Logic-1

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L ogic is the study of argument and inference, with a focus on identifying fallacies
and principles of correct reasoning. Traditional definitions of logic view it as the
science of reasoning, while modern definitions describe it as the systematic
investigation of reasoning processes. Two basic features of logical reasoning are
inductive and deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning involves deriving a conclusion
from a set of premises, while inductive reasoning involves drawing generalizations from
specific instances. In law courts, both forms of reasoning may be used to draw
conclusions from legal principles and evidence, or to establish patterns of behavior.
There are several basic logical concepts that are important to understanding logical
reasoning. These include form, which refers to the structure or arrangement of an
argument, and content, which refers to the meaning of an argument. Truth refers to the
correspondence between a statement and reality, while validity refers to the logical
correctness of an argument. Inference is the process of drawing conclusions based on
evidence or reasoning, and implication is the relationship between two statements in
which one logically follows from the other.

•THE HISTORY OF LOGIC:

1. The study of logic has a long and complex history that can be traced back to
ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Indians, and Chinese.
2. In ancient Greece, the study of logic was initiated by Aristotle (384-322 BCE),
who developed a system of deductive reasoning based on syllogisms. Aristotle's
work in logic had a profound influence on Western philosophy and helped to
establish the principles of logical reasoning.
3. During the medieval period, logic was developed further by philosophers such as
Boethius and Abelard. The rise of Scholasticism in the 11th and 12th centuries
also saw the development of new techniques in logical reasoning, such as the use
of formal logic and the study of semantics.
4. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the development of the scientific method led to
the emergence of modern logic, which is concerned with the formal analysis of
reasoning and inference. This period saw the development of propositional logic
and predicate logic, as well as the use of mathematical notation to represent
logical statements.
5. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new developments in logic included the study of
non-classical logics, such as modal logic and intuitionistic logic, as well as the
development of set theory and the application of logic to computer science.
6. Today, the study of logic is a fundamental part of philosophy, mathematics,
computer science, and linguistics, and it continues to be an active area of
research and development.
•DEFINE LOGIC:-
 Logic is the study of reasoning and inference, which aims to identify and
evaluate valid arguments.
 It involves the use of principles and rules to assess the logical coherence and
consistency of arguments, including the identification of fallacies and other
errors in reasoning.
 Logic is concerned with the structure and form of arguments, as well as the
meanings of statements and propositions.
 It is a fundamental tool for critical thinking and problem-solving, as it provides a
rigorous method for evaluating arguments and making sound judgments.
 Logical reasoning can be formal or informal, depending on the level of precision
and complexity required.
 Logic has many applications in philosophy, mathematics, computer science,
linguistics, and other fields, as it provides a powerful framework for analyzing
and understanding complex systems and phenomena.

•NATURE OF LOGIC:-
(The nature of logic can be described as a formal system of reasoning that evaluates
arguments, identifies errors in reasoning, and provides a universal tool for critical
thinking and problem-solving based on the principles of sound reasoning. It is
concerned with the structure and content of statements and propositions, and is an
ongoing process of inquiry and refinement subject to revision and modification.
Therefore "Logic has been studied since ancient times and is divided into two inter-
related categories: traditional and modern.")

Traditional Definition of Logic Modern Definition of Logic

Focuses on the study of reasoning or the A formal system for representing and
principles of reasoning manipulating information.
Concerned with how we arrive at valid Used to study the relationships between
conclusions based on given premises or propositions and to determine whether a given
assumptions. set of propositions is consistent or inconsistent.
Includes the study of syllogisms, deductive Includes the study of propositional logic,
reasoning, and the rules of inference predicate logic, modal logic, and other formal
systems.
Seen as a branch of philosophy Seen as a branch of mathematics or computer
science.
Analyzes thinking, judgment, reasoning, in a Focuses on more abstract formal relationships
particular way.
(Thus , the traditional definition of logic emphasizes the study of reasoning itself and the
rules by which we arrive at valid conclusions, while the modern definition of logic
focuses on the representation and manipulation of information and the formal systems
used to study it. Both definitions have made important contributions to the field of logic,
and the two approaches are not necessarily in opposition to each other, but represent
different ways of studying and applying logical principles.)

•SCOPE IN LOGIC:-
(The scope of logic is very wide. It covers always all types of knowledge weather it is
related to science or arts based or practice or theory, logic provides bases for them.)

1)Theoretical Utility:-

1.Identification of legal issues: Logic helps lawyers to identify the legal issues involved
in a case by breaking down complex legal arguments into simpler components.

2. Analysis of legal principles: Logic helps lawyers to analyze legal principles and rules
and apply them to the facts of the case to reach a logical conclusion.

3. Evaluation of arguments: Logic helps lawyers to evaluate the strength of arguments

presented by the opposing party and to identify flaws in their reasoning.

2)Practical utility of logic in law:

1. Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the process of making generalizations

based on specific instances. Lawyers use inductive reasoning to draw conclusions about
a case based on the available evidence.

2. Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing specific

conclusions from general principles. Lawyers use deductive reasoning to apply legal
principles to the facts of a case and arrive at a logical conclusion.

(Thus, logic is an essential tool for lawyers in the field of law as it helps them to analyze
legal arguments, identify legal issues, evaluate evidence, and arrive at a logical
conclusion.)

•Basic features of Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.:-

(The word Logic is derived from Greek word LOGOS which means REASON In logic,
reasoning is the ability to draw logical conclusions based on evidences or stated
assumptions. Logic have two broader method of reasoning:-)
 INDUCTIVE REASONING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
The process of reasoning that moves from The process of reasoning that starts from
specific observations to broader general statements to reach a logical
generalizations. conclusion
A bottom up approach A top down approach
The truth of premises does not necessarily The conclusion has to be true if the premises
guarantee the truth of conclusions are true
Based on observations, pattern, or trend Based on facts, truth, rules
Observations=pattern-tentative hypothesis Theory= Hypothesis observations= conclusion
theory
This cat is black. That cat is black. A third cat is All students in this class play guitar. Sam is a
black. Therefore, all cats are black. student of this class.-Therefore, Sam plays
guitar.

(The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive
reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an
existing theory.)

• USES IN LAW COURTS:-

(In law courts, logic information is used in a variety of ways. Reasoning is required for
both contesting legal matters and creating or amending rules. )

1) CONTESTING THE LEGAL DISPUTE :- In a court of law, contesting consists of

three steps: drafting, selecting and gathering facts, and appealing. These features are
available to both the plaintiff and defendant in a civil case.

2) MAKING OR AMENDING LAW:- The importance of logic can also be seen in the
field of law. When creating new legislation, legislators consider both the socio-cultural
and socio-economic dynamics of the society in question. As a result, the fundamental
concepts of logic used in legal reasoning and court ruling are as follows:-

1)Skill in applying inductive reasoning based on prior experience

2)Attorneys, judges, and law students may use deductive inference to help them decide a
case.

