ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE

LEARNING
Course Code 21CS54 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Course Learning Objectives
CLO 1. Gain a historical perspective of AI and its foundations
CLO 2. Become familiar with basic principles of AI toward problem solving
CLO 3. Familiarize with the basics of Machine Learning & Machine Learning process,
basics of Decision Tree, and probability learning
CLO 4. Understand the working of Artificial Neural Networks and basic concepts of
clustering
Algorithms
Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions)

These are sample Strategies, which teachers can use to accelerate the attainment of the
various course outcomes.
1. Lecturer method (L) need not to be only a traditional lecture method, but
alternative effective teaching methods could be adopted to attain the
outcomes.
2. Use of Video/Animation to explain functioning of various concepts.
3. Encourage collaborative (Group Learning) Learning in the class.
4. Ask at least three HOT (Higher order Thinking) questions in the class,
which promotes critical thinking.
5. Adopt Problem Based Learning (PBL), which fosters students’ Analytical
skills, develop design thinking skills such as the ability to design, evaluate,
generalize, and analyze information rather than simply recall it.
6. Introduce Topics in manifold representations.
7. Show the different ways to solve the same problem with different logic and
encourage the students to come up with their own creative ways to solve them.
8. Discuss how every concept can be applied to the real world - and when that's
possible, it
helps improve the students' understanding.
Module-1
Introduction: What is AI? Foundations and History of AI

Problem‐solving: Problem‐solving agents, Example problems, Searching for Solutions,

Uninformed Search Strategies: Breadth First search, Depth First Search,

Textbook 1: Chapter 1- 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Textbook 1: Chapter 3- 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4.1, 3.4.3
Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Active Learning. Problem based learning
Module-2
Informed Search Strategies: Greedy best-first search, A*search, Heuristic functions.
Introduction to Machine Learning , Understanding Data

Textbook 1: Chapter 3 - 3.5, 3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.6

Textbook 2: Chapter 1 and 2
Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Active Learning, Demonstration
Module-3
Basics of Learning
theory Similarity
Based Learning
Regression Analysis
Textbook 2: Chapter 3 - 3.1 to 3.4, Chapter 4, chapter 5.1 to 5.4

Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Problem based learning, Demonstration

Module-4
Decision Tree
learning Bayesian
Learning

Textbook 2: Chapter 6 and 8

Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Problem based learning, Demonstration
Module-5
Artificial neural
Network Clustering
Algorithms

Textbook 2: Chapter 10 and 13

Teaching-Learning Process Chalk and board, Active Learning.
Course Outcomes Course Skill Set)
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
CO 1. Apply the knowledge of searching and reasoning techniques for different
applications.
CO 2. Have a good understanding of machine leaning in relation to other fields and
fundamental issues and challenges of machine learning.
CO 3. Apply the knowledge of classification algorithms on various dataset and
compare results CO 4. Model the neuron and Neural Network, and to analyze ANN
learning and its applications. CO 5. Identifying the suitable clustering algorithm for
different pattern
Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)
The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam
(SEE) is 50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20
marks). A student shall be deemed to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned
the credits allotted to each subject/ course if the student secures not less than 35% (18 Marks
out of 50) in the semester-end examination (SEE), and a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of
100) in the sum total of the CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End
Examination) taken together

Continuous Internal Evaluation:

Three Unit Tests each of 20 Marks (duration 01 hour)

1. First test at the end of 5th week of the semester

2. Second test at the end of the 10th week of the semester
3. Third test at the end of the 15th week of the
semester Two assignments each of 10 Marks

4. First assignment at the end of 4th week of the semester

5. Second assignment at the end of 9th week of the semester
Group discussion/Seminar/quiz any one of three suitably planned to attain the COs and
POs for 20 Marks (duration 01 hours) OR Suitable Programming experiments based on
the syllabus contents can be given to the students to submit the same as laboratory work(
for example; Implementation of concept learning, implementation of decision tree learning
algorithm for suitable data set, etc…)

6. At the end of the 13th week of the semester

The sum of three tests, two assignments, and quiz/seminar/group discussion will be out of
100 marks and will be scaled down to 50 marks
 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
(to have less stressed CIE, the portion of the syllabus should not be common /repeated
for any of the methods of the CIE. Each method of CIE should have a different syllabus
portion of the course).

CIE methods /question paper has to be designed to attain the different levels of
Bloom’s taxonomy as per the outcome defined for the course.
Semester End Examination:
Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with
common question papers for the subject (duration 03 hours)
1.
The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
Marks scored shall be proportionally reduced to 50 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a
module (with a maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under
that module.
The students have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module
Suggested Learning Resources:
Textbooks
1. Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 3rd Edition, Pearson,2015
2. S. Sridhar, M Vijayalakshmi “Machine Learning”. Oxford ,2021
Reference:
1. Elaine Rich, Kevin Knight, Artificial Intelligence, 3rdedition, Tata McGraw
Hill,2013
2. George F Lugar, Artificial Intelligence Structure and strategies for complex,
Pearson Education, 5th Edition, 2011
3. Tom Michel, Machine Learning, McGrawHill Publication.
Weblinks and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
1. https://www.kdnuggets.com/2019/11/10-free-must-read-books-ai.html
2. https://www.udacity.com/course/knowledge-based-ai-cognitive-systems-
-ud409 3. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/105/106105077/
4. https://www.javatpoint.com/history-of-artificial-intelligence
5. https://www.tutorialandexample.com/problem-solving-in-artificial-intelligence
6. https://techvidvan.com/tutorials/ai-heuristic-search/
7. https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/machine-learning/
8. https://www.javatpoint.com/decision-tree-induction
9. https://www.hackerearth.com/practice/machine-learning/machine-learning-
algorithms/ml- decision-tree/tutorial/
10. https://www.javatpoint.com/unsupervised-artificial-neural-networks
Activity Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning

