation warnings 11.12 Weather reports 137 137 137 139 139 141 141 142 147 447 447 147 148 149 149 149 149 150 150 150 150 158 158 158 160 161 162 162 163 163 164 165 165 167 1.13 114 11.15 11.16 41.17 11.18 11.19 11.20 1.21 11.22 11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 PART I CONTENTS Merchant Shipping (M) Notices Navigation systems manuals Mersar Manual (IMO) Guide to Helicopter/Ship Operations (ICS) Bridge Procedures Guide (ICS) Handbook for Radio Operators (Lloyds of London Press) Ships’ Routeing (IMO) International Code of Signals (Tp) ‘The Nautical Almanac (HMSO) and navigation tables Port information books ‘Own ship manoeuvring and stopping data International Collision Regulations Standing orders Extracts from official publications Passage Planning 12 Introduction to passage planning 12.1 Requirements to plan 12.2 Advantages of planning 12.3 Involvement of all watchkeeping officers 12.4 Extracts from offical publications 13. Types of passage plan 13.1 Ocean 13.2 Coastal 13.3. Landfall 13.4 Pilotage waters 13.5 Contingency 14 Appraisal 14.1 Appraisal checklist 44.2» Publications 14.3. The chart 14.4 Navigation aids 14.5 Tides 14.6 ‘The operational status of the vessel 14,7 Extract from official publication 168 169 169 169 170 71 7 171 172 172 172 173 173 181 181 181 182. 182 189 189 189 190 190 190 192 192 192 192 192 193 193 195CONTENTS 15 Making the plan 15.1. Marking the chart 15.2 The bridge notebook 15.3. Pilotage waters 16 The contingency plan 16.1 Diversion 16.2 Reduced progress 16.3 Changed conditions 16.4 Emergencies 17 Distress, search and rescue 17.1 The distressed vessel 17.2 Responding to the distress 173 Coordinating search and rescue 17.4 Extracts from official publications PART IIT Bridge Operations 18 Bridge operations and the bridge team 18.1 Bridge manning 18.2 Bridge procedures 18.3. Extract from official publication 19 Communications 19.1 Intership and ship to shore communications 19.2. On-board communications 19.3 Extracts from official publications 196 196 208 215 217 217 218 28 20 222 222 223, 224 226 231 231 233 235 239 239 249, 250) PART IV_ Navigation Control 20. Execution of the passage plan 20.1 Monitoring progress 20.2 Minor adjustments to the plan 21 Reacting to changed circumstances 21.1 Implementing the contingency plan 21.2 Reappraisal 21.3. Replanning 21.4 Upgrading the bridge team 21.5 Port approach procedures 22 Collision avoidance 22.1 Clear visibility 22.2 Restricted visibility 22.3 Extract from official publication 22.4 Bibliography 23. Vessel traffic services 23.1 The functions of vessel trafic 23.2 Communications 23.3 Surveillance 23.4 Information services 23.5 Ship reporting schemes 23.6 Traffic separation schemes 23.7. Provision of advice and guidance 23.8 Regulation of traffic 23.9 Extracts from official publications Index: 269 281 283, 281 281 281 284 284 286 288 296, 299 300 301 30 301 302 303, 304 305 306 3ulPart I Data Sources1 The compass 1.1 The magnetic compass In recent years the magnetic compass has tended to play a lesser role in the immediate navigation of the vessel, but because of its independence of power supplies ete. it has remained an essential element in the ship's overall navigational equipment. Its stil a legal requirement that it be caried (see Section 10.3) and, in spite of the trend towards total reliance on the {gy70 compass, itis important that the magnetic com- pass error is checked and logged 1 At least once per watch 2 At each change of course. ‘The methods more commonly available for checking compass extor are 1 Celestial observations, i.e. azimuth and amplitude 2 Transit bearings of shore objects. Ik is of course good practice to check the magnetic against the gyro compass, not to determine error but rather a a first warning that any change inthe already noted difference in reading would indicate that an ‘error was developing in one of the instruments. 1.1.1 Magnetic variation Since the earth's magnetic and geographic poles do rot coincide, the compass needle will indicate the direction to the magnetic pole, which will differ from the direction of the geographic or true pole. This difference in direction is termed magnetic variation and in some navigable areas can exceed some 25° Information regarding magnetic variation is printed at the centre of the compass roses on navigational charts, Since its value may vary over the area of the chatt, itis important to use the value on the compass rose nearest to the vessel's position or even to interpolate between values where there is a marked change. AA special chare (no. 5374) giving worldwide lines of magnetic variation is also available. ‘Magnetic variation undergoes continual change and the published values are all related to some par- ticular date e.g. variation of6° 05" W (1979), decreas- ing about 4" annually. It is essential chat before use the published value is updated for the current year. 1.1.2 Deviation After correction of the compass for the effect of the ship's magnetism, any residual effects will cause the compass needle to deviate from the direction of magnetic north. ‘These residual errors are termed deviation and should be tabulated on a ‘deviation card’ by the compass adjuster at the time the vessel is swung. As a consequence of determining compass extot, ie. by the application of variation, the devi- ation component can be evaluated. Deviations should be recorded in the compass log, with the deviation card being updated as necessary and any significant changes investigated. ‘The deviation card should be readily available on the bridge at all times. It should be noted that a table of low values for deviation does not necessarily indicate correct compensation on a worldwide basis. Thus it is essen- tial that the values of deviation are recorded because much can be learned from an analysis of the logged values.7 1.1.3 Maintenance, service and correction Careful monitoring of compass error will indicate when the vessel will need to be swung and the correc: tors readjusted. In the absence of changes in the vessel's structure or of special cargoes (e.g. scrap iron), o of significant changes in the logged devi- ations, the vessel should only need to be swung at intervals of approximately ten years and even then should only require some minor adjustment of the correctors which have already been placed ‘The positions, sizes, etc. of the correcting magnets, should be logged at the time the vessel is swung so that in the event of some accident to the compass, which results in their displacement, they can be restored to their original positions. ‘When a spare compass bowl is carried, it is important that it is stowed clear of magnetic fields ‘which might otherwise affect it. Since the corrector ‘magnets placed in the binnacle are to compensate for the ship's magnetism, at a properly corrected compass position the magnetic field should be the same as ‘would be experienced at that place in the absence of ship, binnacle, etc. Thus it would seem that one ‘compass bow! is interchangeable (assuming this is mechanically possible) with another, but some care needs to be exercised The two most common sources of problems which ‘occur with magnetic compasses are: ‘Bubbles in the liguid These should be removed accord- ing to the maker's instructions, and here the importance of topping up with the correct fluid cannot be overstressed. Wom pivot ‘This can result in the card ‘sticking’, and should be tested at intervals. No attempt should be made to repair it: the complete bowl should be replaced and the faulty bowl returned to the makers. 1.2 The gyro compass In recent years the gyro compass has tended to come into its own, mainly because of its high reliability, compact size, minimal siting constraints, small errors, DATA SOURCES and ability to run repeaters and to provide a heading reference for other navigational equipment. Unfortunately, the good points of the gyro com- pass have tended to result in it being taken for granted, but it is essential that it is monitored in exactly the same way as any other electronic navi- gational aid. 1.2.1 Course speed and latitude error ‘The gyro compass is controlled so as to align its axis at 90° to what it senses to be the earth’s direction of rotation. The vessel's velocity, when combined with the earth's rotation, will result in an error which is dependent on the vessels course, speed and latitude. In normal navigable latitudes (<70° N ot S) this error is quite small (less than 2°) and should be applied by ‘means of the facilities provided on the particular com- pass. Unfortunately, different compass manufacturers provide different means of compensation. These vary from nothing, in which case the error is determined from tables and the ‘course to steer’ adjusted accord- ingly: through mechanical compensators, which adjust the lubber line; to digital techniques, which have to be set with speed and latitude. Although the errors may be small it is important that the necessary adjustments are made: 4 Regularly when changing speed; and 2 Daily when significantly changing latitude. 