3) INTERPRETING LAWS:- Logic is useful in the correct understanding of the law,

the formation of a language when creating legal rules, and the recognition of various
forms of fallacies, among other things

•SOME BASIC LOGICAL CONCEPTS:- FORM, CONTENT, TRUTH,

VALIDITY, INFERENCE, IMPLICATION:-
(Logical concepts are fundamental ideas and principles that form the basis of logical
reasoning and critical thinking. They refer to the rules, methods, and principles that
govern the process of deducing conclusions from premises. These concepts provide a
systematic framework for analyzing and evaluating arguments and making inferences)

1.) Truth:- truth refers to the property of a statement being in accordance with fact or
reality. A statement is considered true if it accurately represents the state of affairs it
describes, and false if it does not. Truth is often used as a standard against which the
validity of an argument can be judged, with the conclusion of a valid argument being
necessarily true given its premises. In formal logic, truth is usually represented by the
symbols "T"

2) Validity:- validity refers to the property of an argument being logically sound, with
its conclusion necessarily following from its premises. An argument is considered valid
if the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion, regardless of the actual
truth values of the premises. In other words, if the premises are true, then the
conclusion must also be true Validity is a concept that applies only to arguments, and
should not be confused with truth, which applies to individual statements. In formal
logic, validity is often represented by the symbol "H".

3) Inference:- inference means reaching a conclusion based on given information. It's

like making a guess or coming to a decision based on the facts you know. For example, if
you see a cat with stripes and know that tigers have stripes, you might infer that the cat
is a tiger. Inferences can be either deductive (based on logical reasoning) or inductive
(based on patterns or generalizations). The quality of an inference depends on the
quality of the information it is based on. In easy words, inference is like making an
educated guess based on what you already know.

4)Implication: implication refers to the relationship between two statements, where the
truth of one statement (the premise) affects the truth of another statement (the
conclusion). In other words, if the premise is true, then the conclusion must also be true.
For example, the implication "If it rains, the roads will be wet" means that if the
premise (it rains) is true, then the conclusion (the roads will be wet) must also be true.

5) Form :- The form of an argument refers to its structure, or the way the premises are
connected to the conclusion.The form of an argument is independent of its content,
meaning that it can be analyzed without regard to the specific statements being made.
The form of an argument can be analyzed to determine its validity, even if the specific
content is unknown or irrelevant.

6) Content (Matter):- The content of an argument refers to the specific statements or

propositions being made.The content of an argument is what makes it relevant or
meaningful to a particular topic or issue.Understanding the content of an argument is
essential for evaluating its truth and relevance to a particular topic or issue.
(Understanding these concepts and how to apply them is essential for effective
communication and decision-making, as well as for analyzing and solving complex
problems. It also helps us to determine if a certain argument is valid and makes sense,
based on its structure and the truthfulness of the information it presents.)

∆LOGIC AS FORMAL SCIENCE:

 Logic is often considered a formal science because it deals with abstract concepts
and symbolic representations.
 It is concerned with the study of formal systems, which consist of a set of
symbols, rules, and operations that can be used to generate new statements and
to test the validity of existing statements.
 In formal logic, the focus is on the structure of arguments and the relationships
between propositions, rather than on the content of those propositions.
 Formal logic provides a rigorous and systematic framework for reasoning, and it
is used to analyze a wide range of problems, including those in mathematics,
computer science, and philosophy.
 Formal logic is often contrasted with informal logic, which is concerned with the
analysis of natural language arguments and the identification of fallacies and
other errors in reasoning.
 Formal logic is an important tool for understanding and analyzing complex
systems, and it provides a foundation for many other fields of study, including
artificial intelligence, linguistics, and cognitive science.
 Logic-1
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Chapter 2:- Terms

∆ Terms
•The word 'term' is derived from the Latin word terminus.

• A term is a part of a proposition.

•A term may be defined as a word, or a group of words, which stands as the

subject or the predicate of a logical proposition.

• Every term is a word

• Terms can express information, thoughts or reasoning

•A term may indicate the presence or absence of an attribute (qualities).

•Singular, particular and universal terms:-

•The terms indicate either one individual, or a small part of group indicated
by the word or the whole group indicated by the word. According to the
number of individuals indicated in the term, we have singular, particular and
universal terms

A)Singular term :- is a term that speaks something about one single individual
person, thing or entity. The fact stated here can be either positive or negative.

B)Particular term:- is a term that speaks about a small part of the group
indicated by a term. The thing spoken can be either positive or negative.

C)Universal term:- is a term that speaks about the entire group indicated by it.
This statement can be either positive or negative.
1) Connotation And Denotation Of Terms:-
(• Terms have Two senses, on the basis of the meaning indicated by them. These senses
are called Connotation & Denotation.)

A) Connotation:
•Connotation refers to the emotional, cultural, or associative meaning of a word,
beyond its literal definition.

• Connotation adds depth and nuance to language, and can shape the way people
perceive and understand words.

• Connotation can be positive, neutral, or negative, depending on the associations that a

word evokes.

•Connotation can be influenced by cultural, historical, or personal factors, and can vary
between different people and contexts.

• In formal writing or argumentation, it is often best to use neutral, clearly defined

terms in order to avoid misleading connotations.

B) Denotative:-
•Denotation refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word, what the term refers
to in a factual sense.

•Denotation is the most basic, straightforward meaning of a term, and is often

described as the "objective" meaning.

•Denotative terms are used to refer to specific, tangible objects or concepts in the world.

•Denotative meaning is determined by the use of the word in a shared language system,
and is independent of individual interpretation or personal associations.

•In formal writing or argumentation, denotative terms are often preferred over

connotative terms in order to ensure clarity and objectivity.

2) Positive And Negative Terms:-
(The terms indicate either the presence or absence of something. According to their
function, they are classified in to positive and negative):-

A) Positive Terms:
• Positive terms indicate the presence or existence of something.

•They are used to describe or affirm the existence of an object, quality, or attribute.

•Positive terms are usually opposite to negative terms.

•Examples of positive terms include "have," "exist," "is," "bright," and "large." •By
using positive terms, we can make clear and affirmative statements about the world
around us.

B) Negative terms:-
•Negative terms indicate the absence or non-existence of something.

•They are used to describe the lack of an object, quality, or attribute. •

Negative terms are usually opposite to positive terms.

•Examples of negative terms include "not," "don't have," "doesn't exist," and "not
bright."

•By using negative terms, we can make clear and negative statements about the world
around us, and describe what something is not.

3) Contrary And Contradictory Terms:

A) Contrary Terms:-
•Contrary terms are terms that have opposite meanings.

•They are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a third state can exist between them.

•Common examples of contrary terms include "hot" and "cold," "up" and "down,"
and "fast" and "slow."

•Contrary terms are not the same as contradictory terms, which are completely
opposed to each other.
•Understanding and using contrary terms is an important aspect of language
development and communication, as they allow individuals to express their thoughts
and ideas with precision and clarity.

B) Contradictory Terms:-
•Contradictory terms are words or phrases that express opposite or incompatible ideas
or concepts.

•Contradictory terms are used to emphasize the difference between two opposing ideas
or to indicate a contradiction.