Role play for strategies– DFS & BFS, Outlier detection in Banking and insurance transaction
for identifying fraudulent behaviour etc. Uncertainty and reasoning Problem- reliability of
sensor used to detect pedestrians using Bayes Rule

pg. 4 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Contents
Module -1 ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.Introduction............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Why AI? .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Reasons behind why learn AI: ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1. What is AI? ................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.2.The foundations of artificial intelligence ........................................................................................ 11
1.1.3. History of AI... ................................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.5. Example problems ........................................................................................................................... 18
1.1.6. Searching for solutions................................................................................................................... 24
1.1.8. Breadth-first search(BFS):........................................................................................................... 29
1.1.9. Depth First Search(DFS): ............................................................................................................. 31
Question Bank : .................................................................................................................................................... 34

pg. 5 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Module -1
Introduction: What is AI? Foundations and History of AI

Problem‐solving: Problem‐solving agents, E

xample problems, Searching for Solutions, Uninformed Search Strategies: Breadth First
search, Depth First Search,

Textbook 1: Chapter 1- 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Textbook 1: Chapter 3- 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4.1, 3.4.3

1.1.Introduction

Why AI?

Artificial intelligence (AI) makes it possible for machines to learn from experience, adjust to
new inputs and perform human-like tasks.
Most AI examples
Chess-playing computers(Garry Kasparov-IBM-DEEP BLUE) to self-driving cars(TESLA)
– rely heavily on deep learning and natural language processing.
 Using these technologies,
 computers can be trained to accomplish specific tasks by
processing large amounts of data and recognizing patterns in the
data.
Reasons behind why learn AI:
1. Bright career- Decent Salary -work as a Machine Learning Engineer, Data Scientist,
Business Intelligence Developer, Research Engineer
2. AI is versatile- It is applicable to any industry-healthcare, automobile, and even
banking and finance sector
for example, PathAI, which is a technology that will assist pathologists in reducinge rror
rates in cancer diagnosis
1. Skill of the century-create many and different job opportunities in related fields.
2. Ingests huge amounts of data-Humans generate more than 2.5 quintillion bytes of data
every day. machines and AI-enabled systems that are able to handle this big data.
1. The information regarding the AADHAR Cards of Indian citizens can
be an example of big data.
2. The posts that we like, view, share, or comment on Facebook are also
an example of big data.
AI has enabled programs to analyze trends in these data and act accordingly.
8. AI improvises user experience-
AI is not a technology that requires a separate app or device. It is adding intelligence to the
products we are using regularly in our lives.
 A combination of different types of AI technologies like chatbots, automation,
virtual assistants like Google assistant is helping improve user experience by
adding multiple useful features to a previously existing product.
 Siri, the voice assistant that Apple provides specifically for iPhone and iPad
users

pg. 6 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

The field of artificial intelligence, or AI, goes further still: it attempts not just to understand but
also to build intelligent entities.AI is one of the newest sciences. Work started in earnest soon
after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956.Along with molecular biology, AI
is regularly cited as the "field I would most like to be in" by scientists in other disciplines.
A student in physics might reasonably feel that all the good ideas have already been taken by
Galileo, Newton, Einstein, and the rest. AI, on the other hand, still has openings for several
full-time Einsteins.AI systematizes and automates intellectual tasks and is therefore potentially
relevant to any sphere of human intellectual activity. In this sense, it is truly a universal field.

Definition:

(1)Define
Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
Agent
Rationality
Logical reasoning

(a)Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability to think, learn and act according to a situation and
the environment. It is a process of applying knowledge. It can also be defined as the ability to
adapt to the changes in the environment.

(b)Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence is the study of making computers as act

intelligently like humans. It is the capability of a system to perform the functions similar to a
human.

(c)Agent: An agent is something that acts. The word ‘agent’ came from the Latin word “agree”,
which means, to do. An agent acts on behalf of a person. It is an entity that acts in response to
the environmental issues.

(d)Rationality: Rationality means doing the right thing, given what it knows. A rational
approach involves a combination of mathematics and engineering.
(e)Logical reasoning: It is the way of thinking and taking decisions derived from the
conclusions and inferences.

(2)What do you understand by Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial intelligence is computer science technology that emphasizes creating intelligent

machine that can mimic human behavior. Here intelligent machines can be defined as the
machine that can behave like a human, think like a human, and also capable of decision making.
It is made up of two words, "Artificial" and "Intelligence," which means the "man-made
thinking ability."
With artificial intelligence, we do not need to pre-program the machine to perform a task;
instead, we can create a machine with the programmed algorithms, and it can work on its own.

(3) Why do we need Artificial Intelligence?

The goal of Artificial intelligence is to create intelligent machines that can mimic human

pg. 7 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
behavior. We need AI for today's world to solve complex problems, make our lives more
smoothly by automating the routine work, saving the manpower, and to perform many more
other tasks.

1.1.1. What is AI?

(4)What Is Artificial Intelligence and Explain ?