1.2.2 Starting, settling and stopping controls With modern gyro compasses, there should be no need to keep starting and stopping the compass. With the many compasses available today itis important to follow the manufacturer's instructions, but this should involve little more than switching om, Some require a warming-up period and also a period to allow the compass to settle, i.e. align with the ‘meridian, although in the latter case a ‘slew' or fast align facility is usually provided. In any case, it is ‘good practice to have the gyro running well before it is needed. After switching on and alignment have ‘been completed, and immediately prior to use, the speed and latitude controls should be set and all the repeaters aligned with the master.THE COMPASS 12.3 Routine maintenance Modern gyro compasses are essentially sealed units and should require no maintenance, but again the manufacturer's handbook should be consulted. Older ‘gyro compasses do require routine maintenance, but here it is essential to attend some form of training course before anything more than basic cleaning and oiling is undertaken. 124° Error og ‘As with magnetic compasses, it is important that the compass error is checked regularly, ie. at least once per watch and at each change of course, and then logged along with course, speed and latitude at the time. 1.3. Autopilots Steering the vessel has long been seen as wasteful of labour time; some form of automatic steering device has been available since approximately 1907. The autopilot is primarily for use on long ocean passages, although the precision and sophistication of today's adaptive autopilots permit their use under more demanding steering conditions. One consequence of the provision of autopilots is that the traditional steering skills of the helmsman or quartermaster are being lost. Whereas it was the practice to call for a hhelmsman in bad weather or where precision conning was required, it has been found (e.g. during refuelling and transferring stores at sea during the Falklands War) that very few of the crew are capable ofthe tsk. Ie is essential therefore to ensure that there are sufficient crew members capable of competent steer ing when the occasion demands and that the skill is maintained by regular practice, even if this means a spell on the wheel each day. 1.3.1 Checking, seting and change-over procedures Again, there is variation in the controls and facilities provided on the autopilot and consoles in the sophisti- 5 cation of the functions which the system is intended to perform, so that reference to the manufacturer's manual is essential 1.3.2 Basic controls Seiing This is usually by means of a compass card which is set to the “demanded” heading. The differ- ence between the demanded and actual heading is then sensed and the difference removed by altering the course of the ship. Rudder angle This usually sets or limits the maximum rudder angle which the autopilot may apply. Sensitivity This sets the amount by which the vessel is allowed to be off course before correction is applied. Too small a setting will result in excessive and unnecessary working of the steering gear and added drag due to rudder reaction, while too large a setting can result in long periods off course and therefore poor track Keeping. Weather helm When steering in heavy weather with the wind and sea at an angle to the vessel's heading, there isa tendency for the vesse!s head to be turned in 4 particular dizection. The effect ofthis can be offset by maintaining some permanent value of rudder angle; this angle is set using ‘weather helm’ after a period of trial and error. 1.3.3. The adaptive autopilot ‘This is intended to remove the need for the operator to assess the correct control settings. In effect the autopilot ‘learns’ the vessel’s handling characteris in calm weather and then, when the weather det rates, can distinguish between those errors in heading due to the weather and those due to the vessel’s normal handling characteristics. It has been found that in heavy weather the vessl’s head deviates very litle relative to the water; therefore the adaptive auto- pilot concerns itself primarily with those errors in heading resulting from normal handling character- istics, so reducing the work and hence drag of the rudder.1.4 Course recorders These, when provided, can perform a useful course/ autopilot monitoring function. They provide a paper trace of course against time and have an off-course alarm facility which can be set to warn if the vessel strays more than the set number of degrees off course. When linked to a magnetic/luxgate compass it can prove extremely useful in detecting a slow off-course drift in the gyro controlling the autopilot. This ‘would not be the case where the alarm is linked to the same gyt0 as the autopilot. 1.5 Effect of errors on dead reckoning 1.5.1 Constant errors Te must be recognized that the course as ordered may differ from the course made good, due to: 1. Wind, ic. leeway 2. Tidal stream or ocean current 3 Periods off cousse for collision avoidance 4 Careless or inaccurate steering. When this difference is known to exist it should be taken into account when working up the ship's esti- mated position (see Section 20.1), 1.5.2. Random errors Tt may be that during bad weather it is only possible to steer within say 2° of the desired course, with the known departure postion Figure 1.1. Random errors DATA SOURCES error at any instant being random within the 2°. If the position is then worked up by dead reckoning (DR), the cross-track ector should be borne in mind. Example If a vessel has departed from a known position, what would be the uncertainty in position when the log reads 420 nautical miles (am) if the random course error is estimated to be +2° and the random log error is estimated to be +2 per cent (Figure 1.1)? estimated cross-track error = 420 tan 2° = £14.66 nm estimated along-track error = 2% of 420 =48.4nm When making landfall after a period without a re- liable fix, it is important that considerations of this sort be taken into account. The area of uncertainty is dependent upon: 1 Random course error 2. Random speed error 3 Distance run since the last fix. 1.6 Extracts from official publications Within Sections 1 numbering of the ot retained. ‘The International 1 to 1.6.7, the paragraph publications “has been Maritime Organization is abbreviated IMO. It was formerly the Intergovern- mental (IMco). Maritime Consultative Organization caletatod slongtrack emor DR postion AG rest rackTHE COMPASS 1.6.1 IMO Resolution A382(X): Performance Standards for Magnetic Compasses 1 Definitions 1.1 A magnetic compass is an instrument designed to seek a certain direction in azimuth and to hold that direction permanently, and which depends, for its directional properties, upon the magnetism of the earth, 1.2. The standard compass is 2 magnetic compass used for navigation, mounted in a suitable binnacle containing the required correcting devices and equipped with a suitable azimuth reading device. 1.3 The steering compass is a magnetic compass used for steeting purposes mounted in 2 suitable bin- nacle containing the required correcting devices. Note If the transmitting image of a sector of the standard compass card of a least 15° to each side of the lubber mark is clearly readable for steering purposes at the main steering. position, both in daylight and artificial light according to subparagraph “1, the standard compass can also be regarded as the steering compass, 2 Compass card 2.4 The compass card should be graduated in 360 ‘sngle degrees. A numerical indication should be pro- sided every ten degrees, starting from north (000°) clockwise to 360°. The cardinal points should be dicated by the capital letters N, E, $ and W. The orth point may instead be indicated by a suitable emblem. 2.2. The directional error of the card, composed of ‘accuracies in graduation, eccentricity of the card on +s pivat and inaccuracy of orientation of the card on ‘che magnetic system, should not exceed 0.5° on any seading. 2.3. The card of the steering compass should clearly Se readable in both daylight and artifical light at @ Zistance of 1.4m. The use of a magnifying glas is xermitted, 3) Materials 3.1 The magnets used in the directional system and the corrector magnets for correcting the permanent ‘magnetic fields of the ship should have a high coercivity of at least 11.2 kA/m. 3.2 Material used for correcting induced fields should have a low remanence and coercivity. 3.3. All other materials used in the magn ‘compass and in the binnacle should be non-magnetic, so far as reasonable and practicable and such that the deviation of the card caused by these materials should not exceed (9/H)°, where H is the horizontal component of the magnetic flux density in microtesla (UT) at the place of the compass. 4 Performance ‘The magnetic compass equipment should operate sat~ isfactorily and remain usable under the operational and environmental conditions likely to be experienced ‘on board ships in which itis installed 5 Constructional error 5.1 With the compass rotating at a uniform speed of 1.5° per second and a temperature of the compass cof 20°C + 3°C, the deflection ofthe card should not exceed (54/H)° (H being defined as in subparagraph 3.3). 