See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/321100080

Structural concrete based on alkali‐activated binders: Terminology, reaction

mechanisms, mix designs and performance

Article · November 2017

DOI: 10.1002/suco.201700016

CITATIONS READS

2 122

3 authors:

Annemarie Wüstemann Andreas Koenig

MFPA Leipzig GmbH University of Leipzig
18 PUBLICATIONS 38 CITATIONS 52 PUBLICATIONS 67 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Frank Dehn
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
148 PUBLICATIONS 615 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Alkalinity in Geopolymer-Concretes and the consequences for the application of steel reinforcement View project

Selfcompacting concrete View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Andreas Koenig on 27 June 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Received: 23 January 2017 Revised: 30 June 2017 Accepted: 2 August 2017
DOI: 10.1002/suco.201700016

TECHNICAL PAPER

Structural concrete based on alkali-activated binders:

Terminology, reaction mechanisms, mix designs and
performance
Annemarie Herrmann | Andreas Koenig | Frank Dehn

Faculty of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Institute for

Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials The interest in concretes based on alkali-activated binders (AABs) is increasing
Science, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany significantly along with the continued research into and development of these
Correspondence novel construction materials from lab scale to practical application. The paper
Annemarie Herrmann, Faculty of Chemistry and
summarizes current knowledge about concretes based on AABs to address the fol-
Mineralogy, Institute for Mineralogy,
Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig lowing questions: What are structural concretes based on AABs? What are the
University, Scharnhorststraße 20, 04275 Leipzig, specific characteristics with regard to the chemical binder reaction? What has to
Germany. be considered for the mix designs of AACs? And which material performances
Email: annemarie.herrmann@uni-leipzig.de
can be expected?

KEYWORDS

alkali-activated binders, durability performance, mechanical performance, mix

design, reaction mechanism, terminology

1 | INTRODUCTION advantages along with enhanced properties compared to

Portland cement clinker-based binders.
Five hundred and sixty kilograms of cement per capita and Alkali-activated binders (AABs), a group of binder sys-
year is needed worldwide to produce cement-based mate- tems that date back to 1908,4 are often mentioned in this con-
rials, such as mortars or concretes. The production of Port- text. The research, development, and commercialization of
land cement clinker necessitates an energy-intensive concretes and mortars made of AABs has grown steadily
grinding and combustion process. Large amounts of natural since the 1980’s, a fact that can be statistically validated by
resources are consumed and that cause high CO2 emissions the increasing number of articles with a title referring to
(5% of the anthropogenic CO2 in the world1). For economic AABs and/or Geopolymers in three of the most well-known
and increasingly sustainability reasons, the energy consump- cement journals (illustrated in Figure 2). These developments
tion and carbon footprint must be reduced by using alterna- as well as numerous positive experiences with its practical
tive combustibles and/or replacing cement clinker by application, for example, the structural use of alkali-activated
secondary raw materials (Figure 1, “Green Concretes”). Con- slags (AASs) for buildings in the Ukraine and Russia2,5 or
the use of alkali-activated multi component binders contain-
cretes with a special performance such as high-performance
ing fly ash and slag for sewage constructions and other infra-
concrete (HPC), ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC),
structure buildings in Australia,6–8 though also the start of
and self-compacting concrete (SCC), are currently composed
the commercialization of cement replacement products, such
of standardized cements, additives, and admixtures for spe-
as GeoSil® (GeoSil Wöllner, Ludwigshafen, Germany),
cific applications. In the future, new types of concretes based
banahCEM™ (Banah cem, Banah UK, Macosquin, Great
on alternative binders can offer ecological2,3 and economic
Britain), ASCEM® (Ascem, Ascem B.V., Rheden, Nether-
lands), Le Purdociment (Purdocement, Le Purdociment,
Discussion on this paper must be submitted within two months of the print
publication. The discussion will then be published in print, along with the Brussels, Belgium), Pyrament® and Solidia Technologies
authors' closure, if any, approximately nine months after the print publication. (Pyrament, Lone Star Industries, Inc. Stamford, Conneticut,

Structural Concrete. 2017;1–12. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/suco © 2017 fib. International Federation for Structural Concrete 1
2 HERRMANN ET AL.

FIGURE 1 New approaches for binders in concrete technology

USA) or E-Crete™ (E-Crete TM, The Zeobond Group, external addition of an alkaline—mostly liquid—activator
Campbellfield, Australia), confirm the huge potential of to a raw material rich in silicon and aluminum9 and which
structural concretes based on AABs.2,5 retain their strength and stability after hardening, even under
water (pursuant to EN 197-1) (see Table 1).
For any future standardization of AABs (e.g., CEN TR
2 | DEFINITION, REACTION MECHANISM,
16912:2016-05 “Guidelines for a procedure to support the
A ND CL AS S I F I C AT I O N
European Standardisation of cements”, Category 3), a clas-
sification and delimitation in terms of specific educts and
2.1 | Definition strength-forming products and a comparison to classical
AABs can be defined as mineral, inorganic, non-metallic hydraulic binders is essential to simplify the knowledge and
binders, whose setting and hardening are based on the experience exchange. According to Figure 3, a distinction

FIGURE 2 Percentage share of publications

with a title containing the keywords “Alkali-
Activated Binders” and/or “Geopolymers”
appearing in Cement and Concrete Research
(CCR), Cement and Concrete Composites
(CCC), or Construction and Building
Materials (CBM)
HERRMANN ET AL. 3

TABLE 1 Comparison of reaction mechanisms and definition of different binder systems

Alkali-activated binders
High-CaO content > 10 wt% Low-CaO content ≤ 10 wt%
Types of binder Hydraulic binders (e.g., AAS) (Geopolymer)
Type of reaction Hydration Hydration, polymerization Polymerization
Raw materials: powdered Portland cement Aluminosilicate thermally activated raw Aluminosilicate thermally activated low-
main constituents Portland cement + supplementary materials: Ca raw materials:
cementitious materials Blast furnace slag, fly ash (Class C), etc. Fly ash (Class F), metakaolin, silica
Portland cement in terms of a cement fume, etc.
clinker made of a sintered raw
material (translated from Reference10)
Raw material C2S, C3S, C2A, C4AF (mainly Reactive aluminum-, calcium (hydraulic) Reactive aluminum- and silicon-
Reactant crystalline) and silicon-containing compounds containing compounds (manly X-ray
And Water (manly X-ray amorphous) amorphous)
And alkali-source + water And
Alkali-source + water
Strength-forming reaction X-ray amorphous multi-phase system X-ray amorphous multi-phase system Polycondensates (macromolecules)
product
Ca-rich C─S─H- and C─A─H- phases, Ca-poorer C─S─H and, low C/S ratio Aluminosilicate (N─A─S─H),
high C/S ratio (C/S = 1.0–2.0)10 (0.9–1.2), incorporation of Zeolites, hydroxysodalite, Zeolite P,Na-
Al(C─A─S─H) chabazite, Zeolite Y, Faujasite
9,11,13,16,17
Hydrotalcite, C4AH13, CASH8,
C4AcH11,C8Ac2H24
Aluminosilicate (N─A─S─H and/or
C─A─S─H)
9,11–15