“AI is the study of complex information processing problems that often have their roots in
some aspect of biological information processing. The goal of the subject is to identify
solvable and interesting information processing problems, and solve them.” -- David Marr

• The intelligent connection of perception to action

“The art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence when
performed by people” (Kurzweil,1990).
“The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent
behaviour.” (Luger and Stublefield,1993)

Thinking Humanly Thinking Rationally

• “The exciting new effort to make computers think • “The study of mental faculties through
. . . machines with minds, in the full and literal theuse of computational models.”
sense.” (Haugeland, 1985) (Charniak and McDermott, 1985)
• “[The automation of] activities that we associate • “The study of the computations that
with human thinking, activities such as decision- makeit possible to perceive, reason, and
making, problem solving, learning ” (Bellman, act.”(Winston, 1992)
1978)

Acting Humanly Acting Rationally

• “The art of creating machines that perform • “Computational Intelligence is the

functions that require intelligence when studyof the design of intelligent agents.”
performed by people.” (Kurzweil,1990) (Pooleet al., 1998)

• “The study of how to make computers do things • “AI . . . is concerned with intelligent
at which, at the moment, people are better.” (Rich behavior in artifacts.” (Nilsson, 1998)
and Knight, 1991)

The definitions on the top, (a) and (b) are concerned with thought process and reasoning, whereas
those on the bottom, (c) and (d) address behaviour. The definitions on the left, (a) and (c) measure
success in terms of human performance, and those on the right, (b) and (d) measure the ideal concept
of intelligence called rationality(maths and engineering)

Views of AI fall into four categories:

pg. 8 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Eight definitions of AI, laid out along two dimensions

(a) (a) and (b) are concerned with thought process and reasoning
(b) (c) and (d) address behaviour.
(c) (a) and (c) measure success in terms of human performance
(d) (b) and (d) measure the ideal concept of intelligence called rationality( maths and
engineering
A system is rational if it does the “right thing,” given what it knows.

I Thinking humanly: The Cognitive modeling approach

The cognitive modeling approach under "thinking humanly" involves creating explicit,
computer-based models that simulate human thought processes, such as problem-solving or
decision-making.
An example of a cognitive modeling approach is the development of expert systems in
artificial intelligence
 CaDet (Cancer Decision Support Tool) is used to identify cancer in its earliest stages.

II Acting humanly: The Turing Test approach

(5) Give a brief introduction to the Turing test in AI?

 Turing test is one of the popular intelligence tests in Artificial intelligence.

 The Turing test was introduced by Alan Turing in the year 1950.
 It is a test to determine that if a machine can think like a human or not.
 According to this test, a computer can only be said to be intelligent if it can mimic
human responses under some particular conditions.
 This test is that verbal behavior is sufficient to determine whether an agent is intelligent
enough.

Turing test process involves

 In the test, a human interrogator interacts with two players, A and B, by exchanging written
messages (in a chat).
 If the interrogator cannot determine which player, A or B, is a computer and which is a
human, the computer is said to pass the test.
 The argument is that if a computer is indistinguishable from a human

pg. 9 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

The computer would need to possess the following capabilities to do Turing Test:

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING • natural language processing to enable it to

communicate successfully in English;
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION • knowledge representation to store what it knows or
hears;
AUTOMATED REASONING• automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer
questions and to draw new conclusions;
MACHINE LEARNING • machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and
extrapolate patterns.

Total Turing test

 The Total Turing Test takes this a step further by including not just the ability to engage
in natural language conversation but also other human abilities,
 such as vision, hearing, and manual skill in performing tasks
 In essence, the Total Turing Test seeks to evaluate a machine's overall capability to
perform any intellectual task that a human can, including perception(taking data from
cameras) and physical actions.
 So it requires
 COMPUTER VISION • computer vision to perceive objects(image processing,
object detections)
 ROBOTICS • robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

(6) What is the use of computer vision in AI?

Computer vision is a field of Artificial Intelligence that is used to train the computers so that they can

pg. 10 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
interpret and obtain information from the visual world such as images. Hence, computer vision uses
AI technology to solve complex problems such as image processing, object detections, etc.

✓ Major components of AI:

knowledge, reasoning, language understanding, learning, computer vision & Robotics.

Problem: Turing test is not reproducible, constructive, or amenable to mathematical analysis.

III Thinking rationally : The “laws of thought” approach

The "Laws of Thought" are fundamental principles in classical logic that help guide rational thinking
and reasoning.

“Ganesh is a man; all men are mortal; therefore, Ganesh is mortal.”

IV Acting rationally : The rational agent approach

A rational agent is one that takes actions to maximize the expected outcome based on its knowledge
and goals.

Computer Program :
 Code that we have written in the dark is executed by a conventional
computer software.
 It is not acting on its own; rather, it is changing in response to the
outcomes.
Agent Program
 A so-called agent program is supposed to function significantly better
than traditional computer programs.
 Its predicted behaviors include setting out and achieving goals, changing
into a new stage of being, and functioning on its own.

Here's a simple example to illustrate the rational agent approach:

Example: Chess-Playing Agent

Imagine a computer program designed to play chess. In this context, a rational agent is one that makes
moves to maximize its chances of winning the game. The agent needs to consider the current state of
the chessboard, its own pieces, the opponent's pieces, and the rules of the game to make a rational
decision at each turn.