•Examples of contradictory terms include "yes" and "no," "true" and "false," and
"right" and "wrong."

•In formal logic, the concept of contradiction is central to the development of logical
arguments and proof.

•It helps individuals identify and resolve conflicting ideas, and supports the
development of well-reasoned arguments and sound decision-making.

∆ Distinctions Between – Proposition And Sentence,

Proposition And Judgment, Proposition And Fact,
Constituent And Component.
A) Proposition And Sentence
1) Proposition:-
•All Proposition are sentence

•All Proposition are expressed in a form of sentence

•Its a sentence which is either true or false

•It doesn't have physical existence

•Proposition contain single statements

•Eg:- Peacock is bird

2) Sentence:-
•All sentence are Proposition

•All sentence are expressed in form of questions, wishers, feeling, commands ,etc

•Its a group of word in a grammatical order

•It have physical existence

• A grammatical sentences contain more than one statement

•Eg:- Isn't it too hot ?

B) Proposition And Judgment

1) Proposition:-
•Proposition is a statement that states a matter of fact

•Proposition does not carry any opinion or view of the person making the statement

•Proposition or statement states only pure undiluted non-tampered facts, without right
or wrong, good or bad, proper and improper etc.

•Proposition is something that is used in logic and not in judgement.

2) Judgment:-
•Judgment is a statement expressing the opinion or view of someone about some event
or situation.

•Judgment view may or may not indicate the fact or truth

•Judgment states that what they say, is not what is , but what they feel

•When judgment is expressed in language, it's called proposition.

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C) Proposition And Fact
1) Proposition:-
•Proposition is statement that states something as a matter of fact •Proposition is
stating something it may or may not be agreeing with actual fact.

•If Proposition represent facts then it's true Proposition

•Proposition is declarative sentence that is either true or false

•Example:- A snake has four legs

2) Facts :-
•Fact is the actual event or thing that can be objectively verified by anyone

•Fact is never true or false right or wrong fact is just fact

•Facts are always true

•A Fact can be verified by Observations, research ,document witness. •Example:- a

snake is a reptile with no legs.

D) Constituent And Component

1)Constituent:-
•A constituent is an integral part of a proposition, sentence, or phrase that contributes
to its meaning.

•Constituents can be individual words, phrases, or clauses, depending on the complexity

of the structure.

• The presence of constituents is essential for the meaning of the proposition, sentence,
or phrase. Without them, the meaning would change or be lost entirely.

• In linguistic analysis, the identification of constituents is an important tool for

understanding the grammatical structure and meaning of a sentence. • Constituents
play a crucial role in the development and use of language, as they are the building
blocks for creating meaningful and complex linguistic structures.
2)Components:-
• A component is an additional part of a proposition that enhances it by adding extra
information.

•Components can be detached from the proposition without extinguishing its existence.

• Components can include words, phrases, clauses, and even sentences, depending on
the complexity of the proposition.

• Components play an important role in communication by helping to provide a more

complete and nuanced understanding of a proposition. They can help to clarify or add
more detail to the meaning, making the proposition more informative and easier to
understand.

∆ Word
•Word” is a meaningful combination of alphabets.

• Every word is not a term

• A word becomes a term when it stands as subject or predicate in a proposition

•Words may also express feelings, questions, wishes, commands,etc

•Words are classified into three types on the basis of their function of expressing or
enhancing the meaning. The types of words are, categormatic , syntacategormatic and
Acategorematic words :-

1.Categorematic words- Those words which can stand as terms without the support of
other words Ex. "Man', 'building', 'honest', 'virtue', etc.

2. Syncategorematic words:-. Those words which cannot become terms by themselves

Ex. 'a', 'an', 'of', 'in', 'very', etc.

3. Acategorematic words- Those words which can never become terms Ex. Ah!, alas!,
hurrah!

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 Chapter 3:- Proposition
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∆ Proposition
• A proposition is a statement in logic that can be either true or false.
•Propositions express the content of assertions, arguments, and beliefs.
•They serve as the basic building blocks of logical reasoning.
•Propositions can be simple statements or complex statements made up of multiple
propositions combined.
•The truth value of a proposition is either true or false and can be determined through
logical evaluation.
•Propositions play a crucial role in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, computer
science, and artificial intelligence.

∆ Traditional classification of proposition into categorical and

conditional:-
•In traditional logic given by Aristotle, we study Only the simple subject predicate
propositions that indicate class membership. Here, we have two types of relationships in
the subject and predicate. Depending on these relations, the propositions are classified into
categorical and conditional.:-

1) Categorical propositions are propositions that assert a relationship between two

categories or classes. They are typically expressed using terms such as "all," "some,"
"none," and "not all." For example, "All dogs are mammals" is a categorical proposition.
Categorical propositions are further classified into four types: universal affirmative (A),
universal negative (E), particular affirmative (I), and particular negative (O).

2) Conditional propositions, on the other hand, are propositions that assert a relationship
between two events. They are often expressed using the terms "if" and "then." For
example, "If it rains, then the streets will be wet" is a conditional proposition. Conditional
propositions express a relationship between a antecedent (the "if" clause) and a consequent
(the "then" clause), and are used to express implications and logical dependencies between
events.

• The distinction between categorical and conditional propositions is an important one in

traditional logic, and forms the basis for much of classical syllogistic reasoning.
∆ Four- fold classification.:-
• Four-fold classification is an important part of traditional syllogistic logic, which was
developed by Aristotle:-

1)Universal Affirmative (A): A proposition that asserts that all members of one
category belong to another category. For example, "All dogs are mammals."

2)Universal Negative (E): A proposition that asserts that no members of one category
belong to another category. For example, "No dogs are cats."

3)Particular Affirmative (I): A proposition that asserts that some members of one
category belong to another category. For example, "Some dogs are brown."

4)Particular Negative (O): A proposition that asserts that some members of one
category do not belong to another category. For example, "Some dogs are not brown."

•Thus, This is how the four types of general propositions are; A, E, I, & O.

∆ Reduction of sentences to their logical forms:-

The process of reducing sentences to their logical forms is an important part of formal
logic. It involves breaking down a sentence into its constituent parts and representing
them using logical symbols and operators. The goal of this process is to capture the
underlying structure of the sentence in a way that allows us to reason about it
systematically and rigorously. The following is a general procedure for reducing
sentences to their logical forms:
1. Identify the main connective: The main connective of a sentence is the word or
phrase that establishes the primary logical relationship between its parts. For example,
in the sentence "All men are mortal," the main connective is the word "are," which
indicates that the subject class "men" is a subset of the predicate class "mortal

2. Identify the subject and predicate terms: The subject term is the term that refers to
the class of things being talked about, while the predicate term is the term that
describes something about the subject. For example, in the sentence "All men are
mortal," the subject term is "men" and the predicate term is "mortal."

3. Determine the quantity and quality of the proposition: Categorical propositions can
be classified by their quantity (whether they assert that all, some, or no members of a
subject class are included in a predicate class) and their quality (whether they are
affirmative or negative). The standard abbreviations for the four types of categorical
propositions are A, E, I, and O, respectively.