5.2. The error due to friction should not exceed (G/H)® at a temperature of 20°C+3°C (H being defined as in subparagraph 3.3) 5.3 With a horizontal component of the magnetic field of 18 uT the half period of the card should be at least 12 seconds after an initial deflection of 40°. "The time taken to return finally to within +1° of the mag- netic meridian should not exceed 60 seconds after an initial deflection of 90°. Aperiodic compasses shall ‘comply with the latter requirements only. 6 Correcting devices 6.1. The binnacle should be provided with devicesz for correcting semicircular and quadrantal deviation due to: 1 The horizontal components of the ship's perma- rent magnetism 2 Heeling error 3 The horizontal component of the induced hori- zontal magnetism 4 The horizontal component of the induced vertical ‘magnetism. 6.2. The correcting devices provided in subpara- graph 6.1 should ensure that no serious changes of deviation occur under the influence of the environ- ‘mental conditions described in parageaph 4 and par- ticularly considerable alteration of magnetic latitude Sextantal and deviations of higher order should be negligible 7 Construction 7A Primary and emergency illumination should be installed so that the card may be read at all ti Facilities for dimming should be provided. 7.2 With the exception of the illumination, no elec- trical power supply should be necessary for operating the magnetic compass. 7.3. In the case where an electrical reproduction of the indication of the standard compass is regarded as a steering compass, the transmitting system should be provided with both primary and emergency electrical power supply, 7.4. Equipment should be constructed and installed in such a way that itis easily accessible for correcting and maintenance purposes. 7.5 The compass, binnacle and azimuth reading device should be marked to the satisfaction of the administration (the government of each country applying the rules). 7.6. The standard compass should be suspended in gimbals so that its verge ring remains horizontal when the binnacleis tilted up to 40° in any direction, and so that the compass cannot be dislodged under any condition of sea or weather. Steering compasses DATA SOURCES suspended in gimbals should meet the same require- ments, If they are not suspended in gimbals they should have a freedom of the card of at least 30° in all directions. 7.7, Material used for the manufacture of magnetic compasses should be of sufficient strength and be to the satisfaction of the administration. 8 Positioning 8.1. The magnetic compass equipment should be installed if practicable and reasonable on the ship's centreline. The main lubber mark should indicate the ship's heading with an accuracy of +0.5°, 8.2. The standard compass should be installed so that from its position the view is as uninterrupted as possible, for the purpose of taking horizontal and celestial bearings. The steering compass should be dlearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position, 8.3. The magnetic compasses should be installed as far as possible from magnetic material. The minimum distances of the standard compass from any magnetic material whieh is part ofthe ship's structure should be to the satisfaction of the administration. ‘The following diagram gives general guidelines to indicate the minimum desirable distances from the standard compass, The minimum desirable distances for the steering compass may be reduced to 65 per cent of the values given by the diagram provided that Mini dere ances rom te Standard Compas Mien ovens of sip Enact arte rial ch opt of wp pillars and sen‘ ste! parts Magnatic materia .bject to movernent at iwc‘THE COMPASS ro distance is less than 1 m. If there is only a steering compass the minimum distances for the standard compass should be applied as far as practicable. 8.4 The distance of the magnetic compass from electrical or magnetic equipment should be at least equal to the safe distance specified for the equipment and be to the satisfaction of the administration, 1.6.2 UK Statutory Instrument 1984, no, 1203 Part I Magnetic compass installation ‘Magnetic compass performance standards 10. Every magnetic compass instalation required to be provided shall comply with the performance standards adopted by the organization. ‘The magnetic compass installation 11(1) Except in the case of ships having Passenger Certificates of Class IV, VI or VI(A), the magnetic compass installation shall comprise: (a) A. standard magnetic compass, fitted on the centreline of the ship and mounted on a binnacle; (0) A steering magnetic compass, fitted on the centreline of the ship and mounted on a binnacle, unless heading information provided by the stan- dard compass required under (2) is made available and is clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering (c) Adequate means of communication between the standard compass position and the normal navi- gation control position; and (d) Means for taking bearings as nearly as practicable cover an atc of the horizon of 360°. (2)_In the case of ships having Passenger Certificates of Class IV, VI or VI(A) the magnetic compass instal- lation shall comprise one efficient magnetic compass at the steering position. Adjustment of magnetic compasses 12. Each of the magnetic compasses referred to in regulation 11(1) shall be properly adjusted and its table or curve of residual deviations shall be available at all times. Spare magnetic compass 13. A spare magnetic compass, interchangeable with the standard compass, shall be carried in every ship of 150 tons and over to which these regulations apply, unless a steering compass mentioned in regulation 11(1)(b) is fitted. Emergency tering position 14 On ships of 150 tons and over which are pro- vided with emergency steering positions, arrange- ‘ments shall be made to supply heading information to such positions. Part It Gyro compass installation Gyro compass performance standards 15. Every gyro compass installation required to be provided ‘shall comply with the performance stan- dards adopted by the organization and shall, in addition, comply with the relevant performance spec- ifications issued by the Department of Transport. Siting of gyro compass installation 16(1) The master compass shall be installed with its fore-and-aft datum line parallel to the ship's fore-and- aft datum line to within +0.5°. (2) The compass card of the master compass, or a repeater of the heading information, shall be sited so that it is clearly readable by the helmsman when steering the ship. (3) Where provided, repeaters used for taking visual bearings shall be installed with their fore-and-aft datum lines parallel to the ship's fore-and-aft datum line to within +0.5°. (4) ‘The master compass shall be sited so a8 to avoid, where practicable, excessive errors being caused to the gyro compass installation due to the ship rolling, pitching or yawing. (6) Where, in a gyro compass installation fitted on or after 1 September 1984, failure of one repeater could cause an error in any other repeater, a readily accessible means shall be provided for isolating each repeater output from the master compass. Provision of gyro repeaters 47 On ships of 1600 tons or over a gyro repeater or0 gyr0 repeaters shall be provided and shall be suitably placed for taking bearings as nearly a practicable over an are of the horizon of 360°, 1.6.3 IMO Resolution A424{X1): Performance Standards for Gyro Compasses 1 Introduction 1.1 The gyro compass required by Regulation 12 of Chapter V of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, should determine the direction of the ship's head in relation to geographic (true) north. 1.2. The eq t should comply with the follow- ing minimum performance requirements. 2 Definitions For the purpose of these performance standards the following definitions apply: 1. The term ‘gyro compass’ comprises the complete equipment and includes all essential elements of the complete design. 2 The ‘true heading’ isthe horizontal angle between the vertical plane passing through the true meridian and the vertical plane passing through the ship's foresand-aft datum line. It is measured from true north (000°) clockwise through 360°. 3 The compass is said to be ‘settled’ if any three readings taken at intervals of 30 minutes, when the compass is on a level and stationary base are within a band of 0.7. 4 The ‘setle point heading’ is the mean value of ten readings taken at 20 minute intervals after the compass has settled as defined in paragraph 2.3. 5 The ‘settle point error’ is the difference between settle point heading and true heading. 66 The other errors to which the gyro compass is sub- ject are taken to be the difference between the observed value and the settle point heading. DATA SOURCES 3. Method of presentation ‘The compass card should be graduated in equal inter- vals of one degeee or a fraction thereof, A numerical indication should be provided at least at every ten degrees, starting from 000° clockwise through 360°. 