Definition of the binder Cement is a hydraulic binder, that is, Alkali-activated binders can be defined A Geopolymer is understood as a family
finely ground inorganic material as mineral, inorganic, non-metallic of mineral binders whose amorphous
which, when mixed with water, forms binders whose setting and hardening to semi-crystalline, three dimensional
a paste which sets and hardens by is based on the external addition of an aluminosilicate network is closely
means of hydration reactions and alkaline—mostly liquid—activator to related to artificial zeolites.17,18
processes and which, after hardening, a source material rich in silicon and
retains its strength and stability even aluminum.
under water (EN 197-1:2011-11).
Binder designation refers to the raw Binder designation refers to the process Binder designation refers to the formed
material of production. of production. reaction products.

can be made between low-Ca and high-Ca AABs. The CaO layered C─S─H phases around larger particles with a slowly
content of the raw material mainly influences the reaction increasing thickness.20
mechanisms, strength-forming reaction products, and the The development of strength-forming hydrate phases
final concrete performance.2 In accordance to EN 450-1 and from the solution leads to a dense and strong matrix with a
Herrmann et al,19 the limiting value is assumed to be 10 wt% low total porosity and high volume of mesopores.22 Addi-
for the CaO content. tionally, the pore solution of AASs is characterized by a
lower Ca but higher Si concentration with no ettringite,
monosulfate, and portlandite,20 which improves the concrete
2.2 | Reaction mechanism durability.
Alkali-activated calcareous fly ashes or multi-
2.2.1 | AABs with a high-Ca content
component AABs, a mix of fly ash, slag, calcined clays, or
The main strength-forming products of high-Ca AABs with other raw materials, often contain moderate-Ca contents
CaO contents above 10 wt%, that is, in AASs, could be iden- between 10 and 20 wt% and represent the group of high-Ca
tified as X-ray amorphous calcium-silicate hydrate phases
AABs (Figure 3) alongside AASs. The reaction products of
(C─S─H) with low Ca/Si ratios, which can be partially this kind of moderate-Ca AABs may contain Ca-rich phases
substituted by Al- or Na-forming C─A─S─H or C─(N-) along with aluminosilicate polymers (N─A─S─H phases),23
A─S─H phases ((Na,K)2O–CaO─Al2O3─SiO2─H2O)11–13,20 leading to a stable coexistence of C─A─S─H and
as well as hydrotalcite (Mg6Al2CO3(OH)16 × 4(H2O)21,22 N─A─S─H phases. This results in binders and concretes
(Table 1). Thereby, the resulting C─S─H phases differ from offering a good compromise between strength and
hydraulic hydrate phases in their morphology, crystallinity, durability.
and chemical compositions.20 Consequently, the reaction
mechanism of high-Ca AAB can be referred to both hydra-
tion and polymerization processes. The hydration in AASs 2.2.2 | AABs with a low-Ca content
occurs gradually, starting with a rapid hydration of easily sol- Low-Ca AABs, or Geopolymer binders (GPs), are defined
uble Na and Si inside pores, followed by the hydration of as amorphous to semi-crystalline, three-dimensionally cross-
small and reactive particles, and finally the formation of thin- linked aluminosilicates and are formed by complex
4 HERRMANN ET AL.

Hydraulic binders Alternative binders

Portland cement Portland cement + reactive Alkali-activated binders

components*
Portland composite cement, Blastfurnace cement,
Binder
Pozzolanic cement, Composite cement
high Ca-content> 10 wt.-%** low Ca-content ≤ 10 wt.-%**

Geopolymer Binders
Silica fume, Pozzolana,
Clinker Blastfurnace Burnt Shale, Metakaolin,
slag Fly ashes
hydraulic latent hydraulic pozzolanic

CaO/SiO2 CaO/SiO2 Reactant

Al2O3-content

Hydraulicity/ Polymerisation/
Water-binding capacity Water-binding capacity
Strength-
alumosilicate networks forming
CSH-phases, CAH-phases and others
CAH and/or CSH-phases (CASH) (NASH) product

Alkali-activated slag/ calcareous Siliceous alkali-activated fly ash /

CEM I according to CEM II, III, IV,V according to Sample
alkali-activated fly ash alkali-activated metakaolin
EN 197-1 EN 197-1

* as main component or as reactive concrete additives (supplementary cementitious materials)

** based on EN 450-1

FIGURE 3 Classification and delimitation of classical hydraulic and alkali-activated binders, reprinted from Reference19

polymerization reactions,24 which can be divided up into The absence of susceptible, Ca-based mineral phases
three main phases (a) dissolution, (b) reorganization, and such as portlandite as well as the homogeneous distribution
(c) hardening (Figure 4).9,14,26–28 The reactive amounts of and amorphous reaction products result in a compacted
X-ray amorphous silicon and aluminum, provided, that is, matrix with a low porosity23 and improved durability
by a siliceous fly ash or metakaolin, are dissolved by the characteristics.
external addition of a highly alkaline activator, such as In accordance with Figure 3, alkali-activated metakaolin
sodium or potassium hydroxide (Phase 1: dissolution). The (AAMK) and alkali-activated fly ash (AAFA) are typical
free Si4+ and Al3+ in the solution form Si─O─Si─bonds representatives of low-Ca AABs and so-called GPs,
due to bridging oxygen as well as Si─O─Al bonds. The respectively.
negative charge of AlO4-tetraeders is hereby balanced by
the incorporation of Na, K, or Ca. Subsequently, monomers,
dimers, and oligomers are rearranged, reorganized (Phase 2:
3 | M IX D E S I GN S A ND PR O DU CTI O N
reorganization), and condensed, while releasing water,
CONDITIONS
which finally leads to the formation of a large, three-
dimensionally cross-linked, gel- and zeolite-like aluminosili-
cate polymer network (Phase 3: hardening),23,26,29 also 3.1 | Mix designs
called the N─A─S─H phases (Phase 3: hardening) Concretes based on AABs consist of one or more Si- and
(Na,K)2O─Al2O3─SiO2─H2O).11,13 Al-rich amorphous powdery constituent(s), one or more

