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and their amplitudes may or may not be equal

If 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 be the amplitudes of 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑦
respectively , then for linear polarization
𝐸 𝐸
phase difference 𝛿 = 0 and 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1
𝑦 2

Thus tip of the vector⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸 traces straight line.

Circular polarization of EM waves :

y
𝜃 = 45° EM wave is said to be circularly polarized
if the 𝐸⃗⃗𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 components must have same
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑦 amplitude and a phase difference of 90°.
If 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 be the amplitudes of 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑦
O
X respectively , then for circular polarization
𝐸𝑥 𝐸 𝐸
phase difference 𝛿 = 90° , 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1
𝑦 2

𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2= 𝐸12 , Thus tip of the vector⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸 traces a
circle.

Elliptical polarization of EM waves :

Y EM wave is said to be elliptical polarized
if the 𝐸⃗⃗𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 components must have
𝐸𝑦 unequal amplitude and a phase difference
𝛿 ≠ 0. If 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 be the amplitudes of
𝑂 𝐸𝑥 X 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑦 respectively , then for elliptical
polarization phase difference 𝛿 ≠ 0,𝐸𝑥 ≠ 𝐸𝑦
𝜋 𝐸 2 𝐸𝑦 2
if 𝜕 = ,then (𝐸𝑥 ) + ( 𝐸 ) = 1 ,Thus tip of the
2 1 2
vector⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 traces an ellipse.

OPTICAL FIBRES

Q:What is an Optical Fiber?

Optical Fiber is a transparent di-electric material (like glass/plastic) which
guides/ carry) light along it based on the principle of total reflection of light.

Optical fiber consists of a cylindrical transparent di-electric material of high

refractive index called core. It is surrounded by another di-electric transparent
material of low refractive index called cladding Cladding in turn is surrounded
by cylindrical insulator called Sheath, which gives mechanical strength &
protect the fiber from absorption, scattering etc

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Q:What is an acceptance angle of an optical fiber ? Find the expression for

acceptance angle or Numerical aperture.

B ∅𝒓 Cladding ( 𝒏𝟐 )

∅𝑪 Core (𝑛1 )
Launch medium (𝑛𝑜 ) Fiber axis
𝜃𝑟
A
D
𝜃𝑖

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle submitted by the ray with the axis of
the fibre so that light can be accepted and guided along the fiber.

Let 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 & 𝑛𝑜 be the RI of core, cladding and launch medium respectively.

Also OA incident ray,AB refracted ray,BC totally reflected ray, 𝜃𝑖 & 𝜃𝑟 be the
angles of incidence, refraction at A & ∅ & ∅𝑟 be tha angle of incidence and
angle of refraction at B respectively.
𝑛1
By snell’s law at A, 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 ⇨ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 ……(1)
𝑛𝑜
At ∅ = ∅𝐶 Critical angle , ∅𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎°
𝑛
∴ from Snell’s law at B, 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝐶 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛90° or 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝐶 = 𝑛2 ……(2)
1

But, from ∆ 𝐴𝐷𝐵, 𝜃𝑟 =(90 ͦ−∅𝐶 )⇨ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90 ͦ − ∅𝐶 )=cos ∅𝐶 … . (3)

𝑙𝑒
𝑛1
From eqns 1 &3 ,we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝐶 ) …….(4)
𝑛𝑜

𝑛2 √𝑛12 −𝑛22
From eqns 2&3,we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛(∅𝐶 ) = 𝑛 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝐶 ) = √(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ 𝐶) = …(5)
1 𝑛1

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
From eqns 4 &5,we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 =
𝑛𝑜
If 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃0 is the maximum angle of incidence for which total internal reflection
takes place,then 𝜃0 is called the acceptance angle.
√𝒏𝟐𝟏 −𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟎 = for air 𝑛0 = 1
𝒏𝒐

The condition for propagation is 𝜽𝒊 < 𝜽𝟎

ie; Angle of incidence must be less than acceptance angle.
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Or
Sine of the incident angle must be less than numerical aperture.
ie; Sin 𝜽𝒊 < NA

Q: What is meant by numerical aperture(NA) and mention the expression for it.
Numerical aperture is the ability of the optical fiber to accept the light and
guide along the fiber and is numerically equal to sine of the acceptance
angle.
√𝑛12 −𝑛22
ie: NA = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜

Q:What is meant by fractional refractive index change(∆).