5 Accuracy 5.1. Setting of equipment 5.1.1 When switched on in accordance with the ‘manufacturer's instructions, the compass. should settle within 6 hours in latitudes of up to 60° 5.1.2 The settle point error as defined in paragraph 2.5 at any heading and at any latitude up to 60° should not exceed -+0.75° x secant latitude, where heading indications of the compass should be taken as the mean of ten readings at 20 minute intervals, and the root mean square value of the differences between individual heading indications and the mean should be less than 025° x secant latitude. The repeatability of, settle point error from one run-up to another shall be within 0.25° x secant latitude. 5.2 Performance under operational conditions 5.2.1 When switched on in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, the compass should settle within 6 hours in latitudes of up to 60° when rolling and pitching with simple harmonic motion of any period between 6 and 15 seconds, a maximum angle of 5°, and a maximum horizontal acceleration of 0.22m/s?. 5.2.2 The repeatability of the settle point error of the master compass shall be within +1° x secant latitude under the general conditions mentioned in ‘chapter 1.1 of this publication, paragraphs 3.1 and 4, and including variations in magnetic field likely to be ‘experienced in the ship in which itis installed. 5.2.3. In latitudes of up to 60°: 1 The residual steady state error, after correction for speed and course influences at a speed of 20 knots, shall not exceed +0.25° secant latitude 2 The error due to a rapid alteration of speed of 20 knots should not exceed +2°.Tue COMPASS 3 The error due to a rapid alteration of course of 180° ata speed of 20 knots should not exceed 3° 4 The transient and steady state errors due to the ship rolling, pitching and yawing, with simple harmonic motion of any period between 6 and 15 seconds, maximum angle of 20°, 10° and 5° respectively, and maximum horizontal acceler- ation not exceeding 1m/s', should not exceed 1° x secant latitude. 5.2.4 The maximum divergence in reading between the master compass and repeaters under all operational conditions should not exceed £0.5°, ‘Note When the compass is used for purposes other than steering and bearing, a higher accuracy might be necessary. To ensure that the maximum error referred to in subparagraph 5.2.3.4 not exceeded in practice, it wall be necessary to pay particular attention to the siting of the master compass 9 Construction and installation 9 ‘The master compass and any repeaters used for taking visual bearings should be installed in a ship with their fore-and-aft datum lines parallel t the ship's fore-and-aft datum line to within £0.5°. The Iuvbber line should be in the same vertical plane asthe centre of the card of the compass and should be aligned accurately in the fore-and-aft direction. 9.2 Means should be provided for correcting the errors induced by speed and latitude. 9.3. An automatic alarm should be provided to indi- cate a major fault in the compass system. 9.4 The system should be designed to enable head- ing information to be provided to other navigational aids such as radar, radio direction finder and auto- ‘matic pilot. 1.6.4 The Survey of Merchant Shipping Navigational Equipment (HMSO) 5.1. Siting of gyro compass units 5.1.1 The master unit should be installed on a firm Ti horizontal base using a wooden or similar mounting pad. It should be as free from vibration as is practi- cable and have adequate space around the unit for access and ventilation. Adequate ventilation is par- ticularly important for units which incorporate cool- ing fans. 5.1.2 The fore-and-aft line of master units and bbinnacles must align with, or be parallel with, the fore-and-aft axis of the ship and compass cards should be clearly visible so that accurate reading of ship's heading is readily available. 5.1.3 Where the gyro compass installation provides steering information, the master unit or repeater, as applicable, should be installed adjacent to the steering ‘wheel, in such a position that the ship’s heading can easily be read by the helmsman. 5.1.4 Bearing repeaters, particularly those on the bridge wings for taking bearings, should be rigidly mounted, and protective covers should be available and in place whenever any exposed repeaters are not 5.1.5 Bridge wing repeaters should be installed in positions which provide the maximum possible un- obstructed view of the horizon. 5.2 Operational checks 5.2.1. The compass should be allowed to settle and the readings then checked to ensure that they are within the tolerances given in IMO resolution ‘A424(X1), and all repeaters should be aligned with the master unit to within £0.5°. 5.2.2. All repeaters should be checked to ensure that they follow the master unit accurately, smoothly and in the correct sense, by deflecting the master wnit a small amount, about 210°, 5.2.3 The mechanical parts of bridge wing re peaters should be checked to ensure that they are in a good condition and capable of operating satisfac- torily.z 1.6.5 IMO Resolution A342(IX): Performance Standards for Automatic Pilots Automatic pilot equipment aboard a seagoing vessel should comply with the following minimum oper- ational requirements in addition to the general requirements contained in Assembly Resolution A.281(VIII) 1 General 1.1 Within limits related to a ship’s manoeuvra- bility the automatic pilot, in conjunction with its source of heading information, should enable a ship to keep a preset course with minimum operation of the ship’s stecring gear. 1.2. The automatic pilot equipment should be capable of adapting to different steering character- istics of the ship under various weather and loading conditions, and provide reliable operation under pre- sailing environmental and normal operational condi- tions. 2. Changing over from automatic to manual steering and vice versa 2.1 Changing over from automatic to manual steer- ing and vice versa should be possible at any rudder position and be effected by one, or at the most two, ‘manual controls, within a time lag of 3 seconds. 2.2 Changing over from automatic to manual steer- ing should be possible under any conditions, includ- {ng any failure in the automatic control system 2.3. When changing over from manual to automatic steering, the automatic pilot should be capable of bringing the ship to the preset course. 2.4 Change-over controls should be located close to cach other in the immediate vicinity of the main steer- ing position. 2.5 Adequate indication should be provided to show which method of steering is in operation at a particular moment. DATA SOURCES 3. Alarm signalling facili 3.1. A. course monitor should be provided which actuates an adequate ‘off-course’ audible alarm signal after a course deviation of a preset amount, 3.2 The information required to actuate the course monitor should be provided from an independent source 3.3. Alarm signals, both audible and visual, should be provided in order to indicate failure or 2 reduction in the power supply to the automatic pilot or course monitor, which would affect the safe operation of the equipment. 3.4. The alarm signalling facilities should be fitted near the steering position. 4 Controls 4.1. The number of operational controls should be minimized as far as possible and they should be designed to preclude inadvertent operation. 4.2, Unless features for automatic adjustments are incorporated in the installation, the automatic pilot should be provided with adequate controls for oper- ational use to adjust effects due to weather and the ship's steering performance. 4,3 The automat pilot should be designed in such a way as to ensure altering course to starboard by ‘turning the course setting control clockwise. Normal alterations of course should be possible by one adjust- ment only of the course setting control 4.4 Except for the course setting control, the actu- ation of any other control should not significantly affect the course of the ship. 4.5. Additional controls at remote positions should comply with the provisions of these performance standards. 5 Rudder angle limitation Means should be incorporated in the equipment to enable rudder angle limitation in the automatic mode of operation. Means should also be available to indi- cate when the angle of limitation has been reached,We COMPASS 6 Permitted yaw Means should be incorporated to prevent unnecessary activation of the rudder due to normal yaw motion. 1.6.6 UK DTp Merchant Shipping Notice ‘M.1102: Operational Guidance for Officers in Charge of a Navigational Watch ‘Note The guidelines were first produced by the Ministry of Transport, then by the DoT. They are currently published by the DTp. Periodic checks of navigational equipment 9 Operational tests of shipboard navigational equip- ‘ment should be carried out at sea as frequently as prac- ticable and as circumstances permit, in particular ‘when hazardous conditions affecting navigation are expected: where appropriate these tests should be recorded. 