FIGURE 4 Model of N-A-S-H-formation13,25

HERRMANN ET AL. 5

alkaline activator(s) (solid and/or liquid alkali-source[s]) as fineness. A rise in fineness may result in a high heat flow,
well as fine and coarse aggregates. Water and/or accelerated setting, and a partial decrease of the workabil-
admixture(s) can be added to improve the workability if ity.28,30,35 The optimum fineness of AASs has been reported
necessary. as being between 400 and 600 m2/kg (400 m2/kg,36
400–550 m2/kg2,37 and 600 kg/m213).
Spherical particle shapes are favored for AAFAs to min-
3.1.1 | Mineral powder—aluminosilicate source imize the water demand, the corresponding shrinkage poten-
The mineral powder must contain high amounts of reactive tial, and thus a reduction of possible shrinkage cracks.
and easily soluble (under alkaline conditions) Al, Si, and Finally, the amount of crystalline mineral phases should
optionally Ca. The structural performance improves with an be as low as possible to facilitate a high level of reaction.38
increasing soluble portion and/or hydraulic potential The glassy phase should be between 85 and 95% for high-
(CaO content). Ca AABs and above 50% for low-Ca AABs.13
Based on Loewenstein’s rule for the avoidance of
Al─O─Al bonds, and according to RILEM TC 224,2 the
3.1.2 | Alkaline activator—alkali source
SiO2(reactive)/Al2O3(reactive) (Si/Al) ratio of AABs ranges
The activator has to produce a high-alkaline environment in
from one to five depending on the type of aluminosilicate
which the powdery constituents dissolve. It must also pro-
source. An Si/Al ratio higher than five can lead to less sta-
vide alkali ions for the charge balance. Normally; the higher
ble polymers and reduced chain lengths, resulting in a low
the alkalinity, the higher the number of dissolved Si and Al
strength and poorer durability characteristics (i.e., a decrease
ions and the lower the number of dissolved Ca ions (solubil-
of chemical resistance or increase of alkali solubility).2,30
ity of Ca decreases with pH2). The types of mineral powder
The optimum Si/Al ratio for low-Ca AABs such as AAFAs
and their contents define the activator type, concentration,
and AAMKs is assumed to be between 1.5 and 2.0 (>
and its dosage. Mineral powders with a low latent hydraulic
1.5,13 1.5,31 232). An optimum value for AASs can be
potential (low CaO contents) and/or high crystallinity
expected between 2.0 and 5.0.
require activators with a high alkaline potential, such as
The addition of small amounts of CaO to low-Ca AAB
alkali hydroxides with a concentration between 10 and
normally results in an increased reactivity, accelerated hard-
15 M,39,40 and a dosage between 7 and 9 wt% M2O
ening, and an improvement in the early and final compres-
(M stands for the specific cation K or Na)23 in combination
sive strength.28 Diaz et al recommend CaO contents in the
with alkali silicates. Rahier et al observed that with an
range of 5–15 wt% for low-Ca AAB, especially for
M/Al-ratio (M stands for the specific cation K or Na) equal
AAFA.28 Garcia-Lodeiro et al13 defined a maximum CaO
to one, the Si/Al ratio of the raw material is equal to the
content for AAMK of 10 wt%, which correlates with the
Si/Al of the resulting aluminosilicate and can therefore be
CaO limit defined in the previous classification (Figure 1).
easily adjusted by the SiO2/M2O ratio of the activator solu-
Buchwald was able to detect crystalline C─S─H
tion.41 The optimum ratio of SiO2/M2O is expected between
phases within the aluminosilicate matrix for Ca-rich AABs
1.0 and 2.0, whereby the exact value depends on the raw
with Ca contents above 21 wt%. With CaO contents
characteristics of the aluminosilicate.2 For economic and
higher than 40 wt%, the reaction products are already
ecological reasons and to ensure a moderate reaction speed,
dominated by crystalline C─S─H phases. Hence, it is
alkali concentrations and dosages are usually minimized.
advisable to use slags with CaO contents below 40 wt% in
Activators with a low alkaline potential are used for
order to obtain aluminosilicate reaction products with
mineral powders with a high latent hydraulic potential
enhanced durability properties. Additional factors such as
(e.g., ground granulated blast furnace), to avoid rapid set-
the basicity coefficient [(CaO + MgO)/SiO2] according to
ting (e.g., alkali silicates or alkali carbonates).38,42–44 Gener-
EN 197-1:2011-11 as well as its various modifications,
ally, alkali silicates with a low SiO2/M2O ratio of around
for example, [(CaO + MgO + Al2O3)/SiO2;
0.7543,45 and a low M2O dosage of 3.0–6.0 wt% are often
(CaO + MgO)/(SiO2 + Al2O3); (CaO + MgO + Al2O3)/
used for the alkaline activation of slags.36 For classical
(SiO2 + TiO2(+P2O5 + F + MnO))],33 or the degree of
AAB concretes, the alkalis are dissolved in water prior to
polymerization [DP = n(CaO)-2n(MgO)-n(Al2O3)-n(SO3)/
mixing to produce the highly alkaline activator solution.
n(SiO2)-2n(MgO)-0.5n(Al2O3)] are used for quality assur-
Alternatively, the powdery raw materials can be premixed
ance measures13 when it comes to the characterization of
with a solid activator, as is often done for so-called one-
the slag reactivity. For instance, Garcia-Lodeiro et al13
part-Geopoymers.46,47 In this case, the alkaline solution can
recommend a DP value of 1.3 up to 1.5 and a basicity >1,
be replaced by water.
while Talling and Brandstetr 34 suggest slags with a CaO/-
SiO2 (Ca/Si) ratio between 0.5 and 2.0 and an Al/Si ratio
between 0.1 and 0.6. 3.1.3 | Water
Similar to ordinary Portland cements (OPC), the reactiv- The total water content results from the liquid parts of the
ity of the raw material will increase with increasing particle alkaline activator(s) (wactivator), the surface moisture of the
6 HERRMANN ET AL.

aggregates (waggregates) and, if necessary, additional mixing transferred to AACs. However, attention should be paid to
water (wmix). In accordance to EN 206, the liquid parts of the solubility of some aggregates in a high-pH environment.
the admixture(s) (wadmixture) need to be considered when the Quartzitic aggregates15,49–51 are usually used in the produc-
total quantity of liquid admixtures is exceeding 3 L/m3 tion of ACCs due to their inert behavior in an alkaline envi-
concrete. ronment. Basalt,52,53 limestone,54,55 and greywacke are not
In the mix design, the water–binder ratio (w/b) so commonly used. The use of aggregates with a high
expresses the relation between the total sum of water and alkali-silica reaction (ASR) potential such as greywacke
the total sum of binder. Thereby, the binder consists of the should be limited to low-Ca AACs, since the resulting ASR
solid parts of major and minor aluminosilicate sources gel has a low expansion rate and most of the expansion will
(SCalumo + SCSCM) as well as the solid parts of the activator occur in the fresh concrete state.56–58
(SCactivator) (Equation 1). The effective w/b ratio (w/beff) in
accordance to EN 206 can be determined by the subtraction
of the amount of water, which is absorbed by the aggregates 3.2 | Processing conditions
(wabsorbed) from the total sum of water (Equation 2). 3.2.1 | Mixing and casting
The Concrete Institute of Australia (CIA)59 suggests a mix-
w wmix + wactivator + wadmixture + waggregates ing time for AACs of between 3 and 8 min with the follow-
= , ð1Þ ing mixing sequence: (a) aggregates, (b) binder, (c) liquids.
b SC alumo + SC SCM + SC activator
In high-Ca AABs, extended mixing may cause shorter set-
ting times. On the other hand, prolonged mixing can lead to
w