The ratio of the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )
to that of core is called fractional refractive index change. ie: ∆ = 𝑛1
Q:What is attenuation and explain types of attenuation in optical fibres.
Loss of power of light signal as it is guided along the fiber is called
attenuation.
Attenuation is measured in terms of dB/km.
There are three types of attenuations in the fiber namely:
1. Absorption losses are the losses due to impurities & material itself and they
are two types namely
a) Impurity losses are the losses due to the impurities(Cu, Fe, etc) present in
the fiber, which can be minimised by taking care during manufacture of
the fiber.
b) Intrinsic losses are the losses due to the material itself, these losses
decreases with the increase of wavelength.
2. Scattering losses are the losses due to imperfections of the fiber called
Rayleigh scattering losses which varies inversely as the 𝜆4.
3. Radiation losses are the losses are two types namely:-
a) Microscopic losses are the losses due to non-linearity of the fiber axis ,which
can be minimized by providing compressible jacket & taking care during
manufacture of the fiber.
a) Macroscopic losses are the losses due to large curvature/bending of the
fiber when it is wound over a spool/bent at corners. These losses increase
exponentially up to threshold radius and there afterwards losses becomes
large.

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Expression for attenuation coefficient(𝜶)

Consider an optical fiber of length ’L’ and 𝑃𝑖 & 𝑃𝑜 be the input and output
powers respectively.
𝑑𝑃
The according to Lambert’s law ,the rate of decrease of intensity (− 𝑑𝐿 )with
distance varies directly as Intensity (P)
𝑑𝑃
ie; − 𝑑𝐿 𝛼 𝑃 ,where – sign signifies that intensity decreases with distance.

= 𝛼 P ,where 𝛼 is constant called attenuation coefficient.

𝑑𝑃
On rearranging we get, = −𝛼𝑑𝐿
𝑃

Integrating on both sides ,between limits (𝑃𝑖 , 𝑃𝑜 ) and (0,L)we have,

𝑃𝑜 𝑑𝑃 𝐿
∫𝑃 = −𝛼 ∫0 𝑑𝐿
𝑖 𝑃

[𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑃]𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑖 = −𝛼[𝐿]𝐿0

∴ log 𝑃𝑜 − log 𝑃𝑖 = −𝛼𝐿

𝑃 1 𝑃
log( 𝑃𝑜 ) = −𝛼𝐿 or 𝛼 = − 𝐿 log(𝑃𝑜 ) Bel/km
𝑖 𝑖

𝟏𝟎 𝑷
∴ 𝜶 =− log( 𝑷𝒐) dB/km
𝑳 𝒊

𝜶𝑳
𝑷𝒐
Note: = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝑷𝒊

Q: What is V-Parameter/number ?

V-Parameter/number is the quantity which represent the number of modes

𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
of the fibre given by V = . NA = .
𝜆 𝜆 𝑛0
where d = diameter , λ = wavelength,
𝑛1 , 𝑛2 &𝑛0 RI’s of Core, Cladding & medium
Q:What is meant by modes of propagation.
The paths along which the light is guided in the fiber are called modes of
𝑉2
propagation and the number of modes of the fiber is given by N = 2
Q: Explain the construction and working of Types of optical Fibers.
There are three types of optical fibers namely:-

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1) Single mode step index fiber(SMF

Cladding

Core

Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1. SMF core diameter = 8 − 10𝜇𝑚 and cladding diameter = 60-70𝜇𝑚 .

