A TRAINING REPORT ON GEOREFERNCING

LIMITATIONS ON TERRESTIAL LASER SCANNER

In CSIR-CIMFR, DHANBAD
Project Report
On

Vocational Training

During the period from 6th June, 2023 to 20th July, 2023
By

NAME OF STUDENT
Roll no:
Registration no:

2nd Year B.E (Mining Engineering)

M.B.M UNIVERSITY

Jodhpur-342001

District - Jodhpur, Rajasthan

Under Supervision of
Mr. Aniket Verma (Sr. Scientist, Mine Subsidence and Surveying Section)

CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research,

Barwa Road, Dhanbad
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Prof. Arvind Kumar Mishra, Director, CSIR – CIMFR, Dhanbad and Mr.
Dilip Kumbhakar, Chief scientist, and HOS, HUMAN RESOURCE AND DEVELOPMENT
CIMFR, Dhanbad for permitting us to do a project at this institute.

I would most importantly like to mention that I am deeply obliged and grateful to work under
the able guidance of Mr. Aniket Verma without whose encouragement and I would not have
completed this training

I would also express my gratitude to my team who were very helpful throughout this training
period. Last but not the least, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my family
members, without whose support this would not have been possible.

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DECLARATION

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This is to declare that this report has been written by me. No part of the report is plagiarized
from other sources. All information from all other sources has duly acknowledged. I have
aware that if any part of the report is found to be plagiarized, I shall take full responsibility
for it.

Name:-
Roll no:-
Registration no:-
Branch:- Mining Engineering
Clg..,
State..
Pin:-

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 CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGENO.

1. INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATALITE 6

SYSTEM (GNSS)
2. METHODOLOGY 7
2.1. GNSS- Base establishment using Static method 7

2.2. RTK approach 8

2.3. WGS84 11

2.4. GEOID 11

2.5. GEOREFERENCING 12
3. LIDAR SYSTEM 13
3.1. Terrestrial laser scanner working 15
3.1.1. Phase shift method 15
3.1.2. Time of flight method in Terrestrial laser scanner 16
3.1.3. Georeferencing 17
3.1.4. Errors in georeferencing by back sight 18
4. POINT CLOUD 20
4.1. Point cloud file format 20

5. STUDY SITE 20
6. APPROACH
6.1.1. Gnss static approach 21
6.1.2. Gnss rtk approach 22
6.1.3. Laser scanner 22
7. DISCUSSION 25
8. RESULT 25
9. CONCULSION 27
10. REFERNCES 27

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1. INTRODUCTION

The Global Navigation Satellite System, or GNSS for short, is a network of satellites that
provides users with crucial positioning, navigation, and timing services all over the world. It
is a crucial technology in a variety of fields and industries because it enables precise location
and timing determination.
The United States government developed the Global Positioning System (GPS), which is the
most well-known and widely used GNSS system. GPS is made up of a group of satellites that
orbit the Earth and continuously send signals that tell their exact locations and the time right
now.
There are other well-known GNSS systems in use besides GPS. Galileo was developed by
the European Union, whereas GLONASS is the Russian equivalent. India runs NavIC, and
China has its own system called BeiDou. Together, these various systems expand global
coverage and enhance the availability and precision of positioning data.
The trilateration principle underpins the operation of GNSS. The GNSS receiver, which is
typically found in smartphones, automobiles, and navigation systems, simultaneously
receives signals from multiple satellites. The receiver can calculate its own position on Earth
by measuring the time it takes for the signals to reach it and knowing exactly where the
satellites are.
There must be at least four satellite signals for accurate positioning. Position determination
becomes more accurate as more satellite signals are received, enabling precise navigation and
location-based services. These signs also give timing data, vital for synchronisation in media
communications organisations, monetary exchanges, and other time-touchy applications.
GNSS has changed many different fields and industries. It improves safety and efficiency in
transportation by making it possible for aircraft, ships, and automobiles to navigate precisely.
Applications for surveying and mapping make use of it, which makes it possible to make
maps that are precise and detailed.
Additionally, GNSS technology is now accessible to the public thanks to the widespread use
of smartphones. For precise positioning information, location-based services like mapping,
ridesharing, and geotagging heavily rely on GNSS. GNSS-enabled devices also benefit
outdoor activities like hiking, running, and cycling by providing users with real-time location
tracking and route guidance.