wmix + wactivator + wadmixture + waggregates −wabsorbed an increase in workability of low-Ca AABs.59
= : The effectiveness of chemical admixtures depends
b eff SC alumo + SC SCM + SC activator
ð2Þ largely on the time of their addition. SPs are normally added
at the end of mixing whereas retarders can be useful in the
Since the reaction products of high-Ca AABs are domi- beginning.
nated by hydrate phases, the w/b ratio needs to be corre-
spondingly high (w/b > 0.4) so as to guarantee complete
hydration. However, low-Ca AAB or GP generally display 3.2.2 | Curing conditions
a low rate of chemically bound water leading to low w/b All steps of Geopolymerisation (Section 2.2.1), namely
ratios; these are often increased in order to improve the (a) dissolution, (b) reorganization, and (c) hardening, are
workability. For example, fly ash-based GPs with character- controlled by the activity of the individual components and
istic spherical particles need very low w/b ratios, often less are temperature dependent. Low-Ca AACs, in particular
than 0.35. On the other hand, the specific surface of the par- concretes based on pozzolanic fly ashes with high amounts
ticles can significantly increase the w/b ratio, as is known of crystalline phases, often display a low activity. An accel-
for metakaolin-based GPs with typical w/b ratios of erated polymerization and hardening, expressed through
around 0.9. shorter setting times and a faster strength development,
could hereby be demonstrated for curing at temperatures
between 70 and 85 C for 12–48 h.18,35,60,61
3.1.4 | Admixtures
In contrast, high-Ca AACs, in particular AACs based on
In the case of low-Ca AABs, the efficiency of the superplas-
latent-hydraulic slags, exhibit a characteristically high activ-
ticizer (SP) is very important to produce a dense, homoge-
ity caused by the high fineness and large number of amor-
nous, and stable matrix. In fact, most of the available SPs
phous and reactive phases. Similar to low-Ca AACs, the
are ineffective in AABs due to their instability under high
hardening and strength development can be accelerated by
alkaline conditions, requiring the development of new
heat curing, though this is inconvenient due to the fast set-
SPs.48
ting and high early strength at curing temperatures between
The workability properties of high-Ca AABs are compa-
20 and 29 C. Lower temperatures between 60 and 69 C
rable to those of cementitious binders due to higher w/b
and shorter curing durations (6–24 h) are normally used for
ratios and low activator dosages, and are thus less problem-
the heat curing of AAS.
atic than low-Ca AABs. Much more relevant is the control
The storage conditions also depend on the binder that is
of the setting time by means of suitable retarders.
used. In the case of low-Ca AABs, water is released during
polymerization. Thus, drying conditions while curing favor
3.1.5 | Aggregates hardening. On the other hand, long-term investigations
Similar to concretes based on Portland cement clinker, the show that high-humidity storage favors the development of
types of aggregate have a significant effect on the final strength due to an ongoing polymerization process and con-
strength and stiffness of AACs. Hence, the experiences with tinues the cross-linking of Si-rich aluminosilicates. This is
regard to grading curves or volume fractions can be why most low-Ca AABs are heat cured in dry conditions,
HERRMANN ET AL. 7

but subsequently stored in high-humidity conditions the authors show that the 28-day tensile strength of AACs
(e.g., wrapped in foil). exceeds the predictions given in EN 1992:2011, demonstrat-
In contrast, the increase in strength of high-Ca AABs is ing an increased tensile resistance.49,52,54,65,66
based on the formation of hydrate phases, which are favored
by high-humidity curing (e.g., steam curing) and storage 4.1.2 | Time effects
under saturated conditions (e.g., wrapped in foil).36 Such Similar to Portland cement (PC) concretes, the polymeriza-
conditions lead to a complete solidification and dense tion reaction of AACs is continuous and thus leads to an
matrix.45 increase in strength over time. A retarded but prolonged
development of strength occurs, which is characteristic of
AACs. The most significant development of strength can be
4 | P E R F O RM AN CE OF S T R UC T U RA L obtained for low-Ca AACs cured under ambient conditions,
C ON CR E T E S BA S E D O N AA B S which exhibit a low early strength but a significant increase
in strength over time.67 On the other hand, high-Ca AACs
4.1 | Mechanical properties show an increasing strength similar to standard models with
The mechanical properties of AACs change depending on a high early strength2,68 and moderate development of
the binder-specific, strength-forming reaction products strength up to 28 days; this is more pronounced at later
(C─S─H, C─A─S─H and/or N─A─S─H) and differences ages.69 AACs with moderate CaO contents, often consisting
arise between low-Ca and high-Ca AACs. These differences of two or multi components, follow a time-dependent
are shown in the following sections taking compressive and strength development within defined empirical limits of
tensile strength as well as the elastic properties and long- high- and low-Ca AACs (Figure 5).66
term deformations as an example. A time-dependent material behavior could also be
observed for the modulus of elasticity. No investigations
4.1.1 | Compressive and tensile strength into the effect on the tensile strength over time as well as
long-term investigations have been performed yet.
Various studies demonstrated the potential of alkali-
activated concretes for low, normal, and even high-strength
applications.35,62 Nugteren et al achieved compressive 4.1.3 | Elastic properties
strengths of more than 100 MPa for high-Ca, alkali-acti- Short-term deformations
vated, multi-component mortars,63 whereas Aydin and Bar- The modulus of elasticity (MoE) correlates well with the
adan were even able to produce mortars with strengths in compressive strength, as it does to the tensile strength.
excess of 200 MPa using a high-Ca, AAS with additions of Numerous studies proved that AACs exhibit a lower
silica fume and steel fibers.64 MoE40,49–51 compared to PC concrete with the same
Analogous to current concrete standards, the mechanical strength grade and thereby follow the predictions of EN
properties of AACs can be expressed as a function of the 1992:2011.
compressive strength by means of empirical models. In the The fracture performance of high-Ca AACs is character-
case of the flexural and/or tensile strength, initial results by ized by an initial linear elastic behavior, which turns into a

FIGURE 5 Increase in strength of various

alkali-activated concretes, black symbols
indicate strength gain of heat cured low-Ca
AAFAs, blue symbols represent low-Ca
AAFAs cured under ambient conditions, red
symbols mark high-Ca AASs, and gray
symbols represent multi component AACs
with moderate-CaO contents (between 10 and
20%)15,27,51,53,54,67,70–72
8 HERRMANN ET AL.

ductile behavior up to fracture, therefore displaying a the addition of a phenolphthalein solution. Despite pH
behavior similar to that of normal concretes.69 Low-Ca values between 10.9 and 12.0 determined by wet-chemical
AACs exhibit a linear elastic increase up to ultimate methods, only a slight discoloration of the cross section can
strength followed by a brittle fracture and are thus compara- be observed. Most of the references in literature indicate a
ble to high-strength concretes.66,73 Unlike high-strength lower carbonation resistance of AACs, through also a differ-
concretes, this behavior can also be noticed for low- and ent reaction mechanism, which calls into question current
normal-strength AACs based on low-Ca components. test methods.