4. Symbolize the sentence: Using the appropriate logical symbols and operators,
translate the sentence into its logical form. For example, the sentence "All men are
mortal" can be symbolized as "All M are P," where M represents the subject term
("men") and P represents the predicate term ("mortal").

5. Check for validity: Once the sentence has been reduced to its logical form, it can be
analyzed to determine whether it is logically valid. A valid argument is one in which the
conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. This can be determined using various
methods, such as truth tables or syllogistic rules.

By following this procedure, we can reduce complex sentences to their logical forms and
analyze their structure and validity. This is a powerful tool for reasoning and
argumentation in many fields, including mathematics, philosophy, and computer
science.

∆ Distribution of terms in A, E, I, O propositions.

The distribution of terms in categorical propositions (A, E, I, and O) refers to whether
the proposition implies something about all or only some of the members of a subject
class and whether it makes a positive or negative claim about the relationship between
the subject and predicate classes. The following table summarizes the distribution of
terms in each type of categorical proposition:
 Proposition Subject Term Predicate Term
Universal/Particular Affirmative/Negative
Type Distribution Distribution

A Universal Affirmative Distributed Distributed

E Universal Negative Distributed Distributed

I Particular Affirmative Undistributed Distributed

O Particular Negative Undistributed Distributed

1)Universal Affirmative (A): In A propositions, both terms are distributed, meaning

that the reference of each term covers the entire category in question. For example, in
the proposition "All dogs are mammals," both "dogs" and "mammals" are distributed
terms.

2) Universal Negative (E): In E propositions, both terms are distributed, meaning that
the reference of each term covers the entire category in question. For example, in the
proposition "No dogs are cats," both "dogs" and "cats" are distributed terms.

3) Particular Affirmative (I): In I propositions, only the predicate term is distributed,

meaning that its reference covers the entire category in question. For example, in the
proposition "Some dogs are brown," "dogs" is the subject term and "brown" is the
predicate term.

4) Particular Negative (O): In O propositions, only the subject term is distributed,

meaning that its reference covers the entire category in question. For example, in the
proposition "Some dogs are not brown," "dogs" is the subject term and "not brown" is
the predicate term.

•It is important to note that the distribution of terms in categorical propositions affects
the validity of syllogisms, which are arguments made up of two premises and a
conclusion. In order for a syllogism to be valid, the distribution of terms must be taken
into account when constructing the argument.

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 Chapter 4:- Modern classification of Propositions
∆ Aim of modern classification, Kinds of simple and compound
propositions, and basic truth tables for compound propositions:

Aim of Modern Classification: The aim of modern classification in logic

is to provide a systematic and comprehensive framework for
categorizing different types of propositions, arguments, and reasoning.
Modern logic expands beyond the traditional Aristotelian syllogistic
logic and incorporates symbolic logic and predicate logic, which
enables more complex and precise analyses of propositions and
arguments.

∆ Kinds of Simple and Compound Propositions:

Simple Proposition: A simple proposition is a basic statement that

asserts the truth or falsity of a single idea or proposition. It cannot be
broken down further into simpler components. Simple propositions
are typically represented by single letters or symbols in symbolic logic.
Examples of simple propositions:

P: "The sun is shining."

Q: "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."

Compound Proposition: A compound proposition is formed by

combining simple propositions using logical connectives such as "and"
(conjunction), "or" (disjunction), "not" (negation), "if...then"
(implication), etc. Compound propositions allow us to express more
complex relationships between statements. Examples of compound
propositions:

P ∧ Q: "The sun is shining, and water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."

P ∨ Q: "The sun is shining, or water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."

¬P: "The sun is not shining."

P → Q: "If the sun is shining, then water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."

∆ Basic Truth Tables for Compound Propositions:

A truth table is a tabular representation that shows all possible

combinations of truth values for the component propositions in a
compound proposition and the resulting truth value of the compound
proposition. Here are the truth tables for basic logical connectives:

1) Conjunction (AND - ∧):

P Q P^Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

2) Disjunction (OR-V):

P Q PvQ

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F
3) Negation (NOT--):

P -P

T F

F T

4) Implication (IF...THEN- →):

P Q P>Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

∆ General propositions in Modern logic - universal and existential

propositions:

Universal Proposition (Universal Quantification): A universal

proposition makes a claim about all elements in a particular set or
domain. It uses quantifiers like "all," "every," or "for every" to
express the idea that a statement applies to every member of the set.
Universal propositions are denoted by the symbol ∀ (for all) in
symbolic logic.

Example: Ax: x is a prime number.

This proposition asserts that "For every x, x is a prime number."

Existential Proposition (Existential Quantification): An existential
proposition makes a claim that at least one element in a particular set
or domain satisfies a given condition. It uses quantifiers like "some,"
"there exists," or "for some" to express the idea that a statement
applies to at least one member of the set. Existential propositions are
denoted by the symbol D(there exists) in symbolic logic.

Example: Dx: x is a red apple.

This proposition asserts that "There exists at least one x such that x is
a red apple

Chapter 5:- Traditional and Modern Classification of

Propositions
a) Comparative Study of Traditional and Modern Classification
of Propositions:
Traditional Classification of Propositions:

- The traditional classification of propositions is based on Aristotle's

syllogistic logic, which divides propositions into four basic types based
on their quantity (universal or particular) and quality (affirmative or
negative).

- The four traditional propositions are: Universal Affirmative (A),

Universal Negative (E), Particular Affirmative (I), and Particular
Negative (O).

- The traditional classification is limited in scope and does not provide

a comprehensive framework to handle more complex propositions
and relationships between statements.
- It relies on natural language and does not involve symbolic notation
or formal logic.

A) Modern Classification of Propositions:

- The modern classification of propositions is more comprehensive

and extends beyond Aristotle's syllogistic logic.

- Modern logic includes symbolic logic and predicate logic, which

allows for precise representation and analysis of propositions using
symbols and formal rules.

- Modern classification includes universal and existential propositions,

which express quantification over sets and domains.

- It also encompasses compound propositions formed by combining

simple propositions using logical connectives like conjunction,
disjunction, implication, etc.

- The modern classification is better equipped to handle complex

relationships between statements and provides a more rigorous and
flexible framework for logical analysis.

b) Meaning of Predication with Special Reference to the Copula:

Predication is the act of attributing a property or relationship to a

subject in a sentence. In grammar and logic, a proposition typically
consists of a subject, a predicate, and a copula. The copula is the
linking verb that connects the subject to the predicate and indicates
the quality of the relationship between them.

In a proposition of the form "Subject + Copula + Predicate," the

copula serves to express the relationship between the subject and the
predicate. It indicates whether the predicate is attributed to the
subject affirmatively or negatively. The copula can take different
forms depending on the tense and mood of the sentence, but its
primary function is to link the subject and predicate together.

For example:

- "The cat is black." (Here, "is" is the copula that links the subject "the
cat" to the predicate "black" and indicates an affirmative attribution.)

