SCIENCE

Photosynthesis

 A process autotrophs undergo to

VOCABUALRY convert the light energy from the sun to
chemical energy
o Heterotrophs rely on other organisms,  “Putting together with light”
they must consume food for energy  Happens in the chloroplast
(humans, animals)
o Autotrophs make their own food
(plants) DIFFERENCES OF STROMA,
Hetero – others THYKALOID, AND GRANUM
Auto – self
Trophs – food  Stroma the fluid filling up the inner
o Glucose is a molecule of sugar (a type of space of the chloroplasts which encircle
sugar) the grana and the thylakoids.
o Chloroplast are plant cell organelles  Thylakoids are pouch-like sacs that are
that convert light energy into relatively bound to a membrane in the
stable chemical energy via the chloroplasts of a plant cell. They contain
photosynthetic process. a pigment, called chlorophyll, that
Chloroplast makes the sugar absorbs light.
o Chlorophyll is a green pigment that  Granum is a basic structural unit of the
gives plants their green color, present in thylakoid membrane network of plant
all green plants and in cyanobacteria, chloroplasts. It is composed of multiple
responsible for the absorption of light flattened membranes forming a stacked
to provide energy for photosynthesis. arrangement of a cylindrical shape.
o Photons is a tiny particle that comprises
waves of electromagnetic radiation.
This photon comes from the sunlight.
The wavelength determines the
color.
Red and blue colors are being
absorbed because they satisfy the
energy used in photosynthesis
o PSII has 680 nanometer
o PSI has 700 nanometers
o Photolysis is the process of breaking Stomata
down of water into hydrogen, oxygen,
 Where exchange of gasses occurs
and electrons
 Carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exists
o The electron transport chain in PSII are
 Found at the bottom of the leaf to
PQ, b6f, and PC
reduce excessive loss of water
o The electron transport chain in PSI are
Fd and FNR Light-Dependent Reaction
o NADPH stands for Nicotinamide
 Depends on light
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate, is
 Occur in thylakoid membranes.
produced during the light-dependent
 Require light (photons) to initiate.
reactions, it carries high-energy
 Generate ATP and NADPH.
electrons and plays a crucial role in
 Produce oxygen as a byproduct.
providing reducing power for the
synthesis of carbohydrates in
photosynthesis and facilitating various
cellular reactions.
Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle): Light Independent reaction PROCESS

 Occur in the stroma. STAGE 1: Carbon Fixation (add atoms)

 Do not require light directly.
 RuBP: 3 molecules (5 carbon atoms) +
 Also known as the Dark Cycle
CO2: 3 molecules (1 carbon atom) = 6
 Utilize ATP and NADPH produced in the
molecule 3-PGA
light-dependent reactions.
 In order for RuBP and CO2 to combine,
 Convert CO2 into glucose through a
they need Ribulose 1,5-biphosphate
series of enzymatic steps.
carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO)