Long-term deformations
4.2.2 | Chemical attack (XA)
Shrinkage. Just like the short-term deformations, the long-
The resistance of concretes to a chemical attack depends on
term deformations of AACs are controlled by the strength-
the porosity of the microstructure and the chemical interac-
forming reaction products and the resulting pore structure.
tion between the hardened binder and the chemical agents.
The total shrinkage of AACs, especially of AASs, can be
Both the specific surface area exposed to the chemical
up to five times higher than the total shrinkage reported for
agents and the transport resistance of the hardened binder,
PC concretes.74,75 Additionally, AACs show an unexpected
mortar, or concrete decline with decreasing porosity. The
correlation between water loss and total shrinkage since
porosity can be easily controlled by a high packing density,
higher shrinkage properties are reported for AACs despite a
which can be achieved by a reduced water content and the
low water loss (AAS concrete and mortar,22,75,76 AAFA
use of optimized grading curves. These basic approaches
paste,77–79 AAFA/AAS mortars80). Initial attempts at an
can be applied for concretes irrespective of the type of
explanation correlate the high shrinkage tendency to finer
binder used.
pores, which in turn lead to an increased capillary tensile
The chemical resistance of AACs may differ on account
stress75,77 or to the viscoplastic properties of the aluminosil-
of differences related to strength-forming reaction products
icate matrix.81
and hydraulic activity (low-Ca vs. high-Ca AACs). The
chemical resistance of low-Ca AACs to acids or salts such
Creep. Apart from a higher shrinkage tendency, high-Ca as sodium and/or magnesium sulfates is much higher than
AACs exhibit increased creep deformations,22,54 which can for PCs. Bakharev et al,87 Ismail et al,88 Komljenović
be proven in particular at ages above 100 days, when AASs et al89 have proven that no ettringite formation could be
are still nowhere near their ultimate creep end value. The observed due to the unavailability of Al, as a result of
creep deformations increase constantly over time.2,82 Low- cross-linked aluminosilicate networks. In high-Ca AACs,
Ca AACs, characterized by zeolite-like reaction products, gypsum precipitated in surface layers and a decalcification
show a lower shrinkage and creep deformation83 This is of C─A─S─H phases was observed. This led to a deteriora-
related to low amounts of additional water (mix design), tion (cracking, reduction in compressive strength), though
less sensitivity to water loss,50 and curing conditions. this was still significantly lower than in concretes based on
One thing that all AACs have in common is that the PC or Portland-slag cement.
time-dependent and load-dependent deformations are influ- Although the number of permeable voids decreases with
enced by the factors summarized in Section 3.1 and an increasing Ca content, the degradation of C─A─S─H
3.2, and can be limited by the targeted use of heat curing.84 phases (high-Ca AACs) is higher than for N─A─S─H
phases (low-Ca AACs). This is because N─A─S─H phases
are more stable at low pH values than C─(A)─S─H
4.2 | Durability
phases.90–93 Current studies by the authors could even show
4.2.1 | Carbonation (XC) an increase in strength combined with a densification of
Concrete carbonation refers to a reaction between environ- GPs under organic acid attack, an effect that is reversed
mental CO2 and the solid phase of the hardened binder and with increasing Ca contents.94
the pore solution. Depending on the type of solid phase, the
porosity can change and the alkalinity decreases as a result
of carbonation. In AACs, free alkali hydroxide can react 4.2.3 | Chlorides (XD, XS)
with CO2 to form different types of alkali carbonates The resistance to chloride penetration allows conclusions to
depending on the amount of free water, Ca, and Mg as well be drawn on the connectivity of the pore network and the
as temperature. The solubility of alkali carbonates, such as potential of chloride-induced steel corrosion. Zhu et al95
natrite 215 g/L, is usually higher than that of calcium car- determined higher chloride penetration depths in pastes and
bonate (calcite 0.015 g/L), which can lead to an increase in mortars based on AAFA/slag mixes (w/b = 0.32–0.42) in
binder porosity and at the same time a decrease in alkalin- comparison to PC. With a decreasing w/b ratio, the absolute
ity. Consequently, Law et al85 and König et al86 described porosity and the pore connectivity decreases and the chlo-
difficulties in the quantification of carbonation depths by ride penetration is reduced significantly by 40–60%. The
HERRMANN ET AL. 9

results highlight the importance of suitable SPs for a water represent the best compromise between strength and dura-
reduction and subsequently a lower porosity. bility. Furthermore, it could be shown that, if one considers
Furthermore, the porosity and the chloride penetration reaction chemical and binder-specific mix designs and cur-
resistance can be controlled by the addition of additives with ing regimes, AACs are a promising alternative to PC, offer-
high-Ca contents, such as blast furnace slag. Chloride pene- ing mechanical and durability performance that are at least
tration depths decrease with an increasing amount of hydrau- equivalent to those of conventional concretes.
lic components since additional mixing water is chemically Generally speaking, new concrete technology assess-
bound in C─A─S─H phases. Therefore, the number of small ment concepts should be provided in which the performance