- "The sky is not cloudy." (In this case, "is not" is the copula that links
the subject "the sky" to the negative predicate "cloudy.")

c) Failure of Traditional Classification of Propositions:

While the traditional classification of propositions based on Aristotle's

syllogistic logic served as an important foundation for formal logic, it
has certain limitations and shortcomings:

1. Limited Expressive Power: The traditional classification is limited to

four basic types of propositions (A, E, I, and O), which might not
adequately capture the complexities of real-world statements and
reasoning.

2. Inability to Handle Quantification: Traditional logic does not

address quantification, such as universal and existential propositions,
which are crucial for dealing with statements involving "all" or
"some" elements in a set

3. Lack of Symbolic Notation: The traditional classification relies on

natural language without the use of symbolic notation, making it less
suitable for formal and precise logical analysis.
4. Neglect of Compound Propositions: Traditional logic does not
encompass compound propositions formed by combining simpler
statements with logical connectives, which are essential for handling
complex relationships between propositions.

Due to these limitations, modern logic has evolved to overcome these

shortcomings and provide a more comprehensive and flexible
framework for logical analysis and reasonin

Chapter 6:- Inference

a) Kinds of Inference - Immediate and Mediate:
1.Immediate Inference: Immediate inference involves drawing a
conclusion directly from a single premise without the need for
additional steps or premises. In other words, the inference is made
immediately evident without the use of a mediating argument. There
are three main types of immediate inference:

Conversion: In conversion, the subject and predicate terms of a

proposition are interchanged while retaining the quantity (universal
or particular) and quality (affirmative or negative) of the original
proposition.

Example:

Original proposition: All men are mortal.

Converted proposition: All mortals are men.

Obversion: In obversion, the quality of the proposition is changed
(from affirmative to negative or vice versa), and the predicate term is
replaced with its complement (the term that includes everything not
in the original predicate term).

Example:

Original proposition: Some birds can fly.

Obverted proposition: Some birds cannot fly.

Contraposition: Contraposition involves converting the original

proposition and obverting the converted proposition simultaneously.

Example:

Original proposition: If it rains, the ground is wet.

Contrapositive proposition: If the ground is not wet, then it did not

rain.

2. Mediate Inference: Mediate inference, also known as deductive

inference, involves drawing a conclusion based on a series of premises
using established rules of inference or reasoning. It requires at least
two premises and follows a logical process to derive the conclusion.
Syllogism is a classic example of mediate inference.

b) Opposition of Propositions - Types of Opposition and

Inference by Opposition of Propositions - Oppositions of
Singular Propositions:
Opposition of Propositions: Opposition in logic refers to the
relationship between two propositions that have the same subject
and predicate terms but differ in quantity (universal or particular) or
quality (affirmative or negative).

Types of Opposition:

1. Contradictory Opposition: Two propositions are in contradictory

opposition when one is affirmative, and the other is negative, and
they have the same subject and predicate terms.

Example:

Affirmative: All cats are mammals.

Negative: No cats are mammals.

2. Contrary Opposition: Two propositions are in contrary opposition

when both are universal (either "all" or "no") and they have the same
subject and predicate terms, but they differ in quality (one is
affirmative, and the other is negative).

Example:

Affirmative: All birds can fly.

Negative: No birds can fly.

3. Subcontrary Opposition: Two propositions are in subcontrary

opposition when both are particular (either "some" or "some...not")
and they have the same subject and predicate terms, but they differ
in quality (one is affirmative, and the other is negative).

Example:
Affirmative: Some students passed the exam.

Negative: Some students did not pass the exam.

Opposition of singular propositions involves propositions that refer to

a particular individual or a specific entity. Inferences can be drawn by
negating or affirming singular propositions.

Example:

Singular proposition: John is a lawyer.

Opposition: John is not a lawyer.

Inferences by opposition of singular propositions are limited in scope

and often depend on additional information or context to be
meaningful. They are not as common or widely used in formal logic as
inferences involving general or categorical propositions.
 Chapter 7:- Laws of thought
The "Laws of Thought" refer to three fundamental principles of classical logic
that were first formulated by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. These
laws form the basis of logical reasoning and are still widely used in
contemporary logic and philosophy. The three laws are:

1. Law of Identity: This law states that every thing or concept is identical to itself.
In other words, if something is true, then it is true. Symbolically, it can be
represented as "A is A," where "A" represents any entity or proposition. For
example, "The sky is blue" is true if and only if the sky is actually blue.

2. Law of Non-Contradiction: This law states that no proposition can be both

true and false at the same time and in the same respect. Symbolically, it can be
represented as "A is not non-A." This means that contradictory statements
cannot both be true. For example, "The apple is red" and "The apple is not red"
cannot both be true simultaneously.

3. Law of Excluded Middle: This law states that for any proposition, it must
either be true or its negation must be true, with no middle ground. Symbolically,
it can be represented as "A or non-A." This means that there is no other
possibility; something is either true or false. For example, for the statement "It
is raining," either it is true (it is raining) or its negation is true (it is not raining).

These laws are fundamental principles of logical reasoning and are considered
to be self-evident and universal. They provide the foundation for reasoning,
argumentation, and problem-solving in various fields of study, including
mathematics, philosophy, computer science, and linguistics.
 Chapter 8:- Definition
a) Traditional Definition of Logic:

The purpose of logic, according to the traditional definition, is to study and

analyze valid reasoning. It provides a systematic and rigorous method for
evaluating the correctness of arguments and inferences. Logic aims to identify
the principles and rules that govern sound reasoning, enabling us to distinguish
between valid and invalid arguments.

Rules of Logic:

1. Deductive Reasoning: In deductive reasoning, we draw specific conclusions

from general premises. If the premises are true, and the logical rules of
deduction are followed correctly, the conclusion must also be true. A classic
example of deductive reasoning is the syllogism: "All humans are mortal;
Socrates is a human; therefore, Socrates is mortal."

2. Inductive Reasoning: In inductive reasoning, we generalize from specific

observations to form general conclusions. Inductive reasoning is probabilistic
and provides evidence rather than absolute certainty. For instance, after
observing many white swans, one might induce the generalization that "All
swans are white." However, this conclusion could be overturned if a black swan
is discovered.

3. Fallacies: Fallacies are errors in reasoning that lead to invalid or unsound

arguments. They are common mistakes or misleading tactics that may appear
superficially convincing but are logically flawed. Recognizing fallacies is essential
for critically evaluating arguments. Examples of fallacies include ad hominem
(attacking the person instead of their argument) and false dilemma (presenting
only two options when more exist).
b) Modern Definitions of Logic:

In modern times, logic has evolved beyond its traditional scope to encompass
various specialized branches and applications. Some of the modern definitions
and kinds of logic include:

1. Symbolic Logic (also known as Mathematical Logic): Symbolic logic uses

symbols and formal languages to represent logical relationships and arguments.
It includes propositional logic, predicate logic, modal logic, and other formal
systems. This kind of logic provides a precise and unambiguous representation
of logical principles and has extensive applications in computer science and
artificial intelligence.