10. The officer of the watch should make regular checks to ensure th: (a) The helmsman or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course (&) The standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible, after any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro com- passes are frequently compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass (c) The automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch (a) The navigation and signal lights and other navi- gational equipment are functioning properly. Automatic pilot 11. The officer ofthe watch should bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times with the requirements of regulation 19, chapter V of the International Con- vention for the Safety of Life a Sea 1974. He should take into account the need to station the helmsman and to put the steering into manual control in good time to allow any potentially hazardous situation to bbe dealt with in 2 safe manner. With a ship under automatic steering it is highly dangerous to allow a B situation to develop to the point where the officer of the watch is without assistance and has to break the continuity of the look-out in order to take emergency action, The change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice versa should be made by, or under the supervision of, a responsible officer. Electronic navigational aids 12. The officer of the watch should be thoroughly familiar with the use of electronic navigational aids carried, including their capabilities and limitations. 13. The echo sounder is a valuable navigational sid and should be used whenever appropriate. 1.6.7 UK DTp Merchant Shipping Notice M1471: Use of Automatic Pilot 1. There have been many casualties in which a contributory cause has been the improper use of, or over-reliance upon, the automatic pilot. Collisions have occurred where one and sometimes both vessels have been on automatic steering with no proper lookout being kept; strandings and other casualties have occurred where automatic steering systems have been in use in restricted waters and a person has not hheen immediately available to take the wheel; casu- alkies have alo happened because watchkeepers were rnot familiar with the procedure or precautions necessary when changing over from the automatic pilot to manual steering 2. Attention is drawn to the possible inability of an automatic pilot to closely maintain setheadings when a ship is making low speed and/or in heavy seas. The performance of some automatic steering systems is very dependent upon correct control settings suited to the prevailing conditions of ship speed, displace- ‘ment, and sea state particularly. Use of the automatic pilot must be restricted to conditions within the designed parameters of the automatic control system, 3. If shipowners do not use all the control options ‘which may be incorporated by the various manufac~ turers into a control console, positive measures should be taken to prevent redundant control settings being used inadvertently, and the labelling arrangements should be amended accordingly.iw 4° Certain requirements on the use of the automatic pilot are included in Regulation 4 of The Merchant Shipping (Automatic Pilot and Testing of Si Gear) Regulations 1981 (SI 1981 No. 571) which is, reproduced as an appendix to this notice. Masters, skippers and watchkeeping officers should be aware of these requirements as well as the general need to ensure that arrangements are adequate for maintain- ing a safe navigational watch, as described in Mer= chant Shipping Notice M.1102. ig 5 Masters, skippers and all watchkeeping personnel must be familiar with the procedure for changing over from steering with the automatic pilot to hand steering (e.g. through a telemotor) and must ensure that sufficient time is allowed for the operation. Clear instructions must be provided at the control console, and special attention should be given to the procedure ‘when joining a ship because it will vary depending on the particular equipment installed. The operations ‘manual should be kept on the bridge and be readily available to masters, skippers and navigation wacch- keeping personnel 6 Some steering gear control systems enable align- ment to be maintained between the helm and the steering gear at all times, irrespective of whether the automatic pilot is or has been used. Where the design does not include this provision, suitable measures should be taken immediately before and after the changeover to ensure that the helm and steering gear are aligned. 7 Attention is drawn to the need to test the manual steering, Paragraph 10(c) on page 3 of M.1102 recommends that the automatic pilot should be “tested manually atleast once a watch’, while Regula- tion 4(4) in the appendix to this notice requires that, whilst the vessel is on passage and continuously using the automatic pilot, the manual steering gear be tested at least once a day. To comply with the former recommendation, the manual stecring overeride alter course control incorporated in the automatic-pilot DATA SOURCES console should be operated once every watch. To comply with the latter requirement, the wheel (or equivalent) steering should be engaged at least once every day and the ship steered by hand. Its strongly recommended that a roster system should be em= ployed so that all persons recognized and qualified for the purpose of steering take a turn a this task. They should steer for a sufficient period for them to ‘maintain their proficiency, including manoeuvring the vessel thus gaining experience in the vessel's response (0 helm orders. Appendix: Extract from The Merchant Shipping (Automatic Pilot and Testing of Steering Gear) Regulations 1981 (SI 1981, no. 571) Use of the automatic pilot: regulation 4 1. The master shall ensure that an automatic pilot, where fitted, shall not be used in areas of high traffic density, in conditions of restricted visibility, or in any other hazardous navigational situation, unless it is possible to establish manual control of the ship's steering within 30 seconds. 2. Before entering any arca of high traffic density, and whenever visibility is likely to become restricted fot some other hazardous navigational situation is likely to arse, the master shall arrange, where practi- cable, for the officer of the watch to have available without delay the services of a qualified helmsman who shall be ready at all times to take over the manual steering. 3. The change-over from automatic to manual steer- ing and vice verse shall be made by, or under the supervision of, the officer of the watch, or, if there is no such officer, the master. 4. ‘The master shall ensure that the manual steering _geat is tested (a) after continuous use of the automatic pilot for 24 hours and (b) before entering any arcas ‘where navigation demands special caution,2 The log Logs of one form or another have been with us from the earliest days of navigation and are probably the ‘most imprecise instruments we have today. 2.1. The water reference log AAs its name implies, the speed and/or distance dis- played is related to the vestel’s movement ‘through the water’, ie. itis completely independent of tidal stream or current. It should be borne in mind that water reference logs ate generally single axis devices, ive. they only give distance ‘along track” so that the cflect of leeway could result in errors (Figure 2.1). 24.1 Impeler/rovor-based logs ‘These suffer from ‘slip’, which can vary with weather conditions, speed and, when it is a towed log, with the freeboard of the vessel. Asa result the sip, usually expressed a5 a percentage, is imprecisely known and results in an inaccurate knowledge of speed/distance. Logs of this type which are towed need to be hhanded (taken in) when the vessel is likely to ‘manoeuvre, e.g. in fog, while those extending on a short shaft below the hull need to be retracted in shal- low water. In both cases, speed indication is lost at a time when it could be most useful. rr itn Figure 2.1. The effec of leeway 2.2. The ground reference log With this type of log, the Doppler effect on a signal teflected from the sea-bed is used to determine speed ‘over the ground’ and hence distance. The trans- ducers may be in single or dual axis arrays. With a single axis array, itis only the along-track component of velocity which is measured. It is important to remember here that, when the vessel is working in tide, this reading is neither the distance through the water nor that over the ground, and some careful thought is required in calculating the course to steer to counteract a tide. The outputs from a dual axis Doppler log will be both a and b in Figure 2.2, from which course and dis- tance (over the ground) may be determined. There is a maximum limit (under normal citeum= stances) to the depth of water in which ground lock can be achieved. Therefore in deeper water the log may only be locked to the watermass, in which case the ground reference advantages normally attrib- uted to this type of log will be los. It should also be noted that in shallower water there is 2 minimum. depth at which water lock is possible. This is of considerable importance when the log output is fed to 4 true motion radar display, or ARPA (see Sections 5.4.2, 5.4.3 and 5.8.1).6 course made good ‘ ‘ _ yen tered Tisance rough wate slang de aa Figure 2.2 The effect of tide Some modern Doppler logs claim to be able to indi- cate simultaneously the speed/distance over the ground and through the water, thus giving two inde- pendent readouts. This is achieved by ‘locking" to the ‘watermass in a ‘window’ which ean be set so that one is certain that the cesponse is coming from a depth less than the depth of water at the time. However, itis important to remember that ground lock will be lost when the water becomes too deep. Itis then interest- ing to compare the two readings, which are now being referenced to the watermass at two different levels. Ground reference logs usually have some means of calibration, but here it is necessary to refer to the operating/installation manual since it would appear that no two logs are alike. Once completed, cali- bration should remain valid for a long period. 