All in all, GNSS is a worldwide organisation of satellites that gives exact situating, route, and
timing administrations. Its broad use and constant headways, GNSS has turned into an
irreplaceable innovation that upgrades our regular routines, further develops productivity, and
adds to worldwide network.

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Key Words: Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Laser Scanner, Georeferencing

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. GNSS- Base establishment using Static method:

Laying out a GNSS base utilising the static technique with focusing and evening out includes
extra moves toward guarantee exact situating. The procedure is broken down as follows:

1. Choose an appropriate location: Pick a location with good sky visibility and few
obstacles. Consider factors like close by designs, vegetation, and territory that could
obstruct satellite signs.
2. Install the GNSS antenna and base: Securely affix the
GNSS base to a tripod or surveying pillar. Associate the GNSS receiving wire to the
collector and guarantee it is appropriately arranged by the producer's rules (as shown
in Figure 1).
3. Centring: Using surveying tools like a theodolite or total station, precisely centre the
GNSS base rover over a benchmark point that has been surveyed. This step lays out a
realised reference point for exact situating.

4. Levelling: Make sure the GNSS base rover is perfectly level by using a bubble.
Evening out is significant to guarantee precise vertical estimations and to limit the
effect of neighbourhood varieties in the territory.

5. Radio wire adjustment: Measure the position of the GNSS base rover in relation to the
reference point with precision to calibrate it. The base slight tilts and offsets are
considered in this calibration.

6. Collection of data: To collect static GNSS data, leave the GNSS base and antenna in
place for a long time, typically a few hours or days. Post-processing data is recorded
as the satellite signals are continuously tracked by the receiver.

7. Post-processing: Post-process the GNSS data that has been collected using specialised
software after it has been collected. For highly accurate positioning results, this
software compares the recorded satellite measurements with known reference data
that also includes information about centring and levelling.

8. Base station arranges: When the post-handling is finished, the product gives exact
directions to the base station area, including both even and vertical positions.

9. The static method with centring and levelling ensures the establishment of a GNSS
base station with increased accuracy and dependability by following these steps,

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 particularly in challenging environments or when highly precise positioning is
required.

Fig.1: Establishment of GNSS Base Receiver at the Roof of CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad.

2.2. RTK approach:

The process of associating geographic coordinates, like latitude and longitude, with a
particular point or feature on the Earth's surface is known as georeferencing. GNSS, real-time
Kinematic (RTK) strategies, is ordinarily utilised for exact georeferencing.
RTK is a GNSS method that advances the situating precision by utilising a base station (as
shown in Figure 1) and a meandered recipient. Multiple satellite signals are received by the
base station, which is in a known location, and its precise position is calculated. The
correction data are then sent to the rover (as shown in figure 3) receiver in real time Along
with the correction data, the rover receiver receives signals from the same satellites as the
base station (as shown in figure 2(a)). The rover can precisely determine its location by
comparing the signals it receives with the correction data and the receiver data then collected
and extracted by the software in the table format (as shown in Figure 2(b)). Applications that

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 require precise georeferencing, such as land surveying, construction, precision agriculture,
and mapping, can benefit from RTK's centimetre level positioning accuracy.
The utilisation of RTK in georeferencing guarantees that the geographic directions related to
a point or element are exact and dependable. Geospatial data can be better analysed,
visualised looked, and integrated as a result of its precise positioning and alignment.

Fig.2 (a): Example of Real time kinematic (RTK) method.

Project file data Coordinate System

Name: C:Users\AniketVerma\Desktop\ Name: Worldwide/UTM
mbm training\RTK work\rtk
work.vce
Size: 50 KB Datum: WGS 1984
Modified: 21-06-2023 13:17:12 (UTC:5) Zone: 45 North
Time zone: India Standard Time Geoid: EGM008
Reference number: Vertical datum:
Description:
Comment 1:
Comment 2:

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Comment 3:

Point List
ID Easting Northing Elevation
(Meter) (Meter) (Meter)
basertktrn 441738.439 2634109.275 251.015
S1 441752.468 2634104.85 237.683
S2 441746.489 2634118.605 237.703
S3 441758.512 2634091.119 237.684
A1 441746.345 2634128.583 237.659
A2 441742.452 2634137.799 237.691
A3 441738.437 2634146.952 237.718
A4 441734.39 2634156.065 237.761
A5 441730.318 2634165.201 237.755
A6 441726.266 2634174.341 237.757
A7 441722.204 2634183.486 237.841
A8 441720.408 2634195.118 238.104
B1 441766.097 2634084.62 237.554
B2 441770.139 2634075.476 237.392

Fig.2 (b): Table showing data collected by RTK method.