2. Modal Logic: Modal logic deals with the notions of necessity and possibility. It
extends classical logic to handle statements that are true under certain
conditions or in possible worlds. Modal logic is crucial in philosophy, linguistics,
and the study of modalities.

3. Fuzzy Logic: Fuzzy logic deals with reasoning and decision-making under
uncertainty. Unlike classical logic, which is based on binary true/false values,
fuzzy logic allows for degrees of truth between true and false, represented by
degrees of membership in a set. Fuzzy logic finds applications in control systems,
artificial intelligence, and decision analysis.

4. Non-Classical Logics: Non-classical logics include paraconsistent logic,

intuitionistic logic, and many-valued logic. These logics depart from the classical
rules of inference and truth values, exploring alternative frameworks for
reasoning. They are often used in specific philosophical contexts or in
addressing limitations of classical logic.

Overall, modern definitions of logic have expanded to encompass a wide range

of formal systems and specialized areas of study. Logic continues to be a
fundamental tool for understanding and evaluating reasoning, while its diverse
branches cater to various applications across multiple disciplines.
 Chapter 9:- Definition and Law
1. Private and Public Nuisance (Law of Torts):

Nuisance is a tort in civil law that deals with interference with the use and
enjoyment of one's property. There are two main types of nuisance:

- Private Nuisance: Private nuisance occurs when an individual's use and

enjoyment of their property are interfered with by another person's actions.
This interference can be due to noise, odors, pollution, or other factors that
negatively impact the property owner. To establish a claim for private nuisance,
the plaintiff must demonstrate that the interference is substantial and
unreasonable.

- Public Nuisance: Public nuisance, on the other hand, affects the rights of the
public at large. It involves activities or conditions that cause harm, obstruction,
or inconvenience to the general public. Examples include obstructing public
roads or causing pollution that affects a whole community. In public nuisance
cases, the claim is brought by a public authority or a representative of the
community rather than an individual.

2. Consent (Law of Contract):

In the Law of Contract, consent is a crucial element in the formation of a legally

binding agreement between two or more parties. For a contract to be valid, the
parties involved must voluntarily and knowingly agree to its terms and
conditions. Consent implies that each party understands the rights and
obligations they are entering into and has the capacity to make decisions.

Consent can be vitiated (rendered void) in certain situations, such as when:

- There is duress or coercion, meaning one party is forced into the contract
against their will.

- Undue influence is exerted on one party, taking advantage of their

vulnerability.
- One party lacks the mental capacity to understand the contract's terms.

- Misrepresentation or fraud occurs, leading one party to make a decision based

on false information.

3. Medical Negligence:

Medical negligence is a legal concept in which healthcare professionals, such as

doctors, nurses, or medical institutions, fail to meet the expected standard of
care, resulting in harm or injury to a patient. To establish a claim of medical
negligence, the following elements are generally required to be proven:

- Duty of Care: The healthcare provider owed a duty of care to the patient,
which means they had a professional obligation to provide competent medical
treatment.

- Breach of Duty: The healthcare provider breached their duty of care by failing
to meet the standard of care expected in similar circumstances.

- Causation: The breach of duty directly caused the patient's injury or harm.

- Damages: The patient suffered actual harm or damages as a result of the

healthcare provider's actions or negligence.

Medical negligence cases can be complex and require expert testimony to

determine whether the healthcare provider's actions fell below the accepted
standard of care. If negligence is proven, the patient may be entitled to
compensation for their injuries, medical expenses, and other losses resulting
from the negligent care.
 Chapter 10:- Division
Division refers to the process of dividing a class or group into sub-classes or
subsets based on same shared property or characteristics. This process is also
known as classification or partitioning.

Logical Division

Logical Division is a simple method of dividing a class into its sub-classes in

order to explain or describe any class

Division is useful for:-

a) Determination of exact relationship among related things.

b) Formulation Definition

Rules

1. One division must follow only one criteria and it must be either physical or
metaphysical.

2. The division criteria must be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.

3. All parts of an entity being explained must be covered by the division.

4. No extra members must be suggested as part of entity explained during the

process of division

Fallacies of Division

. When we fall to follow rules of division We end in committing following

fallacies:

1. Division by cross criteria:-

-Dividing something using multiple criteria -Lead to improper categorization -

Example- Dividing people into Rich, poor, Tall, short, Dark, Fair, Introverts or
Extroverts.
2. Too narrow division:-

. Excluding some members or qualities from the group.

-Makes the division too limited

-Example - Dividing the group of animals. into dogs and cats. We are excluding
many other types of animals that also belong to this group such as fish, birds
There fore this division is too narrow.

3. Too wide- •Including members that do not belong to the group being divided.
[ Makes the division too broad] Ex-Birds into Single coloured & Multicolored.

Dichotomy division

1. Dichotomy division is a type of logical division that involves the dividing of

concept and idea into two part mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Dichotomy division is based on a single criterion or characteristics Such as

gender, size , colour etc

Each Category defined as unique Set of criteria or Characteristics which is

distingush Characteristics which is distingush it from other category.

The division is applies in various fields such as biology, psychology, sociology

and mathematics

Dichotomy division is a common tool in scientific research especially

classification and taxonomy

It is often used in to simplify complex system and create a clear structure for
analysis and comparison
 Chapter 11:- Induction
Induction is a method of reasoning that involves drawing general conclusions
based on specific observations or evidence. It is a fundamental aspect of human
thinking and scientific inquiry, where we use specific instances or examples to
make broader generalizations about the world.

a) Simple Enumeration as a form of induction:

Simple Enumeration is type of Induction reasoning that involves making

generalization based on specific examples or observation.

Simple Enumeration Characteristics are:-

1. Uncontradicted experience - What is tove of the observed facts will also be

bove of the unobserved ones.

Ex- Blackness always goes with crows.

2. Belief in uniformity - We, infer properties of unknown in known Cases

because those properties are found in own cases.

eg:- All crows observed are pink :: All Crows are pink

So, the generalization is based on the class belief that nature of particular class
or genus is Uniform (same).

3) Lack of analysis of properties:-

In Simple Enumeration; we don't analyze the properties of observed instances.

because there is no attempt made to find out why Certain properties go
together.

Ex-The blackness of a crow, has not been analyzed as to why blackness is

associated with crow

Hence It lacks scientific investigations.

4) Low degree of probability :- Generalization established by method of Simple
Enumeration low degree probalility unlike generalization Science

Thus, Simple Enumeration is not always reliable. because it baised or based on

Incomplete information.

b) Analogy - Characteristics of a good and bad analogy.

Its use in law - circumstantial evidence:
Analogy:- Analogy my defined as an argument from partil resemblance to futher
resemblnces that means if two or more things resemble each other in certin
characteristics and if one of them possesses further property than other is also
likely to possess it

Characteristics of a good analogy:

1. Relevant Similarities: A good analogy should have essential similarities

between the two situations being compared. These similarities should be
relevant to the point being made.

2. Appropriate Scope: The analogy should be limited to the relevant aspects and
not extend to unrelated elements that could lead to a misleading comparison.