1.1.2.The foundations of artificial intelligence

(7)Could you briefly describe the artificial intelligence foundation?

The foundation provides the disciplines that contributed ideas, view points and techniques to
Al
1. Philosophy
2. Mathematics & Statistics
3. Economics

pg. 11 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
4. Neuroscience
5. Psychology
6. Computer Science and Engineering
7. Control Theory and Cybernetics
8. Linguistics

Philosophy:
1. Philosophy is the very basic foundation of Al.
2. One important aspect of artificial intelligence is the study of the underlying nature of
reality, existence, and knowledge as they relate to addressing a particular problem..
3. Philosophy defines that how can the formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions.
• With out philosophy it is difficult to answer the following questions.
 In what way does a physical brain give rise to intellect?
 Where does the knowledge come from?
 How does the knowledge lead to action?

Mathematics(B.C 800-present):

 Al required Formal Logic and Probability for planning and learning.

 Computation required for analyzing relation and implementation .
 Knowledge in Formal Representation are most required for writing actions for agents.
 In Al,the Mathematics & Statistics are most important for
 Proving theorems,
 Writing algorithms,
 Computation,
 Decidability,
 Tractability,
 Modeling uncertainty,
 Learning from data
 What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
 What can be computed?
 How do we reason with uncertain information?

Economics (1776-present):
Deals with investing the amount of money and Maximization of utility with minimal
investment .
• While developing an Al product, we should make decisions for
• When to invest?
• How to invest?
• How much to invest?
• Where to invest?
 To answer these questions one should have knowledge about Decision Theory, Game
Theory, Operation Research etc

Neuroscience (1861-present):

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system particularly the human brain.
 Human brains are somehow different, when compared to other creatures, man has the

pg. 12 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
largest brain in proportion to his size.
 Since neurons, or nerve cells make up the majority of the brain, understanding a
single neuron can provide information about thinking, acting, and brain
consciousness.
 How do brains process information?

 Neurons, also known as nerve cells, send and receive signals from brain.
 Specialized projections called axons allow neurons to transmit electrical and chemical
signals to other cells.
 Neurons can also receive these signals via root like extensions known as dendrites.
 Synapses connect neurons in the brain to neurons in the rest of the body and from
those neurons to the muscles

➢ NOTE :Moore’s Law predicts that the CPU’s gate count will equal the brain’s
neuron count around 2020.

Psychology (1879-present):
The scientific method to the study of human vision.
 Problem-solving abilities: how can people make decisions in complex
situations?
 What are people's actions in unexpected circumstances?
 Perceive: How do you look around you to solve problems?
 Process cognitive information to represent knowledge.
How do humans and animals think and act?

Computer Science & Engineering (1940-present):

1. Important areas of computer science include algorithms, programming languages, logic

and inference theory, and software system development.
2. Modern programming tools, operating systems, and programming languages were
provided by the software branch of computer science.
3. Al has founded many ideas in modern and mainstream computer science including
4. Time sharing, Interactive Interpreters, Personal computers with windows, rapid
development environments, the linked-list data type, automatic storage management
5. key concepts of symbolic, functional, declarative and object oriented programming
6. Every 100 days, the amount of CPU power used to train the best machine learning
applications doubles.

pg. 13 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
The Super computers and quantum computers can solve very complicated Al problems
Computer hardware gradually changed for Al applications, such as the graphics processing unit
(GPU), tensor processing unit (TPU),and wafer scale engine (WSE)
1. How can we build fast and efficient computer?

Control theory and Cybernetics (1948-present):

• Control theory helps the system to analyze, define, debug and fix errors by itself.
• Developing self-controlling machine, self-regulating feedback control systems and the
submarine are some examples of control theory
• The basis of Algebra is calculus, matrix algebra are the tool of control theory methods that
apply to systems that may be described by fixed sets of continuous variables.– to build
robot
• Knowledge representation, grammars, computational linguistics or natural language
processing ( N LP) are significant to developing Al applications.
• Agent programming uses the language, vision, and symbolic planning of computation and
logical inference as its instruments.

How can artifacts(model-output created by training process) operate under their own control?

Linguistics:
• Speech recognition is a technology which enables a machine to understand the spoken
language and translate into a machine readable format.
• It is a way to talk with a computer and on the basis of that command, a computer can
perform a specific task.
• It includes Speech to Text, Text to Speech.

How does language relate to thought?

1.1.3. History of AI...

(8)Give a brief overview of AI history

The Gestation of AI(1945–1955):

o In the early 1950s, Turing published a paper called “can a machine think?”.
o In 1943, McCulloch and Pitts implemented a neural model as the very first intelligent
program.
The birth of artificial intelligence (1956):

o MacCarthy said that intelligent machines need a separate discipline and he named it
Artificial intelligence.
o According to MacCarthy’s definition, AI is the science and engineering of building
intelligent machines.

Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952–1969):

pg. 14 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
o Logic-based intelligence programs were implemented under symbolic AI such as problem
solvers, game players, and theorem provers.
o Minsky criticized the neural network and because of that, there was no development
related to the neural network until 1986
Other reasons
 Since AI research was funded by the military, all the details were kept as
secrets. General people didn't know.
 Power and technology both are in hands of AI machines. So, people were
afraid of that.
 At that time AI was not a science

Knowledge-based systems(1969–1974):

o Model the knowledge for developing intelligent machine.

o Expert systems, Natural language processing, game players, and problem solvers are
knowledge-intensive systems.
AI become an industry(1980-present):
 It has taken more than 25 years to gain recognition from the industry.
 Xcon was the very first industrial application of AI. The neural network was
reborn with a backpropagation training algorithm.
The best example of that is the DART expert system which is used in the gulf war.