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 Fig.3: Data Collection using GNSS Rover.

2.3. WGS84
Since 1994, the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) and the World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS84) have been consistent. There have been six subsequent realisations of
the frame since the initial release of WGS84 in 1987 by the Defence Mapping Agency, which
has since been replaced by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, NGA. These
realisations are referred to as WGS84 (G730), WGS84 (G873), WGS84 (G1150), WGS84
(G1674), WGS84 (G1762), and WGS84 (G2139). Metadata indicating the realisation and
epoch of their data collections is frequently ignored by WGS84 users. Because of this, when
transforming between realisations or other reference frames, the transformation may result in
inaccurate outcomes. We plan to carry attention to the idea of WGS84 and the vagueness by
they way it is characterised. The WGS84 realisations and other global reference frames can
be transformed using an internally consistent set of transformation parameters that consider
nuances and inconsistencies in the published literature. The inductions depend on existing
(however not effectively discoverable) data. Comparisons with other software and NGA-
published GPS tracking station coordinates are used to assess transformation accuracy. For
transformations involving all realisations other than the original WGS84, the estimated

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uncertainties average horizontally and vertically after considering plate tectonic motion. The
uncertainty level for transformations, including the original WGS84, is at the meter level. If
plate movement is disregarded, the level of vulnerabilities can increment by a few
decimetres, contingent upon the area inside a plate. (Kevin M Kelly et al., 2022).

2.4. GEOID
The determination of the orthometric height from geometric levelling has practical
difficulties that, despite several scientific and technological advances, passed a century
without substantial modifications or advances. Currently, the Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) has been used with reasonable success for orthometric height determination.
With enough benchmarks with known horizontal and vertical coordinates, it is often possible
to adjust using the least squares method mathematical expressions that allow interpolation of
geoid heights. The objective of this study is to present an alternative method to interpolate
geoid heights based on the technique of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). The study area
is the Brazilian state of São Paulo, and for training the ANN the authors have used geoid
height information from the EGM08 gravity model with a grid spacing of 10 minutes of arc.
The efficiency of the model was tested at 157 points with known geoid heights distributed
across the study area. The results were also compared with the Brazilian Geoid Model
(MAPGEO2004). Based on those 157 benchmarks it was possible to verify that the model
generated by ANNs provided a mean absolute error of 0.24 m in obtaining a geoid height
value. Statistical tests have shown that there was no difference between the means from
known geoid heights and geoid heights provided by the neural model for a significance level
of 5%. It was also found that ANNs provided an improvement of 2.7 times in geoid height
estimates when compared with the MAPGEO2004 geoid model. (Mauricio Roberto Veronez,
et al., 2011).

2.5. GEOREFERENCING
Georeferencing is a kind of direction change that ties a computerized raster picture or vector
data set that addresses a geographic space (normally a checked guide or flying photo) to a
spatial reference framework, subsequently finding the advanced information in the genuine
world. It is in this manner the geographic type of picture enrolment (Yao, Xiaobai A. (2020-
01-01)). The term can allude to the numerical equations used to play out the change, the
metadata put away close by or inside the picture record to indicate the change, or the course
of physically or naturally adjusting the picture to this present reality to make such metadata.
The most widely recognized outcome is that the picture can be outwardly and logically
coordinated with other geographic information in geographic data frameworks and remote
detecting programming.
The process typically involves identifying several sample ground control points with known
locations on the image and the ground, then using curve fitting techniques to generate a

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parametric (or piecewise parametric) formula to transform the rest of the image (Hackeloeer,
et al., (2014)). Once the parameters of the formula are stored, the image may be transformed
dynamically at drawing time, or it may be resampled to generate a georeferenced raster GIS
file or orthophoto. Both options are possible. There are several mathematical methods.
From general expressions of geographic location (geocodes) to coordinate measurements
(Leidner, J.L. (2017)), other types of transformation have been referred to as georeferencing.
However, the majority of these other methods are more commonly referred to as geocoding.
It is prefer to use the term "geo-registration" to refer to the image transformation (Longley et
al., (2011)) because of this ambiguity (as shown in figure 4). Periodically, this interaction has
been called rubber sheeting, yet that term is all the more usually applied to a fundamentally
the same as cycle applied to vector GIS data (Longley et al., (2011)).