2.3 Errors ‘The effects of errors in course and speed on dead reckoning position have been dealt with in Section 15. 2.4 Extracts from official publications ‘Within Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, the paragraph num- bering of the original publications has been retained. alonptrack distance over eround a DATA SOURCES ‘ver ound e ound i 24.1 IMO Resolution A478(XII}: Performance Standards for Devices to Indicate Speed and Distance 1 Introduction 1.1. Devices to indicate speed and distance required bby Regulation 12, Chapter V, of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended, are intended for general navigational use to provide information on the distance run and the forward speed of the ship, through the water or over the ground. The equip- ment should function at forward speeds up to the maximum speed of the ship and in water of depth greater than 3 metres beneath the keel. 1.2. Inaddition to the recommended general require- ments for electronic navigational aids the equipment should conform to the following minimum perform- ance standards. 2. Methods of presentation 2.1. Speed information may be presented in either analogue or digital form. Where a digital display is used, its incremental steps should not exceed 0.1 knots. Analogue displays should be graduated at least every 0.5 knots and be marked with figures at least every 5 knots. If the display can present the speed of the ship in both forward and reverse directions, the direction of movement should be indicated unam- biguously. 2.2 Distance run information should be presented in digital form, The display should cover the range from 0 to not less than 9999.9 nautical miles and the incremental steps should not exceed 0.1 nautical miles. Where practicable, means should be provided for resetting a readout to zero.Tne Loe 2.3. The display should be easily readable by day and by night. 2.4 Means should be provided for feeding distance run information to other equipment fitted on board. ‘The information should be in the form of one contact closure or the equivalent for each 0.005 nautical miles 2.5 If equipment is capable of being operated in either the ‘speed through the water’ or ‘speed over the ground” modes, mode selection and mode indi- cation should be provided. 3. Accuracy of measurement 3.1. Errors in the indicated speed, when the ship is ‘operating free from shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, current and tide, should not exceed 5 per cent of the speed of the ship, oF 0.5 knots, which- ever is the greater. 3.2. Errors in the indicated distance run, when the ship is operating free from shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, current and tide, should not ‘exceed 5 per cent ofthe distance run by the ship in one hour or 0.5 nautical miles in each hour, whichever is greater. 3.3. If the accuracy of devices to indicate speed and distance run can be affected by certain conditions (e.g. sea state and its effects, water temperature, salinity, sound velocity in water, the depth of water under the keel, heel and trim of ship), details of possible effects should be included in the equipment handbook. 4 Roll and pitch ‘The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the requirements of these standards when the ship is rolling up to plus or minus 10 degrees and pitching up to plus or minus 5 degrees. 5 Construction and installation 5.1 The system should be so designed that neither 7 the method of attachment of parts of the equipment to the ship nor damage occurring to any part of the ‘equipment which penetrates the hull could result in the ingress of water to the ship. 5.2. Where any part of the system is designed to extend from and retract into the hull of the ship, the design should ensure that it can be extended, operated normally and retracted at all speeds up to the maxi- mum speed of the ship. Its extended and retracted positions should be clearly indicated at the display position. 2.4.2. UK Statutory Instrument 1984, no. 1203 Part V_ Speed and distance measuring installation Speed and distance measuring equipment performance standards 29 Every speed and distance measuring installation required to be provided shall comply with the per- formance standards adopted by the IMO and shall, in addition, comply with the relevant performance specifications issued by the Department of Transport Siting of speed and distance measuring installation 30(1) Where applicable, the transducer unit of the speed and distance measuring installation shall be sited so as to avoid, where practicable, the vicinity of all underwater openings in, or projections from, the hull, such as plugs, anodes or other transducers, so that satisfactory overall performance is achieved. (2) Where a towed log is fitted, the position of the log register shal be selected so that the log line and its rotator when streamed are as clear as is practicable from disturbed water in the close vicinity of the ship and so that the rotation of the log line isnot impeded by any part of the ship or its equipment. G). The display shall, where practicable, be sited on the bridge in a position to facilitate easy access and viewing and where the effect of any lighting necessary for the equipment does not yp Beh the keeping of an effective look-out.3 The echo sounder Some form of sounding system has been in operation since man first ventured out to sea. In these days of sophisticated sensors he ignores the data from this source at his peril 3.1 System introduction The basic principle upon which the system is based is that if the velocity of sound in water is known (or assumed) and the time interval between the trans- ‘mission of a pulse and the reception of an echo from the sea-bed is measured, then the depth of water can be determined. BAA. The basie system To obviate the need for aclock as such and to facilitate the provision of a recorded trace, a rotating stylus triggers the transmitter as it passes ‘zero depth’ and the amplified echo signal causes a mark to be left on the recording paper (Figure 3.1). 3.1.2. Data output format In its most simple and up-to-date format this may take the form ofa digital display of depth in either metres, fathoms or feet, but equipment which meets the various specifications (see Section 3.4.1) is required to present the information in graphical form, indicating immediate depth and a visible record of soundings. It is also possible to give an output in colour on a video display unit as well as synthesized speech. In order to overcome the dangers inherent in the phasing of range scales, all range scales should com- mence at zero. However, care must be taken using isp _ yh osellator lamptier tmansmitter| recording paper) [receiver | — trance} Figure 3.1 Simplified system diagram colder equipment to ensure that the correct depth is being displayed by always working from zero depth into deeper scales when searching forthe sea-bed, and not just looking for a return at the depth at which it is expected.THE ECHO SOUNDER 3.2. Setting-up procedure Prior to use, the back plate or platen should be cleaned and the roll of recording paper fitted. The equipment should be switched on; a range scale commencing at zero and covering the expected sounding should be selected, e.g. 0100 metres. The gain (or sensitivity) control should be adjusted until there is a clear trace om the sea-bed. In the absence of a response, the ‘maximum range scale having a zero should be selected and the gain set so that noise speckles are just marking che paper. Controls for paper speed (if provided) should be set at slow to permit trace integration of weak responses while making initial detection. Alarms (if provided) may also be set. Where a trace is alkeady available, care should be taken in setting the gain control so as to avoid multiple traces which can result from signals bouncing between sea-bed and the hull (see Figure 3.4). Great care should be exercised when setting the gain control and using phased range scales. In any event, the neon indicator on the stylus should never be switched off. 3.3 Corrections before chart comparison ‘The depth indicated on the echo sounder is usually the depth of water below the transducer (on some ships there may be more than one transducer). Thus it is essential to know just where that transducer is situated, since both heel and trim can be important when navigating in channels where the depth of water is limited. Some echo sounders provide for a correction for draft to be inserted, which means that the echo sounder will now indicate the depth of water. While this can have advantages in special circumstances (e.g. in hydrographie surveying) its use should be avoided for normal navigation, since if the sounder was left in the ‘water depth’ mode and the output was assumed to be depth under the keel, stranding could result. 