3. Clear Differences: While focusing on similarities, a good analogy should also

acknowledge and address any important differences between the two
situations.

4. Non-controversial Comparison: A good analogy should not rely on

controversial or disputed similarities as this weakens its persuasiveness.

5. Consistent Context: The analogy should be consistent with the context and
circumstances under consideration.
Characteristics of a bad analogy:

1. Weak Similarities: A bad analogy relies on superficial or irrelevant similarities

between the two situations, leading to a faulty comparison.

2. Overextension: A bad analogy extends the comparison to areas where the

two situations differ significantly, leading to misleading conclusions.

3. Emotional Appeal: Some bad analogies may manipulate emotions instead of

focusing on logical comparisons, which can obscure the actual argument.

4. Ignoring Important Differences: A bad analogy may neglect crucial differences

between the two situations, leading to an inaccurate or biased conclusion.

Use in law - Circumstantial evidence:

In legal contexts, analogy can be used as a form of circumstantial evidence.

Circumstantial evidence is evidence that indirectly suggests a fact, rather than
directly proving it. Analogies can be presented to the court to draw similarities
between the present case and past cases where the facts and circumstances
were similar. It helps lawyers and judges make decisions based on precedent
and established legal principles.

However, it is important to note that analogies in law have their limitations. The
facts and circumstances of each case can be unique, and a direct application of
an analogy may not always be appropriate. Judges must carefully consider the
relevance and validity of analogies before applying them to the case at hand.
Analogies can provide a useful framework for understanding legal issues, but
they should not be the sole basis for making legal decisions.

https://youtube.com/@legal_hustlers
F.Y.BLS/LL.B. (5 Years Course)
Semester- I
Logic- I
Chapter 16- Definition

Solved Test Questions from Textbook by K.T. Basantani.

Recognize, with reasons, the types of definitions involved in the following:

1. Diamondback is another name for rattlesnake.

It is a Biverbal definition. A biverbal definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word

by another word. Here, the term diamondback is defined by another word rattlesnake.

2. In modern usage, anecdote means an interesting incident or striking event.

It is a Lexical definition. In this type of definition it report the meaning of the word or phrase,
as actually used by people. Here, the term anecdote has been defined on the basis of its usage
by a large number of people in the modern times.

3. The term tax is used for levies such as income-tax, excise duty, estate duty and
entertainment tax.

It is an Extensive definition. In this type of definition, examples are given to explain the
definiendum with the help of examples. Here, the term tax has been defined by giving
examples of different of levies.

4. Physician is a legally qualified medical practitioner.

It is a Lexical definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by a general

information used by a large number of people. Here, legally qualified medical practitioner is
an explanation of the term ‘physician’.

5. My neighbour’s child did not understand what tower means. His father showed him the
picture of the Leaning Tower of Pisa, and the child was satisfied.

It is an Ostensive definition. In this type of definition, the definiendum is explained by

showing the picture of the object. Here, the term ‘tower’ is explained by showing the picture
of leaning tower of Pisa.

6. Red is the colour of this rose and that hydrant.

1
It is an Ostensive definition. In this type of definition, the definiendum is explained by
pointing the object. Here, the colour red is defined by showing the rose and the hydrant.

7. When I told my friends that I am in high spirits, they didn’t understand. So I told them that
I feel cheerful.

It is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, the term high spirits is defined according to a particular person.

8. Pain is what you felt when I pinched you.

It is an Ostensive definition. In this type of definition, the definiendum is explained by

pointing the object. Here, pain is shown by pinching.

9. Pedestrian is a traveller on foot.

It is a Lexical definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by a general

information used by a large number of people. Here, traveller on foot is an explanation of the
term ‘pedestrian’.

10. The word pest stands for such insects as cockroach.

It is an Extensive definition. In this type of definition, examples are given to explain the
definiendum with the help of examples. Here, the term pest has been defined by giving an
example of cockroach.

11. As used by Americans, baron means a great merchant in a commodity.

It is a Lexical definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by a general

information used by a large number of people. Here, a great merchant in a commodity is an
explanation of the term ‘baron’ as used by Americans.

It is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, the term ’baron’ is defined as a great merchant in a commodity in point
of Americans.

12. In Italian, belladonna is a beautiful lady; while in English, it is a deadly poison.

It is a Lexical definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by a general

information used by a large number of people. Here, the term ‘belladonna’ means beautiful
lady and deadly poison in Italian and English respectively.

13. Virtue stands for such qualities as charity, piety and justice.

2
This is an Extensive definition. In this type of definition, the definiendum is explained by an
example. Here, the word virtue is explained by the examples of charity, piety and justice.

14. In English, ‘howler’ is a blunder.

This is a Biverbal definition. In this type of definition, the definiendum is explained by

synonym. Here, ‘blunder’ is the synonym of ‘howler’.

15. Mr. M’s daughter wanted to know what mammal means. He took her to a zoo, and
showed her a monkey, an elephant and a tiger. And she understood the meaning of mammal.

This is an Ostensive definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by

pointing the object to explain. Here, Mr. M explained mammal by showing his daughter a
monkey, an elephant and a tiger.

16. I told Mr. M that he is a wet blanket. Since he did not understand it, I told him that he is
discouraging.

This is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, Mr. M is explained that he is like a wet blanket and discouraging.

17. Marshall says that Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.

This is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life,
according to Marshall.

18. A novelist is a person such as C. S. Forester.

This is an Extensive definition. In this definition, the definiendum is explained with the help
of example. Here, a novelist is explained with an example of C.S. Forester.

19. J.M. Keynes’ view of interest is this: “Price paid for parting with liquidity.”

This is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, view of interest is price paid for parting with liquidity by J.M. Keynes.

20. Camera is an apparatus for photography.

This is a per genus et differentia definition. In this definition, the definiendum is analysed
by stating its genus and differentia. Here, the species ‘camera’ is included in the genus ‘an
apparatus for photography’.

21. Date is a U.S. colloquial word meaning appointment.

3
This is a Lexical definition. In this kind of definition, the definiendum is explained by a
general information used by a large number of people. Here, ‘appointment’ is a general
meaning of the word ‘date’.

22. Issue is result or outcome.

This is Biverbal definition. A biverbal definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word
by another word. Here, the words ‘outcome’ or ‘result’ are synonyms of ‘issue’.

23. In Marshall’s view, rent is income derived from free gifts of nature.

This is Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, the term ’rent’ is defined as an income that is derived from free gifts of
nature.

24. A natty person is one who is trim.

This is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, the term ’natty’ is defined as a person who is trim.

25. Rocker and nut are slang words which mean head.

This is a Stipulative definition. In this type of definition, we deliberately assign meaning to a

word or words. Here, the terms ‘rocker’ and ‘nit’ are defined by a general meaning that is
head.

Examine the following per genus et differentiam definitions:

1. Competition is perfect when there is no monopoly.

This statement commits the fallacy of negative fallacious definition, as the term competition
has been defined by using negative terms, but it could be done by using affirmative terms.

