INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

QUESTION 1

Discuss the significance of supra-national actors in international

relations? How these actors are reshaping the subject in its totality
Supranational actors are entities or organizations that operate at a level above that of
individual sovereign states. They have authority, decision-making power, and influence
that transcend the boundaries of individual countries. Supranational actors are typically
established through international agreements or treaties and often serve specific
purposes, such as regional integration, global governance, or addressing common
challenges. Some key examples of supranational actors include:
1. The European Union (EU): The EU is one of the most prominent supranational
actors in the world. It is a political and economic union of 27 European countries
that have pooled aspects of their sovereignty to promote economic cooperation,
political stability, and social integration.
2. The United Nations (UN): While it comprises sovereign member states, the UN
is considered a supranational organization because it has a global mandate to
address international peace and security, human rights, development, and other
global issues. It establishes norms, coordinates global efforts, and provides a
platform for diplomacy and cooperation.
3. The World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO is a supranational organization
responsible for regulating international trade and resolving trade disputes among
its member states. It sets rules and standards for global trade and oversees trade
negotiations.
4. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): NATO is a military alliance of
North American and European countries that operates as a supranational entity to
provide collective defense and security cooperation.
5. The African Union (AU): The AU is a continental organization consisting of
African states. It aims to promote political and economic integration, peace and
security, and cooperation among African nations.
6. The World Health Organization (WHO): The WHO is a supranational
organization within the United Nations system responsible for coordinating
international efforts related to public health, disease control, and health standards.
7. The Organization of American States (OAS): The OAS is a regional organization
of countries in the Americas that addresses political, economic, social, and security
issues in the Western Hemisphere.
 8. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): The OIC is an international
organization comprising primarily Islamic nations. It focuses on issues related to
the Muslim world, including political, economic, and cultural cooperation.
9. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank: These financial
institutions have a supranational character because they provide financial
assistance, economic policy advice, and development support to member
countries, influencing global economic stability and development.
Supranational actors often require member states to cede some degree of sovereignty or
decision-making authority to achieve common goals. They play a crucial role in
addressing global challenges, promoting regional integration, maintaining peace and
security, and setting international standards and norms. These organizations can have a
significant impact on the conduct of international relations and the governance of global
affairs.

Supranational actors play a significant and evolving role in international relations,