9 33.1 The effect of draft and rise of tide Before the echo sounder reading is compared with the charted depth, corrections for draft and height of tide will need to be applied. Consider Figure 3.2. Ifthe vessel i in the position indicated by other fixing systems, then charted depth = echo sounder reading + draft height of tide Alternatively, in an assumed position, echo sounder reading = charted depth + height of tide ~ draft 3.3.2 Errors in indicated depth In echo sounding, the basic assumption is that the velocity of sound in water is known and is constant. Changes in salinity, temperature and pressure from that assumed when the instrument was originally cali brated will result in errors in depth indication. Incorrect stylus speed will also result in an incorrect indication of depth. For example, the stylus should move from the zero mark to the 100 metres mark on hares aepth | i mannered aan veel Figure 3.2 Comparison of charted and indicated depth2 actual depth Pythagorean error Figure 3.3 the scale in the same time as it takes for the acoustic pulse to travel to the sea-bed at 100 metres and back. If the rotation rate of the stylus is too fast then at all depths it will indicate that the water is deeper than it really is, the error being proportional tothe depth and the ratio of rotation rates, Pythagorean error is likely in shallow water where the transducers are widely spaced (Figure 3.3). In addition, in shallow water a high gain setting can result in multiple echoes which, if care is not exer- cised, can give an incorrect reading of under-keel depth (Figure 3.4) Air bubbles trapped under the hull as a result of rolling, pounding or working the propeller astern can, because of the high acoustic impedence of the bubbles, esult in the dispersion of all the transmitted signal and hence the inability to obtain a reading, In very deep water the stylus may have completed more than 360° of rotation and, ifagain over the cali- brated scale when the echo signal returns, will indi- cate 2 depth far less than the true depth. 3.4. Extracts from official publications Within Sections 3.4.1-3.4.3, the paragraph number- ing of the original publications has been retained. it ‘ransmision Th mare Figure 3.4 Multiple echoes 3.4.1 IMO Resolution A224(VI): Performance Standards for Echo Sounding Equipment 1 Introduction 1.1. The echo sounding equipment required by Regulation 12 of Chapter V, as amended, should pro- vvide reliable information on the depth of water under a ship to aid navigation.‘THE ECHO SOUNDER 1.2. Theequipment should comply with the follow- ing minimum performance requirements. 2 Range of depths ‘Under normal propagation conditions the equipment should be capable of measuring any clearance under the transducer between 2 metres and 400 metres. 3. Range scales 3.1. The equipment should provide a minimum of two range scales, one of which, the deep range, should cover the whole range of depth, and the other, the shallow range, one-tenth thereof. 3.2. The scale of display should not be smaller than 2.5mm per metre depth on the shallow range scale and 0.25 mm per metre depth on the deep range scale. 4 Method of presentation 4. The primary presentation should be a graphical display which provides the immediate depth and a visible record of soundings. Other forms of display may be added but these should not affect the normal operation of the main display. 4.2. The record should, on the deep range scale, show at least 15 minutes of soundings. 4.3. Either by marks on the recording paper, or by ‘other means, there should be a clear indication when the paper remaining is approximately 10 per cent of the length of the roll. 6 Pulse repetition rate The pulse repetition rate should not be slower than 12 ‘pulses per minute. 7 Accuracy of measurement Based on a sound speed in water of 1500 metres per second, the allowable tolerance on the indicated depth should be: a Elmetre on the shallow range scale ‘Smetres on the deep range scale or: +5 per cent of the indicated depth, whichever is the greater. cither: 8 Roll and pitch The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the requirements of these perform ance standards when the ship is rolling +10° and/or pitching 5°, 3.4.2 UK Statutory Instrument 1984, no. 1203 Part IV Echo sounder installation Echo sounder performance standards 27 Every echo sounder installation required to be provided shall comply with the performance stan- dards adopted by the IMO and shall, in addition, comply with the relevant performance specification issued by the Department of Transport. Siting of echo sounder installation 28(1) The transducer unit or units of such echo sounder installation shall be sited so as to avoid, where practicable, the vicinity of all underwater openings in, or projections from, the hull, such as plugs, anodes or other transducers, so that satsfac- tory overall performance is achieved. 2). The echo sounder graphical display shall, where practicable, be sited on the bridge in a position to facilitate easy access and viewing, and where the effect of any lighting necessary for the equipment does not interfere with the keeping of an effective look-out, 343 The Survey of Merchant Shipping Navigational Equipment 3.1. Siting of the transducer 3.1.1 One of the most important considerations to bee taken into account when installing echo sounder equipment is the selection of the transducer position.2 The ideal position is one in which there is ‘sol water free from aeration beneath the transducer, and ‘where the effect of surface, engine and propeller noise are at a minimum. There are, however, few positions in a ship which are suitable in every respect, and moreover a position found to be satisfactory in one design of ship will not necessarily produce equally ‘good results in another. 3.1.2. The principal source of aeration is the bow wave created by a moving ship. This wave rises some way up the stem, curls over, and then is forced down beneath the ship, taking a quantity of air with it. The resultant bubble stream normally starts about a quarter length of the ship from the stem, and divides about three-quarters of the length from the bow. The bubble stream varies in form and intensity according to the speed, draught, shape of bow and hull, and the trim of the ship as well as the sea state. These factors must be taken into account when siting the trans- ducer. In particular, in the case of a ship with a bulbous bow, the only satisfactory forward site may bbe within the bulb, although the consequence of physical damage has to be recognized. 3.1.3 To avoid aeration, a position at the forepeak is desirable but it may be unsatisfactory in a ship with a light draught forward, especially in bad weather conditions. In addition, the hull shape may make fitting difficult. In a laden ship of normal design a position within a quarter of the ship’s length from the stem will often be found to give satisfactory results. ‘On small vessels damage may occur due to pounding and care should be taken when siting the transducer. ‘An aft position may be more suitable than one for- ward. Care should be taken, however, to site the receiving transducer a sufficient distance from the propellers to avoid the effects of noise or aeration. ‘When separate transmitting and receiving trans- ducers are fitted, they should be suficiently separated to prevent interaction between them but the separ- ation should be as small a possible to ensure accurate soundings in shallow water. Positions either side of the keel are sometimes found to be satisfactory DATA SOURCES 3.1.4 Other factors which should be borne in mind when fitting transducers are a follows: 3.4.4.1 Ie is desirable to install che transducer in a horizontal position. In some cases fitting with a slight projection from the hull will be desirable to avoid the effects of aeration at the hull surface. Ifthe transducer projects from the hull it will be necessary to “air off this projection 3.1.4.2 If, in exceptional circumstances, 2 windowed transducer has to be used, the window should be acoustically thin, so that the range of the ‘equipment will not be adversely affected 3.1.4.3 Siting near and particularly aft of obstruc- tions such as the forward propeller, bow thruster, water intake pipes, drain plugs and external speed measuring devices should be avoided. 3.1.4.4 To minimize the effects of roll and pitch a position near to the centreline should be chosen when practicable. 3.1.4.5 When appropriate, care should be taken to minimize interference between echo sounders and Doppler speed devices. 3.1.5. Information regarding the location of the transducers should be kept on the vessel with the equipment handbook. 