pores decreases and that of larger pores increases.95 of the concrete is no longer evaluated solely on the basis of
The chloride-binding capacity changes along with the one parameter such as the compressive strength. Rather, the
transport mechanisms. Because of the larger surfaces, the reaction mechanisms of the relevant systems have to be
physical absorption of chloride ions is higher in N─A─S─H understood and used specifically for certain structural or
phases (low-Ca AACs [Geopolymer]) than in C─A─S─H permanent requirements. So-called performance-based con-
(AAB with high-Ca content) or C─S─H phases (PC). The crete concepts in particular will play a leading role in the
chloride content absorbed chemically by N─A─S─H and future compared to current prescriptive specifications. How-
C─A─S─H is still unclear because the resulting salts differ ever, these will require corresponding test methods and
from well-known minerals, such as Friedel’s salt. Neverthe- bases of validation and compliance criteria with an adequate
less, Ismail et al96 determined high amounts of chemically statistical substantiation.
bound chlorides within the amorphous N─A─S─H and
C─A─S─H phases that form in AACs. Other authors97,98 OR CID
confirmed a high chloride-binding capacity for hydrotalcite
Annemarie Herrmann http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1738-0754
containing Ca-rich AACs based on slags. It can therefore be
Andreas Koenig http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5617-3707
concluded that AABs demonstrate a better resistance to
chloride penetration due to a higher chloride-binding capac-
ity and despite a possible higher porosity (N─A─S─H). REFERENCES
1. Mikulcić H, Cabezas H, Vujanović M, Duić N. Environmental assessment
4.2.4 | Freeze–thaw (XF) of different cement manufacturing processes based on energy and ecologi-
Shi et al5 reported on real AAC structures in Russia with no cal footprint analysis. J Clean Prod. 2016;130:213–221.
2. Provis JL, van Deventer JSJ. Alkali activated materials. State-of-the-art
initial cracking (built in the 1980s and 1990s, mainly alkali-
report, RILEM TC 224-AAM; 2014.
activated slag = AAS), where there was a deterioration of 3. Habert G, Quellet-Plamondon C. Recent update on the environmental
defects on the surface after more than 10 years in service.99 impact of Geopolymers. RILEM Tech Lett. 2016;1:17–23.
In many studies, a higher freeze–thaw resistance was 4. Kühl H. Slag cement and process of making the same. US900939A; 1908.
5. Shi C, Krivenko PV, Roy DM. Alkali-activated cements and concretes.
detected compared to PC. The resistance was hereby influ- London, New York: Taylor & Francis; 2006.
enced by the type of activator, the basicity of the slag and of 6. Aldred J, Day J. Is Geopolymer concrete a suitable alternative to tradi-
course the air-void content (Glukhovsky (1979), Glukhovsky tional concrete. Proceedings of the 37th Conference on Our World in Con-
crete & Structure. Singapore: CI Premier Pte. Ltd.; 2012:1–14. ISBN
et al (1988), Hakkinen (1986) cited in Shi et al by Cyr and 9789810727307.
Pouhet99). Jo et al100 defined a minimum air void content of 7. van Deventer JSJ. Is the market ready for the adoption of alkali-activated
4 vol% for AAFA concretes with lightweight aggregate cements. http://www.seng.org.au/sites/default/files/chapteradmin/vicfiles/
Van%20Deventer_Engineers%20Australia_24%20March%202015.pdf
(max. particle size of 16 and 19 mm) to enable sufficient
Accessed April 23, 2015.
freeze–thaw resistance. This value is similar to the require- 8. Wimpenny D, Chappell M. Fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete. An
ments for concretes in exposure classes XF2 and XF4 based innovative material for tunnel segments. In: Diponio MA, Dixon C, eds.
on common cements according to EN 206-1:2001 (4.5 vol% Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference. Englewood: Society for
Mining Metallurgy and Exploration; 2013:810–819. ISBN 0873353838.
for concretes with a max. particle size of 16 mm). 9. Buchwald A. The influence of calcium on the condensation of (alumino-)
silicates in alkali-activated binders [in German]. Der Einfluss des Kal-
ziums auf die Kondensation von (Alumo-)Silikaten in alkali-aktivierten
Bindern [Habilitationsschrift]. Weimar. Weimar: Bauhaus-Universität
5 | CO N CL U S I ON A ND O UTL O OK
Weimar, Habilitationsschrift (ebook); 2012.
10. Stark J, Wicht B [in German]. Zement und Kalk. Der Baustoff als Werkst-
This paper identifies the source of aluminosilicate as being off; mit 90 Tabellen. Basel [u.a.]: Birkhäuser; 2000.
the main influencing factor on final AAC properties. This 11. Provis JL. Geopolymers and other alkali activated materials: why, how,
and what? Mater Struct. 2014;47(1-2):11–25.
justifies a classification into low Ca and high Ca, hence 12. Myers RJ, Bernal SA, San Nicolas R, Provis JL. Generalized structural
simplifying the future exchange of experience and knowl- description of calcium-sodium aluminosilicate hydrate gels: The cross-
edge. High-Ca AAB should be used when CO2 reduction linked substituted tobermorite model. Langmuir : ACS J Surfaces Colloids.
2013;29(17):5294–5306.
and sustainability are required. Low-Ca AABs are most
13. Garcia-Lodeiro I, Palomo A, Fernández-Jiménez A. An overview of the
beneficial for applications with high requirements with chemistry of alkali-activated cement-based binders. In: Pacheco-Torgal F,
respect to chemical resistance. Multi-component AABs Labrincha A, Leonelli C, Palomo A, Chindaprasirt P, eds. Handbook of
10 HERRMANN ET AL.

Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes. Cambridge: Elsevier; 37. Komljenovic M. Mechanical strength and Young’s modulus of alkali-
2015:19–47. ISBN 9781782422761. activate cement based binders. In: Pacheco-Torgal F, Labrincha A,
14. Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali activated binders: a Leonelli C, Palomo A, Chindaprasirt P, eds. Handbook of Alkali-Activated
review. Part 1. Historical background, terminology, reaction mechanisms Cements, Mortars and Concretes. Cambridge: Elsevier; 2015:171–215.
and hydration products. Constr Build Mater. 2008;22(7):1305–1314. ISBN 9781782422761.
15. Lee NK, Lee HK. Setting and mechanical properties of alkali-activated fly 38. Provis, J. L., van Deventer, Jannie S.J.: Geopolymers. Structure, proces-
ash/slag concrete manufactured at room temperature. Constr Build Mater. sing, properties and industrial applications. Oxford: Boca Baton, Wood-
2013;47:1201–1209. head, CRC Press; 2009.
16. Davidovits J. Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications. Saint-Quentin: 39. Tho-in T, Sata V, Chindaprasirt P, Jaturapitakkul C. Pervious high-calcium
Institut Géopolymère; 2011. fly ash geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2012;30:366–371.
17. Davidovits J. Properties of Geopolymer cements. In: Glukhovsky VD, 40. Joseph B, Mathew G. Influence of aggregate content on the behavior of
Krivenko PV, eds. Alkaline Cements and Concretes. Kiev: Vipol Stock fly ash based Geopolymer concrete. Sci Iran. 2012;19(5):1188–1194.
Company; 1994:131–149. ISBN 5823802498. 41. Rahier H, Simons W, van mele B, Biesemans M. Low-temperature synthe-
18. van Jaarsveld J, van Deventer JSJ, Lukey G. The effect of composition sized aluminosilicate glasses. Part III influence on the composition of the
and temperature on the properties of fly ash- and kaolinite-based Geopoly- silicate solution on production, structure and properties. J Mater Sci.
mers. Chem Eng J. 2002;89(1-3):63–73. 1997;32(9):2237–2247.
19. Herrmann A, König A, Dehn F. Vorschlag zur Klassifizierung von 42. Duran Atis C, Bilim C, Çelik Ö, Karahan O. Influence of activator on the
alkalisch-aktivierten Bindemitteln und Geopolymeren [Proposal for the strength and drying shrinkage of alkali-activated slag mortar. Constr Build
classification of alkali-activated binders and Geopolymer binders] Mater. 2009;23(1):548–555.
[in German]. Cem Int. 2015;13(3):62–69. 43. Bakharev T, Sanjayan J, Cheng Y-B. Alkali activation of Australian slag
20. Gruskovnjak A, Lothenbach B, Holzer L, Figi R, Winnefeld F. Hydration cements. Cem Concr Compos. 1999;29(1):113–120.
of alkali-activated slag. Comparison with ordinary Portland cement. Adv 44. Ryu GS, Lee YB, Koh KT, Chung YS. The mechanical properties of fly
Cem Res. 2006;18(3):119–128. ash-based Geopolymer concrete with alkaline activators. Constr BuildMa-
21. Ben Haha M, Le Saout G, Winnefeld F, Lothenbach B. Influence of acti- ter. 2013;47:409–418.
vator type on hydration kinetics, hydrate assemblage and microstructural 45. Taenzer R, Schmidt M, Stephan D. Alkali-aktivierte Bindemittel für die
development of alkali activated blast-furnace slags. Cem Concr Res. Anwendung im Beton [in German]. Alkali activated binders for application in
2011;41(3):301–310. concrete. In: DAfStb German committee for reinforced concrete (Deutscher
22. Neto M, Antonio A, Cincotto MA, Repette W. Drying and autogenous Ausschuss für Stahlbeton). Kassel: Kassel University. Press; 2012, 107–114.
shrinkage of pastes and mortars with activated slag cement. Cem Concr 46. Hajimohammadi A, Provis JL, Deventer v, Jannie SJ. One-part Geopoly-
Res. 2008;38(4):565–574. mer mixes from geothermal silica and sodium aluminate. Industr Eng
23. Winnefeld F, Leemann A, Lucuk M, Svoboda P, Neuroth M. Assessment Chem Res. 2008;47(23):9396–9405.
of phase formation in alkali activated low and high calcium fly ashes in 47. Sturm P, Gluth G, Lindemann M, Greiser S, Jäger C, Brouwers H. Struc-
building materials. Constr Build Mater. 2010;24(6):1086–1093. tural investigations on one-part geopolymers after different drying regimes.
24. Davidovits J. Geopolymer. Man-made rock geosynthesis and the resulting devel- In: Bernal SA, Provis JL, eds. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Cement and
opment of very early high strength cement. J Mater Educ. 1994;16:91–139. Concrete Science Conference, and Workshop on Waste. Sheffield; 2014.
25. Fernández-Jiménez A, Palomo A, Criado M. Microstructure development 48. Pulkin M, Nicoleau L. Fluidification of alkali-silicate activated geopoly-
of alkali-activated fly ash cement. A descriptive model. Cem Concr Res. mers with cationic polymers. 14th international congress on the chemistry
2005;35(6):1204–1209. of cement. Proceeding of ICCC; 2015. https://books.google.de/books/
26. Duxson P, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Mallicoat SW, Kriven WM, van about/ICCC_2015_Beijing.html?id=OLtPjwEACAAJ&redir_esc=y
Deventer JSJ. Geopolymer technology: current state of the art. Mater 49. Diaz-Loya EI, Allouche E, Vaidya S. Mechanical properties of fly-ash-
Struct. 2007;42(9):2917–2933. based Geopolymer concrete. ACI Mater J. 2011;108:300–306.
27. Fernández-Jiménez A, Palomo A, Sobrados I, Sanz J. The role played by 50. Fernández-Jiménez A, Palomo A, Lopez-Hombrados C. Engineering prop-
the reactive alumina content in the alkaline activation of fly ashes. Micro- erties of alkali-activated fly ash concrete. ACI Mater J. 2006;103:106–112.
porous esoporous Mater. 2006;91(1–3):111–119. 51. Wardhono A, Law DW, Molyneaux TCK. Long term performance of
28. Diaz E, Allouche E, Eklund S. Factors affecting the suitability of fly ash alkali activated slag concrete. J Adv Concr Technol. 2015;13(3):187–192.
as source material for geopolymers. Fuel. 2010;89(5):992–996. 52. Sofi M, van Deventer JSJ, Mendis PA, Lukey G. Engineering properties of
29. Duxson P, Fernandez-Jimenez EA, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Palomo A, van inorganic polymer concretes (IPCs). Cem Concr Res. 2007;37(2):251–257.
Deventer JSJ. Understanding the relationship between geopolymer compo- 53. Collins FG, Sanjayan JG. Workability and mechanical properties of alkali
sition, microstructure and mechanical properties. Colloids Surf A: Physico- activated slag concrete. Cem Concr Res. 1999;29(3):455–458.
chem Eng Aspects. 2005;269(1-3):47–58. 54. Douglas E, Biladeau A, Malhotra VM. Properties and durability of alkali-
30. Ehrenberg A, Stephan D, Kaps C. Alkalisch aktivierte Hüttensande für die activated slag concrete. ACI Mater J. 1992;89:509–516.
betontechnische Anwendung unter aggressiven Bedingungen [in German]. 55. Bashar II, Alengaram UJ, Jumaat MZ, Islam A, Santhi H, Sharmin A.
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie. 15800 BG: Alkali Engineering properties and fracture behaviour of high volume palm oil
activated slags for concrete technical application in aggressive environ- fuel ash based fibre reinforced Geopolymer concrete. Constr Build Mater.
ments, Duisburg; 2011. 2016;111:286–297.
31. Guo X, Shi H, Dick WA. Compressive strength and microstructural char- 56. García-Lodeiro I, Palomo A, Fernández-Jiménez A. Alkali–aggregate reac-
acteristics of class C fly ash geopolymer. Cem Concr Compos. tion in activated fly ash systems. Cem Concr Res. 2007;37(2):175–183.
2010;32(2):142–147. 57. Cyr M, Pouhet R. Resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) of alkali-
32. Criado M, Fernández-Jiménez A, La T, de AG, Aranda M, Palomo A. An activated cement-based binders. Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars
XRD study of the effect of the SiO2/Na2O ratio on the alkali activation of and Concretes. Cambridge: Elsevier; 2015:397–422. ISBN 9781782422761.
fly ash. Cem Concr Res. 2007;37(5):671–679. 58. Bakharev T, Sanjayan JG, Cheng Y-B. Resistance of alkali-activated slag
33. Winnefeld F, Ben Haha M, Le Saout G, Costoya M, Ko S-C, concrete to alkali–aggregate reaction. Cem Concr Res. 2001;31(2):331–334.
Lothenbach B. Influence of slag composition on the hydration of alkali- 59. Concrete Institute of Australia (CIA). Recommended Practice. Geopolymer
activated slags. J Sustain Cem-Based Mater. 2015;4(2):85–100. Concrete. North Sydney: Concrete Institute of Australia; 2011.
34. Talling B, Brandstetr J. Present state and future of alkali-activated slag 60. Hardjito D, Cheak CC, Ing CHL. Strength and setting times of low cal-
concretes. ACI Spec Publ. 1989;114-74:1519–1545. cium fly ash-based geopolymer mortar. Modern Appl Sci. 2008;2(4):8–13.
35. Chindaprasirt, P., Chareerat, T., Hatanaka, S., Cao, T.: High-strength geo- 61. Thakur R, Ghosh S. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci. Effect of mix composition on
polymer using fine high-calcium fly ash. J Mater Civ Eng 23 (2011), compressive strength and microstructure of fly ash based geopolymer
pp. 264–270, 3. composites. 2009;4(4):68–74.
36. Talling B. Effect of curing conditions on alkali-activated slags. ACI Spec 62. Kumaravel S, Girija K. Development of high-strength Geopolymer con-
Publ. 1989;114–74:1485–1500. crete. J Constr Eng, Technol Manag. 2014;4:8–13.
HERRMANN ET AL. 11