STAGE 2: Reduction of 3-PGA

Light Dependent Reaction PROCESS
 The 6 molecule 3-PGA has no electrons
PSII so it will get electrons from the ATP and
NADPH
The raw materials here are water
 The ATP and NADPH will become ADP
and sunlight
and NADP since it no longer contains
 Light struck and PSII absorbs it
electrons
 Electrons get excited and transfers to
 Now that the 6 molecule 3-PGA has
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
electrons, it is now stable and becomes
 Water undergoes photolysis to provide
6 molecule G3P
electrons to PSII
 The 6 molecule G3P becomes a 5
 From the stroma, the hydrogen ions go
molecule G3P because the 1 molecule
through the ETC specifically the PQ, the
G3P will be used to make ½ glucose
PQ then pumps out the hydrogen ions
 The 5 molecule G3P proceeds to the
to the thylakoid lumen
stage 3
 Due to high concentration on the
thylakoid lumen, the hydrogen ions STAGE 3: Regeneration of RuBP
goes through the ATP Synthase to
 Now that the 5 molecule G3P still has
reduce concentration
electrons, the electrons will go to the
 The ADP + Phosphate + Hydrogen = ATP
ADP and the ADP will become ATP that
PSI will be used in the stage 2
 Now that it no longer contains electrons
 The chlorophyll in PSI absorbs light
and only carbon atoms are left, it is now
 Electrons get excited and transfers to
ready to become a 3 molecule RuBP
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
 It’s a cycle
 The NADP + Hydrogen = NADPH
ADP and NADP are produced on the
stroma side of the thylakoid
membrane
 The byproduct of LDR are oxygen,
NADPH, and ATP
WHAT THE TERMS USED STANDS
FOR: Joseph John Thomson (J.J. Thomson)
o PSI – Photosystem 1
o PSII – Photosystem 2  Suggested the existence of negatively
charged particles which later called
o PQ – Plastoquinone
electrons
o b6f – Cytochrome b6f complex
 Proposed a model of an atom as the
o PC – Plastocyanin
positively-charge sphere where the
o Fd – Ferredoxin
electrons are embedded
o FNR – Ferredoxin-NADP reductase
 Negative charge
o RuBP – Ribulose Bisphosphate
Plum Pudding Model
o CO2 – Carbon Dioxide
o 3-PGA – 3 -Phosphoglyceric acid Ernest Rutherford
o G3P – Glycerol-3-Phosphate  Proposed that most of the mass and
o NADPH – Nicotinamide Adenine positively charged part of the atoms,
Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen the protons, must be concentrated in a
o ATP – Adenine Triphosphate small region called nucleus
Nuclear Model
Development of the Atom and the
Gold Foil Experiment
Atomic Theory
 The mass of the nucleus accounts for the
Democritus most of the mass of the atom

 Atoms were indivisible, indestructible, Neils Bohr

and the smallest particle of matter  Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
 “Atomos” definite energy levels called orbitals or
 Indivisible shells in an atom without radiating
Aristotle energy
 As long as an electron remain in a shell
 All elements on earth were not made of it never gains or losses energy
atoms except for Earth, fire, water, and Planetary Model = most famous
air
 4 elements = (earth, water, fire, and air) James Chadwick (1891-1974)
ether=space  Showed that each uncharged particle
emitted by radioactive particles has a
John Dalton
mass approximately equal to a proton–
 Stated his atomic theory based on neutral particles called neutrons
approximately 150 years of  Neutron=no charge
investigation by scientists  Mass=proton
Solid Sphere Model  Neutron is almost the same with Proton
1. Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible
spheres called atoms Erwin Schrodinger, Louie de Broglie, Weren
2. Atoms of the same element are Karl Heinsberg
identical, but atoms of one element are  Proposed that an electron behaves in a
different from those of all other wave-like manner rather than just as
elements particles
3. Atoms of different elements combine in  Thus electrons are both particles and
simple whole number ratios to form waves at the same time
compounds Quantum Model
4. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed
during a chemical change
“Billiard Ball Model”
 Atomic Theory
Isotopes Principles
 Atoms of a given element have the Aufbau Principle
same atomic number but can have
different mass numbers  Electrons first enter orbitals of lower
 Isotopes of an element have the same energy
number of protons but different Pauli Exclusion Principle
number of neutrons
 Every orbital can accommodate 2
Ion
electrons (⬆️⬇️)
 An atom or molecule with a positive or
Hund’s Rule
a negative charge
 An atom is formed when a neutral atom  Every orbital in a sub level is singly
losses or gains one or more electrons occupied before it can be doubly
 Cation (loss of electrons) occupied
 Anion (gain of electrons)

Atomic number = p+ = e-
Chemical Bonding
Mass number = p+ + n
 Attractive force that holds atoms
Neutrons = mass number – p+
together

Gilbert Newton Lewis

Electron Configuration  The chemist who developed the Lewis
symbols

According to Lewis:

 Valence electrons are involved in

bonding.
 Ionic Bonding occurs when electrons
are transferred from one atom to
another to form anion and cation
 Cation – it loses electrons so it
becomes positively charged,
thus, called cation
 Anion – it gains electrons so it
becomes negatively charged,
thus, called anion
 Left part of Periodic table of elements:
giver of electrons; Metal
 Right part of Periodic table of elements:
receiver of electrons; Non-metal
 Covalent Bonding occurs when
electrons are shared in a way that each
atom acquire a stable noble gas.
Electronegativity