2. The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the
diagram.
3. The V-number is < 2.4.
4. Numerical aperture is < 0.12 .
5. Attenuation is in the range 0.25-0.5 dB/km.
6. Information carrying capacity is very large. They are long haul carriers.
7. Laser source is used. Connectors are costly

2) Multimode step index fiber(MMF)

Cladding

Core

Input output
Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1) MMF has a core diameter 50 − 200𝜇𝑚 of uniform RI and cladding diameter

100-250𝜇𝑚 has 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑅𝐼.
2) The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the
diagram.
3) MMF guides light in multi-modes as shown .
4) The V-number is > 2.4.
5) Numerical aperture is 0.2 𝑡𝑜 0.3 .
6) Attenuation is in the range 0.5- 4 dB/km.
7) Information carrying capacity is small to medium and short haul carriers.
8) LED source is used & Connectors are cheap.
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3) Graded index multimode fiber(GRIN)

Cladding

Core

Index profile Cross section profile Modes profile

1. GRIN core diameter = 50 − 200𝜇𝑚 of variable RI and cladding diameter = 100-

250𝜇𝑚
2. The refractive index, cross section and modes profiles are as shown in the
diagram
3. The V-number is > 2.4.
4. Numerical aperture is 0.2 𝑡𝑜 0.3 .
5. Attenuation is in the range 0.5- 4 dB/km.
6. Information carrying capacity is large and efficient and are short haul carriers.
7. Laser/LED source is used. Connectors are cheap.
8. Easy to splice and interconnect but expensive.

Q:Explain point to point communication system using optical fiber.

The schematic block diagram of point to point communication system using

optical fiber is as shown in the diagram.

Input
Information Coder Optical
Audio-video Optical fibre REPEATER
receiver AES BES transmitter carrier
Signal AVS AES Modulator BES OS
[ Receiver
Cum
Transmitter ]
Output Information De-Coder Optical
Optical fibre
Audio-video transmitter BES AES receiver
carrier
Signal AES AVS De- modulator OS BES

Note: AVS =audio/video signal. AES=analog electrical signal,

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BES=binary electrical signal & OS = optical signal.

1. Information receiver-receives , convert input AVS in to AES & fed to coder.

2. Coder- receives, convert AES in to BES and fed in to optical transmitter after
modulating it with carrier signal.
3. Optical transmitter-receives, convert BES in to OS and fed in to carrier optical
fiber.
4. Carrier optical fiber-receive OS and guide it along the fiber. Weakened OS is
fed in to repeater.
4. Re-peater( Receiver cum transmitter)-receives the Weakened OS, restore to
original strength and fed back in to carrier optical fiber again, which in turn
guide OS and fed in to optical receiver.
6. Optical receiver- receive ,convert OS in to BES & fed in to de-coder.
7. De-coder-receive, de-modulate & convert BES in to AES & fed in to
information transmitter.
8. Information transmitter-finally receive, convert AES in to AVS as output

Advantages of Optical Fiber communication system(OFCS):

Merits of point to point Optical Fiber communication system are:

1. Wide bandwidth-the bandwidth of OFCS is very large about 105 GHz

compared to cable communication band width 500MHz.
2. Electrical isolation- OFCS cables are electrically isolated as the optical
fibers are made of insulating glass and plastics.
3. No cross talk- OFCS works on the principle of total internal reflection
as there is no leakage of signal.
4. Economical ,light weight, strong, flexible & small size- optical fibers
used in OFCS are cheap, light weight and small size compared to
conventional system.
5. Immune to electro-magnetic interference- Electrically neutral light
signals in OFCS are unaffected by external electromagnetic waves
due to current/magnetic field/lightning/electrical sparks.
6. High signal security- In OFCS the signals transmitted are highly secured
as the leakage can be easily detectable.
7. Low attenuation / transmission loss-In OFCS the transmission loss of the
signal is about 0.2dB/km.

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Demerits of point to point Optical Fiber communication system:

Optical fibers used in OFCS :

1. are sensitive to temperature changes which leads to loss of
signal.
2. may break easily due to bending or accidents.
3. re- connection of broken Optical fibers is skillful work and
costly.

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