63. Nugteren HW, Butselaar-Orthlieb V, Izquierdo M. High strength Geopoly- 87. Bakharev T, Sanjayan JG, Cheng Y-B. Sulfate attack on alkali-activated
mers produced from coal combustion fly ash. Global NEST J. slag concrete. Cem Concr Res. 2002;32(2):211–216.
2009;11:155–161. 88. Ismail I, Bernal SA, Provis JL, Hamdan S, Deventer v, Jannie SJ. Micro-
64. Aydın S, Baradan B. The effect of fiber properties on high performance structural changes in alkali activated fly ash/slag Geopolymers with sulfate
alkali-activated slag/silica fume mortars. Compos Part B: Eng. exposure. Mater Struct. 2013;46(3):361–373.
2013;45(1):63–69. 89. Komljenović M, Bašcarević Z, Marjanović N, Nikolić V. External sulfate
65. Thomas RJ, Peethamparan S. Alkali-activated concrete: engineering prop- attack on alkali-activated slag. Constr Build Mater. 2013;49:31–39.
erties and stress–strain behavior. Constr Build Mater. 2015;93:49–56. 90. Lee NK, Lee HK. Influence of the slag content on the chloride and sulfu-
66. Sarker PK, Haque R, Ramgolam KV. Fracture behaviour of heat cured fly ric acid resistances of alkali-activated fly ash/slag paste. Cem Concr Com-
ash based Geopolymer concrete. Mater Des. 2013;44:580–586. pos. 2016;72:168–179.
67. Neupane K, Baweja D, Shrestha, Chalmers D, Kidd P. Investigation on 91. Bakharev T. Resistance of Geopolymer materials to acid attack. Cem
engineering properties of powder-activated Geopolymer concrete. In: Pro- Concr Res. 2005;35(4):658–670.
ceedings of the 27th Biennial National Conference of the Concrete Institute 92. Bakharev T, Sanjayan J, Cheng Y-B. Resistance of alkali-activated slag
of Australia in conjunction with the 69th RILEM Week Construction Inno- concrete to acid attack. Cem Concr Res. 2003;33(10):1607–1611.
vations, Research into Practice, August 30–September February, 2015, 93. Koenig A, Dehn F. Main considerations for the determination and evalua-
Melbourne, Sydney, Australia: Concrete Institute of Australia 1125–1138. tion of the acid resistance of cementitious materials. Mater Struct.
68. Purdon AO. The action of alkalis on blast furnace slag. J Soc ChemIndus. 2015;49:1693–1703.
1940;59:191–202. 94. König A, Herrmann A, Overmann S, Dehn F. Resistance of alkali-
69. Yang K-H, Song J-K. Empirical equations for mechanical properties of activated binders against organic acid attack: assessment of validation cri-
ca(OH)2- based alkali-activated slag concrete. ACI Mater J. 2012;109 teria and damage mechanisms. Constr Build Mater. 2017;151:405–413.
(4):431–440. 95. Zhu H, Zhang Z, Zhu Y, Tian L. Durability of alkali-activated fly ash con-
70. Noushini A, Aslani F, Castel A, Gilbert RI, Uy B, Foster S. Compressive crete. Chloride penetration in pastes and mortars. Constr Build Mater.
stress-strain model for low-calcium fly ash-basesd Geopolymer and heat 2014;65:51–59.
cured Portland cement concrete. Cem Concr Compos. 2016;73:136–146. 96. Ismail I, Bernal SA, Provis JL, et al. Influence of fly ash on the water and
71. Rickard WD, Gluth GJ, Pistol K. In-situ thermo-mechanical testing of fly chloride permeability of alkali-activated slag mortars and concretes. Constr
ash Geopolymer concretes made with quartz and expanded clay aggre- Build Mater. 2013;48:1187–1201.
gates. Cem Concr Res. 2016;80:33–43. 97. Kayali O, Khan M, Sharfuddin Ahmed M. The role of hydrotalcite in
72. Wongpa J, Kiattikomol K, Jaturapitakkul C, Chindaprasirt P. Compressive chloride binding and corrosion protection in concretes with ground granu-
strength, modulus of elasticity, and water permeability of inorganic poly- lated blast furnace slag. Constr Build Mater. 2012;34(8):936–945.
mer concrete. Mater Des. 2010;31(10):4748–4754. 98. Chen W, Brouwers HJH. A method for predicting the alkali concentrations
73. Haider GM, Sanjayan JG, Ranjith PG. Complete triaxial stress–strain in pore solution of hydrated slag cement paste. J Mater Sci.
curves for geopolymer. Constr Build Mater. 2014;69:196–202. 2011;46(10):3622–3631.
74. Ye H, Cartwright C, Rajabipour F, Radli nska A. Effect of drying rate on 99. Pacheco-Torgal, F., Labrincha, A., Leonelli, C., Palomo, A.,
shrinkage of alkali-activated slag cements. 4th International Conference Chindaprasirt, P.: Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and
on the Durability of Concrete Structures. Purdue University Indiana: West Concretes. Cambridge: Elsevier; 2015. ISBN 9781782422761.
Lafayette; 254–261. 100. Jo B-w, Park S-k, Park J-b. Properties of concrete made with alkali-
75. Collins FG, Sanjayan JG. Effect of pore size distribution on drying shrink- activated fly ash lightweight aggregate (AFLA). Cem Concr Compos.
age of alkali-activated slag concrete. Cem ConcrRes. 2007;29(2):128–135.
2000;30(9):1401–1406.
76. Ma J, Dehn F. Shrinkage and creep behavior of an alkali-activated slag
concrete. Struct Concr. 2017;44:299.
77. Ma Y. Microstructure and Engineering Properties of Alkali-Activated Fly
Ash. As an Environment Friendly Alternative to Portland Cement [PhD AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHIES
thesis]. Delft; 2013).
78. Ma Y, Ye G. The shrinkage of alkali activated fly ash. Cem Concr Res.
2015;68:75–82.
Annemarie Herrmann, MSc
79. Ma J, Dehn F. Investigations on the coefficient of thermal expansion of a Faculty of Chemistry and Mineral-
low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Struct Concr. ogy,
2017;22:1305.
Institute for Mineralogy,
80. Lee NK, Jang JG, Lee HK. Shrinkage characteristics of alkali-activated fly
ash/slag paste and mortar at early ages. Cem Concr Compos. Crystallography and Materials Sci-
2014;53:239–248. ence, Leipzig University,
81. Thomas RJ, Ye H, Radli nska A, Peethamparan S. Alkali-activated slag Scharnhorststraße 20, 04275 Leipzig,
cement concrete. Concr Int. 2016;38:33–38.
82. Ma J, Dehn F. Schwind- und Kriechverhalten von Beton auf Basis eines Germany
alkalisch-aktivierten Hüttensands. Beton Stahlbetonbau. annemarie.herrmann@uni-leipzig.de
2017;112(1):22–30.
83. Castel A, Foster S, Aldred, J. Time-dependent behaviour of a class of fly
ash-based geopolymer concrete, 25–28. Andreas Koenig,
84. Aydın S, Baradan B. Mechanical and microstructural properties of heat
Dr rer nat Faculty of Chemistry and
cured alkali-activated slag mortars. Mater Des. 2012;35:374–383.
85. Law DW, Adam AA, Molyneaux TK, Patnaikuni I, Wardhono A. Long Mineralogy,
term durability properties of class F fly ash geopolymer concrete. Mater Institute for Mineralogy, Crystallog-
Struct. 2015;48(3):721–731. raphy and Materials Science, Leipzig
86. König A, Schmidt J, Dehn F, Orgass M, Rasch S, Neumann T,
Wöhrmann K, Önal, M. Entwicklung eines hinsichtlich des chemischen University,
Angriffs optimierten mineralischen Faserverbundwerkstoffs für dauerhafte Scharnhorststraße 20, 04275 Leipzig,
und ressourcenschonende Konstruktionen des Biogasanlagenbaus Germany
[in German]. Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt. Az:29617: Acid resistance
of fibre composites and structures for biogas plants. Deutsche Bundesstif-
akoenig@uni-leipzig.de
tung Umwelt Az:29617.Leipzig; 2013.
12 HERRMANN ET AL.

Frank Dehn, Prof

Dr-Ing Faculty of Chemistry and
Mineralogy, How to cite this article: Herrmann A, Koenig A,
Institute for Mineralogy, Crystallog- Dehn F. Structural concrete based on alkali-activated
raphy and Materials Science, binders: Terminology, reaction mechanisms, mix
Leipzig University, designs and performance. Structural Concrete.
Scharnhorststraße 20, 04275 Leipzig, 2017;1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201700016
Germany dehn@mfpa-leipzig.de

View publication stats