Fig.4: GEOREFERENCING (manifolds.net)

3. LIDAR SYSTEM
Lidar stands for light detection and ranging method which uses a laser as a pulse to measure
the elevation of a ground hilly area or a building. Mainly the lidar system uses three types of
light infrared nearly visible and ultraviolet radiation. Just as sonar uses sound waves for the
measurement of distance lidar uses radio waves in the form of a laser known as a pulse when
it is emitted from the instrument and the reflected back pulse is known as a return.
It measures how long it takes the pulse to return back to the sensors and calculates the
distance between the object and the source.

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Lidar can be classified as an airborne lidar, terrestrial lidar (terrestrial laser scanner) and
UVV but mostly terrestrial lidar is widely used in civil or mine surveying works as it is
handy and easily accessible for human purposes. While most of the pulses come back to the
straight path but many pulses get back at an inclined angle which is measured by the sensors.

These devices produce data in the form of point clouds (PC), which are composed of three-
dimensional (3D) Cartesian coordinates X, Y, Z, and the intensity of the reflected signal.
Other associated sensors may provide other attributes such as RGB colures.
Lidar mainly consists of 4 units that work tighter to give the data in the form of the point
cloud which further requires processing before examining the data and making out a 3d point

cloud.

Fig.5: Teledyne Optec Polaris

terrestrial laser scanner
Fig.6: Teledyne terrestrial laser scanner in the field
at CSIR – CIMFR, Dhanbad

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3.1. Terrestrial laser scanner working
Terrestrial laser scanners are instruments that allow non-destructive, fast and accurate
scanning of physical landscapes in three dimensions (3D) point cloud. The principle behind
Terrestrial laser technology is that it emits and receives a laser beam. A mirror deflects the
beam and sends it to scan the scene reflecting the laser beam on the first observed object.
Combining the angular pitch values of the mirror and the reflectance of the laser beam allows
the measurement of distance and the creation of 3d points with different coordinates and

reflectance allowing. (Dausset, M. et al., 2011, July 6)

Fig.7: Operating principle of a terrestrial LiDAR (light detection and ranging) scanner
(FARO Photon 120). A laser beam deflected by a rotating mirror scans a vertical plane, and
the complete rotation of the device allows hemispherical scanning.

Terrestrial laser scanner works on two principles i.e., phase shift method and time of flight
method.

3.1.1. Phase shift method

In this method the distance between the object and the instrument is measured by analysing
the phase shift laser beam and only one return pulse has been recorded from each direction of
the target. They are generally used for high-precision work and in wide areas up to the range
of 100m and commonly use visible wavelengths of 600-800nm, but some also use infrared
wavelengths.

The specifications of the terrestrial laser scanner which we use in the practice are listed
below:

Sl. No. Parameters Specification

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 1 Wavelength 1550nm

2 Field of View (H) 360o

3 Field of view(V) 120o (-45o to +75o)

4 Maximum scan distance 2000m

5 Maximum scanning speed 5,00,000 point s/s

Fig.8: Principles of laser scanner data acquisition

3.1.2. Time of flight method in Terrestrial laser scanner

The time-of-flight technique is based on the calculation of the time between emission and
reception of a laser pulse, divided by two. These characteristics allow very long
measurement. Distances but relatively low acquisition speeds the time-of-flight technique is
based on the calculation of the time between the emission and reception of a laser pulse,
divided by two. These characteristics allow very long measurement distances but relatively
low acquisition speeds.

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The time-of-flight technique is based on the calculation of the time between the emission and
reception of a laser pulse, divided by two. These characteristics allow very long
measurements.
Distances but relatively low acquisition speeds the time-of-flight technique is based on the
calculation of the time between emission and reception of a laser pulse, divided by two.
These characteristics allow very long measurement distances but relatively low acquisition
speeds.