reshaping the global landscape and influencing the dynamics of international politics.
These actors transcend the authority of individual states and exercise power and
influence beyond traditional national boundaries. The significance of supranational actors
in international relations can be understood in several key ways:
1. Regional Integration and Governance:
 Supranational organizations like the European Union (EU), African Union (AU),
and ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) have emerged as powerful
regional entities. They promote cooperation, integration, and governance on a
regional scale, affecting the political, economic, and security dynamics within their
respective regions.
2. Economic Influence:
 International financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
the World Bank wield substantial economic power and influence. They provide
financial assistance, development aid, and policy advice to member states,
impacting economic policies and development strategies worldwide.
3. Trade and Commerce:
 Organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade
blocs like NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) and Mercosur have a
significant impact on global trade and commerce. They negotiate trade
agreements, resolve trade disputes, and set trade rules and standards.
4. Norms and Standards:
  Supranational actors often shape international norms, standards, and regulations.
For example, the United Nations (UN) sets global norms on human rights,
environmental protection, and disarmament, influencing state behavior and global
expectations.
5. Conflict Resolution:
 Regional organizations, like the Organization of American States (OAS) and the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), play roles in conflict
resolution, crisis management, and peacekeeping operations.
6. Environmental Stewardship:
 Supranational entities like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and international agreements like the Paris Agreement are
crucial in addressing global environmental challenges.
7. Global Governance Gaps:
 In an increasingly interconnected world, supranational actors fill governance gaps
that individual states may struggle to address. Issues like cyber warfare,
pandemics, and international crime often require cooperative efforts beyond
national borders.
8. Influence on Sovereignty:
 Supranational organizations can influence state sovereignty, as states often
delegate certain powers to these entities in areas like trade, security, and human
rights. This can create tensions between national sovereignty and supranational
governance.
9. Soft Power and Diplomacy:
 Supranational actors, through their policies and practices, often exert soft power
by promoting their values, culture, and institutions. This can shape global
perceptions and enhance their diplomatic influence.
10. Promoting Peace and Stability: - Supranational actors frequently engage in
peacekeeping missions and conflict prevention efforts. Their involvement can contribute
to the maintenance of peace and stability in regions facing political or security challenges.
In totality, supranational actors are redefining the nature of international relations by
introducing a more complex and interconnected system of governance. While states
remain central actors, supranational entities have become key players, influencing state
behavior, global norms, and the resolution of global challenges. Their significance
underscores the need for effective global governance mechanisms that can address
transnational issues and promote cooperation among states and non-state actors alike.
QUESTION 2
Comparatively evaluate three paradigms of IR? What are some striking differences in three
paradigms and four great debates of IR?
International Relations (IR) is a field of study that encompasses various paradigms or theoretical
perspectives, each offering a unique lens through which to understand and analyze international politics.
Three prominent paradigms in IR are Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism. Here's a comparative
evaluation of these paradigms, highlighting some striking differences and their relationship to the four
great debates of IR:
1. Realism:
 Core Assumption: Realism assumes that states are the primary actors in international
relations, driven by their pursuit of power and security. The international system is
inherently anarchic and characterized by competition and conflict.
 Striking Differences:
 Realism emphasizes the role of power and self-interest in shaping state behavior,
downplaying the importance of international institutions and norms.
 Realists view international cooperation with skepticism and believe that states
prioritize their own interests over collective goals.
 Debate Relevance: Realism is often associated with the "First Great Debate" in IR, which
centered on the question of whether international relations are governed by conflict
(Realism) or cooperation (Liberalism).
2. Liberalism:
 Core Assumption: Liberalism posits that states are not solely driven by power politics but
are also influenced by international institutions, norms, and economic interdependence.
Cooperation and diplomacy are key features of the international system.
 Striking Differences:
 Liberals highlight the potential for international institutions to mitigate conflict and
promote cooperation. They see international law, organizations like the UN, and
economic interdependence as forces for peace.
 Liberalism emphasizes the role of democracy and human rights in shaping state
behavior and international relations.
 Debate Relevance: Liberalism is central to the "Second Great Debate" in IR, which
revolved around the compatibility of international law, institutions, and cooperation with the
anarchic nature of the international system.
3. Constructivism:
  Core Assumption: Constructivism argues that international relations are socially
constructed and shaped by ideas, identities, and norms. States' behavior is influenced by
their perceptions and the meaning they attach to actions and events.
 Striking Differences:
 Constructivists challenge the notion of a fixed, unchanging international system and
emphasize the importance of ideational factors in shaping state behavior.
 They highlight the role of norm diffusion, socialization, and identity formation in
international politics.
 Debate Relevance: Constructivism contributes to the "Third Great Debate" in IR, which
focuses on the role of ideas, norms, and identity in shaping state behavior and international
outcomes.
Four Great Debates of IR:
1. First Great Debate (Realism vs. Idealism): This debate, occurring in the aftermath of
World War I, centered on whether international relations were characterized by conflict and
power politics (Realism) or cooperation, international law, and diplomacy (Liberalism).
2. Second Great Debate (Traditionalism vs. Behavioralism): This debate, which emerged
in the 1950s and 1960s, revolved around the methodology and approaches used in IR.
Traditionalists favored historical and qualitative analysis, while behavioralists advocated for
more empirical and quantitative methods.
3. Third Great Debate (Neorealism vs. Neoliberalism): This debate, starting in the 1980s,
focused on the relative influence of anarchy and power (Neorealism) versus cooperation
and international institutions (Neoliberalism) in shaping international relations.
4. Fourth Great Debate (Positivism vs. Post-positivism): Emerging in the late 20th
century, this debate questioned the dominance of positivist approaches in IR research and
opened space for post-positivist and critical theories, including Constructivism and post
colonialism.
In summary, the three main paradigms of Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism offer contrasting
views on the nature of international relations, the role of power, institutions, and norms, and the factors
that shape state behavior. These paradigms are central to the four great debates in IR, which have
shaped the evolution of the field over the years.
QUESTION 3

Discuss different contours of national security policy of Pakistan in light of Barry