AI becomes a science(1995-):
o After the 1980s AI also adopted scientific methods that are experimental explanations for
theories. Being a science AI won a big recognition.

Large datasets, 2001–present:

o Throughout the 60-year history of computer science, the emphasis has been on the
algorithm as the main subject of study.
o But some recent work in AI suggests that for many problems, it makes more sense to
worry about the data and be less picky about what algorithm to apply.

Summary of foundation :
1. Philosophers (going back to 400 B.C.) made AI conceivable by considering the ideas that the
mind is in some ways like a machine, that it operates on knowledge encoded in some internal
language, and that thought can be used to choose what actions to take.

2. Mathematicians provided the tools to manipulate statements of logical certainty as well as

uncertain, probabilistic statements. They also set the groundwork for understanding
computation and reasoning about algorithms.

3. Economists formalized the problem of making decisions that maximize the expected outcome
to the decision maker.

4. Neuroscientists discovered some facts about how the brain works and the ways in which
it is similar to and different from computers.

5. Psychologists adopted the idea that humans and animals can be considered information
processing machines. Linguists showed that language use fits into this model.

6. Computer engineers provided the ever-more-powerful machines that make AI applications

pg. 15 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
possible.

7. Control theory deals with designing devices that act optimally on the basis of feedback from
the environment. Initially, the mathematical tools of control theory were quite different from
AI, but the fields are coming closer together.

Intelligent agent:

What is the intelligent agent in AI, and where are they used?
The intelligent agent can be any autonomous entity that perceives its environment through the sensors
and act on it using the actuators for achieving its goal.

These Intelligent agents in AI are used in the following applications:

1. Information Access and Navigations such as Search Engine

2. Repetitive Activities
3. Domain Experts
4. Chatbots, etc.

Goal-based agent:
A goal-based agent is an artificial intelligence agent that responds to its environment and
adjusts accordingly to achieve a goal
Example:
Google's Waymo driverless cars are good examples of a goal-based agent when they are
programmed with an end destination, or goal in mind

1.1.4. PROBLEM-SOLVING AGENTS:

 A Problem solving agent is a goal-based agent .It decide what to do by finding sequence
of actions that lead to desirable states.
 The agent can adopt a goal and aim at satisfying it

(9) . Define :
1. Goal formation . 2.Problem formulation 3.Search 4. Execution Phase or The
problem solving agent follows this four phase problem solving process:

(13) Explain the steps involved in AI problem solving by agents.?

Goal Formulation: This is the first and most basic phase in problem solving. It arranges
specific steps to establish a target/goal that demands some activity to reach it. AI agents are
now used to formulate goals.
Problem formulation: The process of selecting what actions and states to consider given a
goal is known as problem formulation.

pg. 16 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
Search :The process SEARCH of looking for a sequence of actions that reaches the goal is
called search. A search algorithm takes a problem as input and returns a solution in the form
of an action sequence. and the sequence is called a solution.
Execution Phase: Once a solution is found, the actions it recommends can be carried out. This
EXECUTION is called the execution phase.
“formulate, search, execute” are the design for the agent

EXAMPLE-Route finding problem- Arab TO Bucharest

1. Formulate goal: be in Bucharest

2. Formulate problem:
• States: set of various cities
• Actions: drive between cities(sequence of action)
• Goal test:goal state (Bucharest)
• Path cost: number of steps in the path.
• Find solution(USING SEARCH ALOGRITHM): sequence of cities
e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest
3. Execute phase : Once a solution is found, the execution phase consists of carrying out the
recommended action..

“formulate, search, execute” are the design for the agent

A problem can be well defined formally by five components:

1)A start or initial state(arab)

2) A description of actions available to an agent(In(Arad), the applicable
actions are {Go(Sibiu), Go(Timisoara), Go(Zerind)}
3) A description of what each action does, also called a transition model
(RESULT(In(Arad),Go(Zerind)) = In(Zerind) .
4) A goal test - which determines whether a given state is a goal state.(The agent’s goal in
Romania is the singleton set {In(Bucharest )}.)
5) Path cost - function that assigns a numeric cost to each path.

Define : State Space, Path, Solution

pg. 17 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
1. A State Space Together, the initial state, actions and transition model define a state
space. The state space forms a directed network or graph in which the nodes are states
and the links between nodes are actions. The set of all states reachable from the initial
state by any sequence of actions
Example:
The state space is typically a graph.(map of Romania)
2. A path in the state space is a sequence of states connected by a sequence of actions.
3. A solution to a problem is an action sequence that leads from the initial state to a goal
state

..

(14) Write an algorithm explaining how the agent solved the problem.

1.1.5. Example problems

pg. 18 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
(16) Give a complete problem formulation for each of the following problems.
1. Vaccum world
2. The 8-puzzle
3. 8 Queen Problem
4. Airline Travel problem
5. On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad. Flight leaves tomorrow from
Bucharest. Find a short route to drive to Bucharest

Difference between toy vs real world problem with example

Toy vs Real World problems…

1. A toy problem is intended to demonstrate or practice various problem-solving
techniques. It can be described in detail. This means that it may be simply utilized by
different academics to compare the performance of algorithms.
2. A real-world problem is one whose solutions are actually interesting to people; these
difficulties frequently lack a single, universally recognized explanation, but we will
attempt to convey the essence of their formulations..