The time-of-flight technique is based on the calculation of the time between the emission and
reception of a laser pulse, divided by two. These characteristics allow very long measurement
distances but relatively low acquisition speeds. The Lidar generally uses near-infrared
wavelengths of 900-1500nm and is well suited to reconstruct a 3d scene view at a larger
distance beyond 100m. (Wang, W et al.., 2014, October)

3.1.3 Georeferencing
Georeferencing is a process of transformation between a local and global coordinate system.
The georeferencing can be performed in two common ways of direct and indirect methods
(Lichti and Gordon 2004).
Indirect georeferencing uses known points of makers or targets to georeference the point
cloud. These points have global coordinates and they are also measured in the local
coordinates by scanner, so the transformation parameter can be estimated by indirect
georeferencing. By contrast, indirect georeferencing requires at least three known GCPs in
each scan.
Direct georeferencing is a method that can save time and cost since both the scan station and
the oriented target can be automatically located in the global coordinate. The coordinate of
both the scanner and its corresponding target can be determined by a low-cost GNSS receiver
which is centered close to the scanner’s rotation axis (Zimmermann et al. 2018).
The main drawback of this method is the positional accuracy of the scan station and target
measured by GNSS absolute positioning, normally a meter level accuracy. In Gnss the real-
time kinematic method is generally more preferable because the accuracy is increase and the
error may come down to cm/mms in the data.

RESECTION METHOD

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Space resection or 3D resection is one of methods that can be applied for direct
georeferencing. In practice, to determine the coordinate in 3D of the scan station, three or
more targets are usually used. The unknown coordinate of the scan station is determined by
observations of a range (ρ), a horizontal rotation angle (α), a vertical attitude angle (𝜃) in
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z). The relationship between observations and coordinates is
given as:

BACKSIGHTING METHOD
The "backsighting" approach in georeferencing is a technique for determining the position
and orientation of a remote sensing or surveying device by seeing known reference points
from various places. When direct measurement of control points is difficult or impossible,
this method is widely used.

3.1.4 Errors in Georeferencing by back sight

The back sight approach is one of the methods for direct georeferencing, the error of this
approach can be analysed based on the direct georeferencing method.
 The positional errors of survey station and backsight target.
 The centering and levelling errors of the scanner.
 The back sighting target centering error , mean centering uncertainty of stationing

points .

 Pointing error by target back sighting where =angular sampling

interval in both α and θ. (Hullo et al., 2012)

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Fig.9: Ground and Intrinsic RS of a scan position.

Fig.10: Target reflector

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 Fig.11: Field survey of Backsighting georeferencing

4. Point Cloud
A point cloud in 3-D modelling is a collection of data points in a 3D coordinate system—
commonly referred to as the object’s surface. A point cloud represents the complete external
on the object’s surface. A point cloud represents the complete external surface of an object
when taken as a whole.
As everyday lives become increasingly infused with digital elements, point clouds provide a
speedy and reliable way to create virtual replications of real-world objects.
The point data from any type of device can be used in this research.
The Initial point data acquired by a measuring device generally require pre-processing
operations such as noise filtering, smoothing, merging and data ordering in order to be
useable in subsequent operations. Using the pre-processed point data, a surface model can be
generated either by a curve-net-based method or by a polygon-based modelling method.

4.1. POINT CLOUD FILE FORMAT

Data stored in point cloud is in its simplest of terms may be an array of point records of fields
such as coordinates and attributes. Such file formats can be categorized into ASCII

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(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and binary based on the arrangement
and encoding of the point cloud data stored.
Example of point cloud file format are PLY, E57, STL, X3D, LAS, LAZ etc.
The 3D point cloud (Rusu et al., 2011; Aldoma et al., 2012; Saval – Calvo et al., 2015), a
new primitive representation for objects, has become increasingly prevalent in many research
fields (Aldoma et al., 2012), such as object recognition (Rangel et al., 2015) and
reconstruction (Park et al., 2011; Rosli et al., 2014), due to its simplicity, flexibility and
powerful representation capability. In contrast to triangle meshes, the point cloud does not
require to store or maintain the polygonal-mesh connectivity (Pfisher et al., 2004) or
topological consistency (Kobbelt et al., 2004)

5. STUDY SITE
To assess the accuracy and reliability of RTK method of GNSS with Static method a study
was conducted at CSIR- Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research located in Dhanbad
district, Jharkhand (as shown in figure 5) between latitude 23.7957° N and longitude to
86.4304° E.