3.2. Siting of displays 3.2.1. Itis recommended that a display be sited in the wheelhouse as close as practicable to the place from which the ship is normally navigated and in position to facilitate easy access, viewing and servi ing, and where the effect of any lighting necessary for the equipment does not interfere with the keeping of an effective look-out. 3.2.2 As echo sounders are normally operated for long periods, adequate ventilation is essential. When positioning the graphical display sufficient space should be allowed around the sides of the display unit to ensure that itis provided with proper ventilation to avoid overheating and the effect of fumes from some types of dry recorder paper.4 The radio direction finder ‘The radio direction finder (DF) was one of the earliest electronic navigational aids which was required to be carried. Although somewhat unpopular because of poor positional accuracy, the equipment was com- paratively cheap, simple in concept, and well provided with shore-based transmitting stations worldwide ‘The system has remained virtually unchanged since its inception. 4.1. System introduction ‘A receiver using a double loop aerial is able to obtain the bearing of 2 shore-based transmitting station ‘whose position is indicated on the navigational chart. By repeating the process with a number of other stations, a series of position lines (bearings) can be obtained and used to fix the ship's position, ‘Transmitting stations are indicated on the chart by the symbols RC 4, AeroRC ® and details (call sign, service transmission frequency and format, range, grouping and precise position) are promulgated in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals {ALRS), vol.2, as are Radiobeacon Diagrams. Shortly after installation, the equipment should have been calibrated and a calibration table completed (see Figure 4.1). The sections relating to the state of, the vessel at the time of calibration should have been completed, e.g. derricks topped or lowered, and prior to using the direction finder the vessel should be returned to this condition, Although there are many different makes of direction finder, the basic operations in obtaining a bearing are much the same for all: 1 Identify suitable stations using the charts (to ensure that the bearings will cut at acceptable angles) and ALRS, vol. 2 (to ensure that the stations chosen have sufficient range). 2 Tune the equipment to the appropriate frequency and identify the station by its call sign. 3 Determine the relative bearing and then use the “sense” control to resolve any ambiguity. 4 Correct the bearing for: (2) Calibration error; {b) Ship's head at the time the bearing was taken; and (€) Halfconvergency, ifthe bearing is tobe laid off con a Mercator char. 5 Repeat to obtain at lest two more bearings. 6 Lay off the bearings on the chart. 7 Consider the reliance which can be placed on the position, taking account of the possibility of errors (see Section 4.5), the angle of cut, the distance from the stations and the quality of the aural nulls (if used). 4.2 Setting-up procedure Having ensured that the vessel is in the same con- dition as it was when the DF was calibrated (includ~ ing hoisting the sense serial), and having decided ona suitable stations, switch on and tune in to the appro- priate frequency. When marine beacons are being used (those in the frequency band 285kH2z to 315KFiz), switch to the bandspread range covering these frequencies, Select manual (and wide band- width) and tune for maximum signal. Rotate the bearing pointer to ensure that it is not already on a null. Change to narrow bandwidth and fine tune. When tuned in, identify the station by its call sgn. (It may be necessary to switch in the beat-frequency oscillator (BFO) control if the transmission clasifi- ‘ation is AO, Al or AO2A and sometimes A2".) 4.3. Obtaining the bearing Rotate the bearing pointer until a null (i.e. no signal) is detected, at which time the signal strength meter should have dropped to its lowest reading: note the bearing. Rotate the bearing pointer to approximately the reciprocal of the first bearing and repeat the pro- cedures: again note the bearing. In most cases there will be no uncertainty as to the correct bearing, but if there is then use the sense control (and the stub bear- ing pointer) to resolve the ambiguity. Normally with the sense control switched on and the stub pointer set to.cach ofthe two bearings already obtained, the bear~ ing associated with the lowest reading on the meter is correct. The sense procedure should only be used to determine which of the two beatings already obtained is the correct one and should not be used in its own right to obtain a bearing. fan auto facility is available for obtaining the bear- ing, it is essential to confirm station identity after tuning to the correct frequency. On selection of auto the bearing pointer should then move automaticaly to the correct bearing. Auto has a particular advan- tage when working with grouped beacons in that no retuning is requited and so the bearing pointer should indicate the bearing of each station in the group (as it transmits) sequentially. Note that it is also possible to identify a beacon in a group by the time slot in which it is transmitting. DATA SOURCES 4.4 Correction of the relative bearing This s probably most easily explained by means of an example. Example ‘While a vessel was heading 043° (T) in DR position lat. 59° 00’ N, long. 8° 00’ W, the relative bearing on Sule Skerry radiobeacon (lat. 59° 05.1" N, long. 4° 24.3" W) was 034° (relative). Using the calibration table (Figure 4.1), determine the bearing to lay off on 1 Mercator chart. relative bearing = 034 degrees correction from calibration curve = + 13.5 degrees corrected relative bearing =_047.5 ship's head = 0483 (7) true great circle bearing = 090.5 degrees half convergency eres True (Mercator) bearing = 092 degrees The half convergency is obtained from nautical tables ‘or from the graph in NP 282. 4.5. Error sources and accuracy 454 echaps the main source of error in DF bearings is re- radition from the ship’s structure (see Sections 4.8.2 and 4.8.3). Residual errors are determined by means of calibration, The procedure is akin to the swinging of a ship to correct the compass and draw up a deviation table, but inthis case visual and DF bearings are taken of a shore-based radio transmitter as the vessel steams in a circle. The difference between the visual and radio bearing is graphed against relative (cadio) bearing. Quadrantal error 4.5.2 Night effect ‘When bearings are obtained in the hour before sun- rise and the hour after sunset, the effect of skywavevss. D/F CORRECTION CURVE, TYPE NR Sh, TA AL MU eHEuie aaE 9 900 | ™ 180 Le linn ees ome Ham: —s Se e oxes 1S BS oad | mak |, cE SS 23 2 | 12k AT Ler poo! Boys | 208 | | RERUN: F0RNs 2 “Pon + CHOKE SETTINGS: wowrt | 20 218% ‘SHIP'S RIG CONDITIONS Bovex | U 2eh Ptcheadceclitn | 8 MAIN AERIAL © oswd Se Soeot — Leweroct Roos? 8 “cwencencr aenaw BS oR04 Lowerect @o3st oeicKs o80 Lesereet 1 ORG “soars in/out 03st Stewed Boar (ceca eam s0ash soNaTURES mea 3 “sao 085: Farin % 075 10 oS t visual ons: D Hawes mteae ee Wud Fi nese ene s s B Ea A ars . m5 oat [es ee 10 1 E {Printed ie England) Form 5.1908 eee Figure 4.1. Calibration curveB contamination of the groundwave is particularly indeterminate; the received composite signal is subject to fading, and the null is likely to blur Obtaining bearings at these times should be avoided or, if that is not possible, the bearings showing signs of fading, blur, wide or erratic movement of the null should not be relied upon, Skywaves can affect the ‘groundwave signals throughout the night but tend to result in less instability of the bearings. 4.5.3 Land effect ‘When the signal path changes from overland to over water there isa change in velocity of propagation and hence a refraction effect. It can be seen from Figure 4.2 that the vessels plotted position is displaced. The amount of displacements increased the further inland the transmitting station is situated. Effects similar to night eect can occur asa result of signals, reflected from coastal features, if they a cout of phase with the dizect wave. Included in the entry in ALRS, vol. 2 for a particular beacon will be details of any unreliable sectors due to these causes. 4.5.4 Half convergency ‘The path of radiowaves over the earth's surface is a ‘great circle, and so the bearing as measured by DF is poston of ship as plotted on care oe sf true postion of ship DATA SOURCES a great circle bearing. Before this can be laid off on a Mercator chart it must be corrected for half conver- gency. The values are tabulated in nautical tables and graphed in NP282, The application ofthe correction is always to shift che bearing a¢ the ship towards the equator (Figure 4.3). 4.6 Shore-based direction finding stations It is possible in some areas of the world to request a ‘number of shore stations to obtain the bearing of the ship. The bearings are then used to fix the position of the ship. The ship will be requested to transmit at specific frequency. This service normally attracts a fee, Some years ago in the UK, MF/DF shore stations ‘were withdrawn, Some ten coastguard stations have now been fitted with VHF/DF equipment whose ‘prime purpose isto allow the coastguard to obtain the position of vessels transmitting distress messages by VHP. Details of the service are contained in ALRS, vol.2. This service should not be confused with the ‘VHF radio lighthouses which can be used for obtain- {ng a bearing by listening to special transmissions on VHF channel 88. beariog ws 7 Ind ftom chaet 2 ‘eltive bearing Figure 4.2. The displacement of position due to land effect,