(1)Toy Problems:

Example 1: Vaccum world

There are two dirty square blocks and we need to clean these dirty square blocks by using
vacuum cleaner(robot agent).
Percepts : Location and Dirt
Possible actions for Vacuum cleaner
• Move Left (L)
• Move Right (R)
• Suck (S)

This can be formulated as a problem as follows:

State: The state is determined by both the agent location and the dirt locations.
The agent is in one of the two locations, each of which might or might not contain dirt.
1. Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state.
2. Successor function: This generates the legal states that result from trying the three
actions (left, right and suck).
3. The complete state space is shown in figure below. A larger environment with n
locations has n X 2n states.
4. Goal test: This checks whether all the squares are clean.
5. Path cost: Each step costs 1, so the path cost, is the number of step in the path.

pg. 19 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

This toy problem has discrete locations, discrete dirt, reliable cleaning and it never gets
messed up once cleaned.

Example 2:The 8-puzzle:

The problem formulation is as follows :

1. States: A state description specifies the location of each of the eight tiles(1 to 8) and
the blank in one of the nine squares.( 3* 3 board)
2. Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state. Note that any given goal
can be reached from exactly half of the possible initial states
3. Actions: The simplest formulation defines the actions as movements of the blank space
Left, Right, Up, or Down. Different subsets of these are possible depending on where
the blank is.
4. Transition model: Given a state and action, this returns the resulting state.
5. for example,
a. if we apply Left to the start state in Figure 3.4, the resulting state has the 5 and
the blank switched.
6. Goal test: This checks whether the state matches the goal configuration shown in

pg. 20 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
Figure(Other goal configurations are possible.)
7. Path cost: Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the number of steps in the path.
 The 8-puzzle belongs to the family SLIDING-BLOCK of sliding-block puzzles, which are
often used as PUZZLES test problems for new search algorithms in AI
 The 8-puzzle has 9!/2=181, 440 reachable states and is easily solved.

Example 3: 8 Queen Problem:

✓ The goal of 8-queens problem is to place 8 queens on the chessboard such that no queen
attacks any other.(A queen attacks any piece in the same row, column or diagonal).

1. An Incremental formulation involves operators that augments the state description,

starting with an empty state for 8-queens problem, this means each action adds a queen
to the state.
2. A complete-state formulation starts with all 8 queens on the board and move them
around.
In either case the path cost is of no interest because only the final state counts.

The first incremental formulation one might try is the following :

i The goal of the 8-queens problem is to place eight queens on a chess board such that no queen
attacks any other. (A queen attacks any piece in the same row, column or diagonal.)
 States: Any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on the board is a state.
 Initial state: No queens on the board.
 Actions: Add a queen to any empty square.
 Transition model: Returns the board with a queen added to the specified square.
 Goal test: 8 queens are on the board, none attacked.

A solution to the 8-queens problem, presented as [5, 1, 8, 4, 2, 7, 3, 6].

.

Successor Function : Add a queen to any square in the left most empty column such that it is
not attacked by any other queen.
This formulation reduces the 8-queens state space from 1.8×1014 to just 2,057, and solutions are easy to
find.

pg. 21 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
(2) Real-world Problems:

i. Route finding problem

Airline Travel problem
ii Touring problems
Travelling salesperson problem
v VLSI Layout
vi. ROBOT Navigation
vii. Automatic Assembly problem
ix Internet searching

Route-Finding Problem :

Route-Finding Problem is defined in terms of specified locations and transitions along links
between them.
 Route-finding algorithms are used in a variety of applications.
 Some, such as Web sites and in-car systems that provide driving directions.
 Others, such as routing video streams in computer networks, military operations
planning, and airline travel planning systems, involve much more complex
specifications.

Example :
Example: Route finding problem-
Problem: On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad. Flight leaves tomorrow from Bucharest.
Find a short route to drive to Bucharest.
Referring to figure - On holiday in Romania : currently in Arad. Flight leaves tomorrow from
Bucharest

Formulate goal: be in Bucharest

Formulate problem:
States: various cities
Actions: drive between cities
Find solution: sequence of cities, e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest

Consider the airline travel problems that must be solved by a travel-planning Web site:

pg. 22 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

States: Obviously, each state comprises a place (for example, an airport) and the current time.
Furthermore -fare bases ,whether the journey is domestic or international etc
Initial state: This is specified by the user’s query.
Action: Take any flight from your current location, in any seat class, departing after the current
time, with adequate time for a within-airport transfer if necessary.
Transition model: The state resulting from taking a flight will include the destination of the
flight as the current location and the arrival time of the flight as the current time.
Goal test: Are we at the final destination specified by the user?
Path cost: This depends on monetary cost, waiting time, flight time, customs and immigration
procedures, seat quality, time of day, type of airplane, frequent-flyer mileage awards, and so
on.