Fig. 12 (a): Google Earth Image of Study Site.

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 Fig.12 (b): Google Earth Image of Base Station and georeferenced points

6. Approach

The overall approach of the work is been carried in two phases gnss approach and laser
scanner approach

6.1 Gnss static approach

The approach for GNSS georeferencing using the static method involves collecting raw data
from a stationary GNSS receiver at a stable location, applying data adjustments such as
differential corrections and atmospheric corrections, and post-processing the data to compute
accurate georeferenced positions. Finally, the results are validated by comparing them with
known reference points or control data.

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6.2. Gnss rtk approach

In GNSS georeferencing using the RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) method, the approach
involves establishing a base station with known coordinates and a rover station for real-time
positioning. The base station sends correction data to the rover station, enabling it to calculate
highly precise georeferenced positions in real-time. The rover's position is determined by
combining the satellite measurements with the real-time corrections received from the base
station.

6.3 Laser scanner

The terrestrial laser scanner is widely used for carrying out the survey in various field. The
laser scanner which we use in field is also known as Polaris laser scanner which generates the
data of the scan in the form of 3D point cloud after which it can be process to carry out futher
operation. The scan point which we use is front of the cimfr office because it gives us a
overall 360 degree view of the field which help us to establish the scan points S1,S2,S3 15m
apart from each other at equal intervals. Futher target reflector points also been established at
10m interval from each. The georeferencing which we use in field is Backsighting which is a
type of direct georeferencing carried out in the field for better data outcome form the scanner.
The best suitable scan points are the one which at the more distance from the laser scanner
because the standard deviation of the of the error is minimum what we conclude from the
field observations.

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Fig.13: Flowchart of general strategy of the investigations

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7. DISCUSSION

The global navigation satellite system is an excellent engineering Marvel as this techno giant
not only persist the ability to deliver very precise info in the form of coordinates of even the
remotest part, but also boosts the objectives of international scientific cooperation.

When TLS is used for the purpose of surveying with the help of georeferencing, a crystal
clear scan is obtained which is as precise as a few centimetres. When the survey was
conducted during the backsiting, it was found that the standard deviation in the scan is
proportional to the distance between the fluorescent reflector and the scanner. Ideally the
value of delta (standard deviation) is close to zero but the graph shows the varying trend.

Note: The reason behind the relationship between the value of standard deviation and the
distance between scanner and the reflector is fairly simple, which suggest that, as the distance
between the reflector and the TLS increases, the target becomes 'pin pointed'. Therefore, in
order to have least deviation, the target, (here reflector) should be placed at farther distance
from the scanner

Further studies are also been done on this method. This study used a cylindrical target for
mounting GNSS antennas in TLS applications. Different target types, such as spherical
targets, could improve height accuracy using RUFS. Backsight points were distributed in the
same height, but well-distributed control points in both horizontal and height planes could
improve station coordinates' height precision and accuracy.

8. RESULT
When referred to the brochure of the device used, Polaris laser scanner, it was found that it
has a range of 100 m but that's not true. Instead it could reach out only up to 65 m.

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 File name Reflector distance Standard deviation
(in m) (in m)
S3A2 49.332 0.028
S3A3 59.332 0.030
S3S1 14.960 0.006
S3B1 10.064 0.031
S3B2 19.550 0.022
S2S1 14.998 0.020
S2A2 19.614 0.025
S1B1 24.390 0.012
S1A3 44.378 0.016
S1A5 64.287 0.011
S1A1 24.510 0.006

Table :Data of reflector distance and standard deviation

Fig.14: graph of data outcome

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9.CONCULSION

When Polaris laser scanner is used to perform terrestrial laser scanning, the deviation in the
reading is least when the distance between the scanner and the target that is that reflector is
maximum.

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Kevin M Kelly, Michael L Dennis

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Mauricio Roberto Veronez, Sérgio Florêncio de Souza, Marcelo Tomio Matsuoka, Alessandro
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