 Measure of the tendency of an atom to

attract electrons

In the Periodic Table of Elements:

 Metals (Low EN) ➡️Increasing ➡️Non-

Metals (High EN)
 Top (High EN) ⬇️Decreasing ⬇️Bottom
(Low EN)
o Low EN – give away electrons
o High EN – attract electrons

Metallic
Ionization Energy
 The core electrons stay in the atom
 Energy needed to pull or remove “LOCALIZED”
electrons from a neutral atom  The valence electrons are free to move
 Low IE – easier to remove ”DELOCALIZED”
valence electrons (Metals)  “Sea of electrons”
 High IE – easier to pull valence
Metals
electrons (Non-Metals)
 All elements that form positive bond by
Octet Rule
losing electrons during chemical
 Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share bonding
electrons in order to achieve eight  Electropositive elements with relatively
valence electrons to be more stable. low ionization energies

Ionic Bonding Properties

 M (Low EN) + NM (High EN)  Hardness

 EN difference: greater than 1.9  Most metals are hard except
sodium and potassium
Covalent Bonding  Ductility
 Metals can be drawn into wires
 NM + NM  Luster
o Non – Polar Covalent Bond  Reflects/shines (gold, silver,
have an EN difference of 0 to copper)
0.4  Malleability
o Polar Covalent Bond have an EN  Have the ability to withstand
difference 0.41 to 1.9 hammering and can be made
into thin sheets
7th orbitals need 1 bond to be stable  Density
6th orbitals need 2 bonds to be stable  High density and are very heavy
 Thermal conductivity
5th orbitals need 3 bonds to be stable  Have a high melting and boiling
point
4th orbitals need 4 bonds to be stable
 Tungsten = highest melting and
3rd orbitals need 3 bonds to be stable boiling point
 Mercury = lowest melting and
2nd orbitals need 2 binds to be stable
boiling point
1st orbital need 1 bond to be stable
  Electrical conductivity  Meth
 High  Eth
 Silver & copper = good  Prop
conductors  But
 Lead, bismuth, mercury, & iron  Pent
= poor conductors  Hex
 Valency
 Hept
 Typically have 1 to 3 electrons
 Oct
in the outermost shell of their
 Non
atoms
 Dec
 Free electrons
 Solid resonance o Hexane = C6H14
o Heptane = C7H16

Organic compounds Rules in Naming Alkenes

 Non metals  Start with the parent chain

 Naturally produced by plants and  Identify the family name
animals

Viscosity
Alkenes
 Resistance of fluid to flow
 Unsaturated
 High = slow/thick
 C(n)H2(n)
Volatility o Hexene = C6H12
o Heptene = C7H14
 Evaporates when exposed to heat

Flammability Rules in Naming Alkenes

 Flammable  Start with the parent chain

 Identify the family name
 When naming the location of the
Hydrocarbons double bond, use the lowest number

 Consists of a carbon backbone (parent

chain) Alkynes
o 1-4 are naturally occurring
gases  Unsaturated
o 5-8 are liquid  C(n)H2(n)-2
o 9-10 are solid o Hexyne = C6H10
o Heptyne = C7H12

Rules in Naming Alkenes

IUPAC
 Start with the parent chain
 International Union of Pure and Applied  Identify the family name
Chemistry  When naming the location of the triple
 The name should end with the last bond, use the lowest number
syllable of the family or group where it
belongs to

Alkanes

 Saturated
 C(n)H2(n)+2
 N=carbon atoms
Branched Hydrocarbons

Isomer

 Same molecular formula but different

structural

Rules in Naming Branched

Hydrocarbons

 For Alkanes, start in the end where

there are more branches
 Start the count in the end where the
branches are closer
 Comma = between 2 numbers
 Dash = between a number and a letter
 If there are multiple locations when
naming, arrange the number from
lowest to highest
 2=di, 3=tri, 4=tetra