Touring problems :

Touring problems are closely related to route-finding problems, but with an important
difference.
Consider, for example, the problem “Visit every city at least once, starting and ending in
Bucharest”.
Example:
The state space, however, is quite different. Each state must include not just the current location
but also the set of cities the agent has visited.
 Initial state: would be In(Bucharest ), Visited({Bucharest})
 Intermediate state would be
 In(Vaslui ), Visited({Bucharest , Urziceni , Vaslui})
 Goal test: would check whether the agent is in Bucharest and all 20 cities have been
visited

(ii) Traveling Salesperson Problem (TSP) :

The traveling salesperson problem (TSP) is a touring problem in which each city must be
visited exactly once.
▪ The aim is to find the shortest tour.
The problem is known to be NP-hard, but an enormous amount of effort has been expended to
improve the capabilities of TSP algorithms.

(iv) VLSI layout problem :

A VLSI layout problem requires positioning millions of components and connections on a

chip to minimize area, minimize circuit delays, minimize stray capacitances, and maximize
manufacturing yield.
▪ The layout problem comes after the logical design phase and is usually split into two parts:
 Cell layout
 Channel routing.

Cell layout :
▪ In cell layout, the primitive components of the circuit are grouped into cells, each of
which performs some recognized function.
Channel routing :
▪ Channel routing finds a specific route for each wire through the gaps between the

pg. 23 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
cells.

(v) Robot Navigation :

▪ Robot navigation is a generalization of the route-finding problem described earlier.

▪ Rather than following a discrete set of routes, a robot can move in a continuous space with
(in principle) an infinite set of possible actions and states.
▪ For a circular robot moving on a flat surface, the space is essentially two-dimensional.

1.1.6. Searching for solutions

The concept of State Space
State space = {all possible configuration(states)}

Example-Vacuum world Arab to Bucharest 8 puzzle

L RS– city to city UP DOWN L R

Searching for solutions-

Solution is an action sequence. So Search Algorithms work by considering various possible
action sequences. Possible action sequences starting at the initial state form a search tree
with
 the initial state NODE at the root
 the branches are actions and
 the nodes correspond to states in the state space of the problem
The essence of search—following up one option now and putting the others aside for later, in
case the first choice does not lead to a solution.

Example :

pg. 24 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
Example –searching for solution
First few steps in growing the search tree for finding a route from Arad to Bucharest shown
in figure.

The root node of the tree corresponds to the initial state, In(Arad).
The first step is to test whether this is a goal state.Then we need to consider taking various
actions.
 We do this by expanding the current state.
 ie, GENERATING applying each legal action to the current state, thereby
generating a new set of states(transition Model)
 we add three branches from the parent node In(Arad) leading to three new child
nodes:
In(Sibiu), In(Timisoara), and In(Zerind).
 Now we must choose which of these three possibilities to consider further.

Suppose we choose Sibiu first.

 We check to see whether it is a goal state (it is not) and then expand it to get
In(Arad),In(Fagaras), In(Oradea), and In(RimnicuVilcea).
 We can then choose any of these four or go LEAF NODE back and choose Timisoara
or Zerind.Each of these six nodes is a leaf node,that is, a node with no children in the
tree.
 The set of all leaf nodes available for expansion at any given FRONTIER point is
called the frontier.tree consists of those nodes with bold outlines.

Problem Solving Using Search - Tree Search, Graph Search

(18)Explain general tree search and graph search algorithms

Tree-Search algorithm :

pg. 25 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

1. The path from Arad to Sibiu and back to Arad again! We say that In(Arad) is a
repeated state in the search tree, generated in this case by a loopy path. Considering
such loopy paths means that the complete search tree for Romania is infinite
2. Loops can cause certain algorithms to fail, making otherwise solvable problems
unsolvable

Graph search:

To avoid loopy path:

 TREE-SEARCH algorithm with a data structure called the explored set (also
CLOSED LIST known as the closed list), which remembers every expanded node.
 Newly generated nodes that match previously generated nodes—ones in the
explored set or the frontier—can be discarded instead of being added to the
frontier

pg. 26 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Data structure to keep a track of search tree

(20) Describe the search tree's structure.

Search algorithms require a data structure to keep track of the search tree that is being
constructed.
For each node n of the tree, we have a structure that contains four components:
• n.STATE: the state in the state space to which the node corresponds;
• n.PARENT: the node in the search tree that generated this node;
• n.ACTION: the action that was applied to the parent to generate the node;
• n.PATH-COST: the cost, traditionally denoted by g(n), of the path from the initial state to
the node, as indicated by the parent pointers.

Difference between Node and State

 A node is a bookkeeping data structure used to represent the search tree.

 A state corresponds to a configuration of the world.
 Thus, nodes are on particular paths, as defined by PARENT pointers, whereas states
are not.
 Furthermore, two different nodes can contain the same world state if that state is
generated via two different search paths.

Queue Data structure

The operations on a queue are as follows:

 EMPTY?(queue) returns true only if there are no more elements in the queue.
 POP(queue) removes the first element of the queue and returns it.
 INSERT(element, queue) inserts an element and returns the resulting queue.
 Queues are characterized by the order in which they store the inserted nodes.
Three common variants are
 the first-in, first-out or FIFO queue, which pops the oldest element of the queue;
 The last-in, first-out or LIFO queue (also known as a stack), which pops the newest
element of the queue;

pg. 27 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
 the priority queue, which pops the element of the queue with the highest priority
according to some ordering function

(ii)Measuring problem-solving performance:

Before we get into the design of specific search algorithms, we need to consider the criteria
that might be used to choose among them.

(21) How is the performance of a search algorithm/ search strategy

measured/evaluated?