2. Interest is the reward for waiting.

This statement commits the fallacy of figurative definition because here the term 'interest'
has been defined indirectly not serving the purpose of definiens. (poetic language)

3. Manure is a substance used for fertilizing soil.

This statement commits the fallacy of too wide definition because here the definiens used to
define the term 'manure' can be applied to another definiens as well.

4. Ballot paper is a paper used in voting by ballot; voting by ballot is secret voting.
4
This statement commits the fallacy of circular definition because here the definienum is
directly used in the definiens.

5. Beldam is a madhouse.

This statement commits the fallacy of synonymous definition because here the term beldam
has been defined by using its synonym.

6. Chauffeur is a motor-car driver.

It is a valid statement, here the species is chauffeur and genus is driver and point of
differentia is motor-car driver.

7. Work is the salt of life.

This statement commits the fallacy of figurative definition because here the term 'work' has
been defined indirectly not serving the purpose of definiens. (poetic language)

8. Lecturer is a person who has tongue in your ear and faith in your patience.

This statement commits the fallacy of obscure definition as the term 'lecturer' has been
defined in a language which is not understandable by a common man.

9. Honeymoon is a holiday of married couple.

This statement commits the fallacy of too wide definition because here the term 'holiday of
married couples' is explained as honeymoon.

10. An effect is something that is produced by a cause, and a cause is something that
produces an effect.

This statement commits the fallacy of circular definition as the terms 'cause' and 'effects'
occur in the definien.

11. Kite is a child’s papered flown in wind by means of attached string.

This statement commits the fallacy of too narrow definition as the word 'child' used in the
explanation part omits the people from other age groups.

12. Circus is a place where horses, ponies and elephants are permitted to see men, women
and children, acting the fool.

This statement commits the fallacy of too narrow definition as the animals "horses, ponies
and elephants" ommits the other animals in the circus.

13. Oceanography is physical geography of the ocean.

It is a valid statement, here the species is 'oceanography' and genus is 'ocean' and point of
differentia is 'physical geography'.

5
14. Peace is freedom from way.

It commits the fallacy of figurative definition because here the term 'freedom' has been defined
indirectly not serving the purpose of definiens. (poetic language)

15. Love is the union of hearts.

This statement commits the fallacy of too narrow definition as the term "love" is not only
the 'union of hearts' ommits other feelings.

16. Wedding is a ceremony in which two persons undertake to become one; one undertakes to
become nothing; and nothing undertakes to become supportable.

This statement commits the fallacy of obscure definition as the words ‘two persons
undertake to become one’ does not clarify the meaning of wedding.

17. Reception is a formal welcome on the occasion of wedding.

This statement commits the fallacy of too narrow definition as the term "formal welcome" is
not only the ‘reception’ and ommits other occasions.

18. Rolly-polly child is one who is plump.

This statement commits the fallacy of too wide definition because here the term 'rolly-polly
child' is explained as a child who is plump.

19. Credit is the bond of society.

It commits the fallacy of figurative definition because here the term 'bond' has been defined
indirectly not serving the purpose of definiens. (poetic language)

20. Rational life is one lives according to the dictates of reason.

It is a valid statement, here the species is 'rational life' and genus is 'living life' and point of
differentia is 'according to reason'.

**************

6
F.Y.B.L.S./LL.B.
SEMESTER I
LOGIC- I

Chapter 17. Division

Examine the following divisions:

1. Pickpockets into those who pick the pockets of gents and those who perform the same
offence for the ladies.

This is a too narrow division. This division omits some of the sub-classes, such as third gender.

2. Criminals into murderers, thieves, dacoits, robbers, confident-tricksters, black marketers,

smugglers, etc.

This is enumeration of individuals. This division states the sub-classes murders, thieves,
dacoits, robbers, confident-tricksters, black marketers, smugglers, etc. belong to one class
‘criminals’.

3. Cities into well-planned and badly-planned.

This is a metaphysical division. The division of cities into well-planned and badly-planned can
be carried out in thought only.

4. Umbrellas into rod, handle, spokes and cloth.

This is a physical division. This is a division of an individual thing into parts.

5. Bees into busy workers and four-winged social insects.

This is a metaphysical division. The division of bees into busy workers and four-winged social
insects can be carried out into thought only.

6. Music into vocal and instrumental.

This is a too narrow definition. This division omits some of the sub-classes of music such as
classical, film music, etc.

7. Race horses into insured, non-insured, pedigreed and non-pedigreed.

This is overlapping division. The subclasses of the class ‘race horses’ are overlapping.

8. Educated men into well-educated, ill-educated and uneducated.

This is a too wide division. This division states the other sub-classes of ‘educated men’.

9. Boxers into heavy-weight and light-weight boxers.

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This is a too narrow division. This division omits some of the sub-classes of boxers such as
featherweight, flyweight, etc.

10. Dentists into male, female, costly, cheap, efficient and inefficient.

This is an overlapping division. The sub-classes of dentists are not mutually exclusive, they are
included into more than one sub-class such as gender, charges and work productivity.

11. Hindus into those who are religious-minded and those who are not.

This is division by dichotomy. This division mentions both the attributes of Hindus that is,
those who are religious-minded and those who are not religious-minded.

12. Propositions into universal, particular, affirmative and negative.

This is cross division. In this division the statement proceeds on the basis of more than one
principal. For instance both quantity and quality of propositions.

This is overlapping division. In the above statement, there is an overlapping of the sub-classes
of the class ‘propositions’.

13. Horses into race horses, hunters, mules and ponies.

This is a too wide division. This division divides the class of ‘Horses’ into other sub-classes
such as race horses, hunters, mules and ponies which are divided on the other basis.

14. Legendary figures into King Solomon, Birbal, Mulla Nasruddin, etc.

This is enumeration of individuals. All the members mentioned above are included in the class
of ‘Legendary figures’.

15. Flowers into fragrant and non-fragrant; white and non-white.

This is a too wide division. This division states the flowers into two sub-classes, they are, the
quality of fragrant and coloured.

16. Christians into those who go to church on Sundays and those who do so on other days.

This is division by dichotomy. This division mentions both the attributes of Christians as those
who go to church on Sundays and those who do not do so on other days.

This is a too narrow division. It omits the sub-class of the Christians who do not got to church
on Sundays or other days at all.

17. Industrialists into miserly and spendthrift; and spendthrift industrialists into those who
prefer to spend money on themselves and those who spend on others.

This is diviso non faciat saltum. This division involves more than one step and it proceeds

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gradually from ‘Industrialists’ which is a higher genus to other lower species.

18. Cobras into poisonous and crawling creatures.

This is a too narrow division. This division omits the other sub-classes of cobras such as
spitting cobra, Indian cobra and Egyptian cobra, etc.

19. Magicians into those who practice black magic and those who hypnotise the audience.

This is a too narrow definition. This division omits the other sub-classes of magicians such as
magicians who show magic at the circus and at children’s birthday parties.

20. Calamities into natural and man-made.

This is division by dichotomy. This division mentions both the attributes of calamities that is,
into natural and man-man.

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