(22)What is meant by search algorithm completeness?

We can evaluate an algorithm’s performance in four ways:

 COMPLETENESS : Is the algorithm guaranteed to find a solution when there is one?

 OPTIMALITY : Does the strategy find the optimal solution?
 TIME COMPLEXITY: How long does it take to find a solution?
 SPACE COMPLEXITY : How much memory is needed to perform the search?
 For Time and space complexity typical measure is the size of the state space graph, |V
| + |E|, where V is the set of vertices (nodes) of the graph and E is the set of edges
(links).

1.1.7. UNINFORMED SEARCH STRATEGIES-(also called blind search).

(23)What is the Uninformed Search?

Uninformed Search Strategies have no additional information about states beyond that
provided in the problem definition.

(24)Types of Uninformed Search Algorithms and explain BFS & DFS algorithm?
There are six uninformed search strategies as given below:
i. Breadth-first search
ii. Uniform-cost search

pg. 28 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
iii. Depth-first search
iv. Depth-limited search
v. Iterative deepening search
vi. Bi-directional search

1.1.8. Breadth-first search(BFS):

(25) Explain BFS algorithm with example?

 Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph.
This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first
search.
 BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor
node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
 The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
 Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
Advantages:
 BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
 If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide the
minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
Disadvantages:
 It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to
expand the next level.
 BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

BFS Algorithm…

Example for BFS Algorithm…

pg. 29 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Example-2
S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K

Properties of BFS(Measuring algorithm performance)

Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of
nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest solution
and b is a node at every state.
T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)
Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of
frontier which is O(bd).
Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some finite
depth, then BFS will find a solution.
Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the node

pg. 30 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

(26) Explain DFS algorithm with example?

1.1.9. Depth First Search(DFS):

 Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
 It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each path to
its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
 DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
 The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
Advantage:
 DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path from
root node to the current node.
 It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right
path).
Disadvantage:
 There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of
finding the solution.
 DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.

Implementation:
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front.

pg. 31 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54

Example-2
 In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow
the order as:
Root node--->Left node ----> right node.
 It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after

pg. 32 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is
not found.
 Backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will terminate as it found
goal node.

Properties of DFS(Measuring algorithm performance)

 Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will expand
every node within a limited search tree.
 Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by the
algorithm. It is given by:
T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)
Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d (Shallowest
solution depth)
 Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node, hence
space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).
Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of steps or
high cost to reach to the goal node

(27) What are the advantages of breadth-first search (BFS) over depth-first search (DFS)?
BFS is complete and optimal, while DFS is not guaranteed to halt when there are loops.

(28) What are the differences between BFS and DFS?

The following are the important differences between BFS and DFS −
Key BFS DFS

BFS stands for Breadth First DFS stands for Depth First Search.
Definition
Search.

Data BFS uses a Queue to find the DFS uses a Stack to find the shortest path.
structure shortest path.

pg. 33 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
BFS is better when target is DFS is better when target is far from
Source closer to Source. source.

As BFS considers all DFS is more suitable for decision tree. As

Suitability for neighbor so it is not suitable with one decision, we need to traverse
decision tree for decision tree used in further to augment the decision. If we
puzzle games. reach the conclusion, we won.

Speed BFS is slower than DFS. DFS is faster than BFS.

Time Complexity of BFS = Time Complexity of DFS is also O(V+E)

Time
O(V+E) where V is vertices where V is vertices and E is edges.
Complexity
and E is edges.

BFS requires more memory DFS requires less memory space.

Memory
space.

Tapping in In BFS, there is no problem In DFS, we may be trapped into infinite

loops of trapping into finite loops. loops.

BFS is implemented using DFS is implemented using LIFO (Last In

Principle FIFO (First In First Out) First Out) principle.
principle.

Question Bank :
1. What is AI? What are the views of 4 categories of AI definition?
2. What is cognitive modeling approach ?
3. What is Turing test ?Explain process involve in Turing test? What are the Capabilities
require for computer to do total Turing test?
4. Explain foundation of artificial intelligence.
5. Brief about history of artificial intelligence.
6. Explain the steps involved in AI problem solving by agents with example
7. Explain Well defined problems components.
8. Define :
1. Intelligence agent
2. Goal based agent
3. Problem solving agent
4. Goal formation .
5. Problem formulation
6. Search
7. Execution Phase
8. State space
9. Path cost
10. Solution
9. Write algorithm for solving problem by problem solving agent.
10. Mention the Difference between toys and real world problems.
11. Give a complete problem formulation for each of the following problems.
1. Vacuum world
2. The 8-puzzle

pg. 34 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)

 Artificial Intelligent and Machine Learning 21CS54
3. 8 Queen Problem
4. Airline Travel problem
5. On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad. Flight leaves tomorrow from
Bucharest. Find a short route to drive to Bucharest
12. Explain general tree search and graph search algorithms
13. How is the performance of a search algorithm measured/evaluated?
14. Describe the Search Tree's Data structure.
15. Mention Difference between node and state
16. What is the Uninformed Search?
17. Types of Uninformed Search Algorithms and explain DFS algorithm?
18. Explain BFS algorithm with example?
19. Explain DFS algorithm with example?
20. What are the advantages of breadth-first search (BFS) over depth-first search (DFS)?
21. What is the advantage of DFS over BFS?

pg. 35 HKBKCE Prepared by Dr.Pushpa Mohan(Prof)