Buzan’s thesis of ‘conceptualization of security in 21st century’. Comment
whether it’s a paradigm shift or merely a document full of rhetoric.
Barry Buzan's thesis on the "conceptualization of security in the 21st century" emphasizes a broader
and more comprehensive understanding of security that goes beyond traditional military threats. It
includes non-traditional security challenges, such as economic, environmental, societal, and political
factors. In the context of Pakistan's national security policy, this thesis has indeed influenced the
contours of its security discourse and policy formulation. However, the extent to which it represents a
paradigm shift or remains rhetoric varies.
Contours of Pakistan's National Security Policy:
1. Traditional Security Concerns: Pakistan continues to prioritize traditional security
concerns, including its longstanding rivalry with India, nuclear deterrence, and military
preparedness. These elements remain central to Pakistan's security policy.
2. Non-Traditional Security Issues: Pakistan has increasingly acknowledged the
significance of non-traditional security challenges. These include terrorism and extremism,
water scarcity, climate change, economic instability, and political instability in neighboring
countries. Pakistan recognizes that these issues can have profound security implications.
3. Counterterrorism: The fight against terrorism and extremism has become a defining
feature of Pakistan's security policy. This aligns with the broader global recognition of the
need to combat transnational threats.
4. Economic Security: Pakistan's national security policy increasingly includes economic
security as a critical component. Economic stability and growth are seen as essential for
national resilience and security.
5. Energy Security: Ensuring a stable energy supply has become a prominent concern, given
Pakistan's energy deficits. Energy security is linked to both traditional and non-traditional
security, as energy shortages can lead to social and political instability.
6. Water Security: With growing water scarcity in the region, Pakistan recognizes the
importance of water security. Tensions over water resources with neighboring India further
underline the relevance of this issue.
7. Peace with Neighbors: Pakistan's national security policy includes efforts to seek peaceful
relations with its neighbors, including India and Afghanistan. Regional stability is
considered essential for Pakistan's own security.
Is it a Paradigm Shift or Rhetoric?
The extent to which Pakistan's national security policy represents a paradigm shift or remains rhetoric
is a subject of debate:
1. Shift in Conceptualization: There has been a shift in the conceptualization of security in
Pakistan, with a broader recognition of non-traditional security issues. The inclusion of
issues like terrorism, climate change, and economic instability in national security discourse
represents a shift from purely military-centric thinking.
2. Implementation Challenges: While the conceptual shift is evident, the challenge lies in
effective policy implementation. Pakistan has struggled to fully address non-traditional
 security issues, often facing capacity constraints, governance challenges, and resource
limitations.
3. Balancing Act: Pakistan's security policy must balance traditional and non-traditional
security concerns. The continued emphasis on traditional security is partly due to the
enduring regional security dynamics and the centrality of the military in Pakistan's
policymaking.
In conclusion, Pakistan's national security policy has evolved to recognize the importance of non-
traditional security challenges in the 21st century. While this represents a shift in conceptualization, it is
a complex process, and the actual implementation of a comprehensive security strategy remains a
challenge. Whether this shift results in tangible policy changes or remains largely rhetorical will depend
on Pakistan's ability to address its security challenges effectively in the coming years.
QUESTION 4

Discuss the concept, causes, effects and remedies of hybrid warfare?

Concept of Hybrid Warfare:
Hybrid warfare is a form of conflict that combines conventional military tactics with non-traditional means,
such as cyberattacks, information warfare, political subversion, and irregular warfare. It blurs the lines
between war and peace, making it challenging to distinguish between military and non-military actions.
Hybrid warfare seeks to exploit vulnerabilities, create confusion, and achieve strategic objectives without
necessarily engaging in full-scale armed conflict.
Causes of Hybrid Warfare:
1. Ambiguity of Attribution: Hybrid warfare exploits the difficulty in attributing cyberattacks,
disinformation campaigns, or unconventional actions to a specific state actor, allowing
aggressors to maintain plausible deniability.
2. Cost-Effectiveness: Hybrid warfare is often a cost-effective strategy compared to
traditional warfare. It leverages asymmetric tactics to achieve strategic objectives without
the need for a large conventional military force.
3. Grey Zone Conflicts: Hybrid warfare thrives in the "grey zone" between peace and war,
allowing states to engage in hostile activities without crossing the threshold of armed
conflict, which could trigger a military response.
4. Information Age: The digital age has facilitated the rapid spread of disinformation and
cyberattacks, enabling hybrid tactics to exploit vulnerabilities in information systems and
public opinion.
Effects of Hybrid Warfare:
1. Undermining Democracy: Disinformation campaigns and political subversion can
undermine democratic processes, sow division, and erode trust in institutions.
 2. Cybersecurity Threats: Hybrid warfare often involves cyberattacks, which can disrupt
critical infrastructure, steal sensitive information, and undermine economic stability.
3. Destabilization: Hybrid tactics can create instability in target countries, leading to social
unrest, economic turmoil, and political chaos.
4. Strategic Objectives: Hybrid warfare aims to achieve strategic objectives, such as
changing borders, altering political allegiances, or weakening a rival state, without resorting
to full-scale war.
Remedies for Hybrid Warfare:
1. Strengthen Cybersecurity: Improve cybersecurity measures to protect critical
infrastructure, government systems, and private sector networks from cyberattacks.
2. Media Literacy: Promote media literacy and critical thinking to help the public discern
disinformation from reliable sources.
3. International Cooperation: Encourage international cooperation to address hybrid threats
collectively, including sharing intelligence and best practices.
4. Deterrence: Develop a credible deterrent posture to dissuade potential aggressors from
engaging in hybrid warfare.
5. Resilience Building: Enhance societal resilience by fortifying institutions, reinforcing
democratic processes, and diversifying energy and supply chain sources.
6. Information Warfare Countermeasures: Develop strategies to counter disinformation
and propaganda, including fact-checking, public awareness campaigns, and counter-
narratives.
7. Legal Frameworks: Establish legal frameworks to attribute responsibility for cyberattacks
and other hybrid tactics and impose consequences on state and non-state actors.
8. Transparency: Promote transparency in online activities, including political advertising, to
reduce the anonymity of actors involved in hybrid warfare.
In conclusion, hybrid warfare is a complex and evolving form of conflict that exploits vulnerabilities in the
modern information age. Effectively countering hybrid threats requires a multi-dimensional approach
that encompasses cybersecurity, information warfare, international cooperation, and resilience building.
It is essential for states to adapt their strategies and policies to address the challenges posed by hybrid
warfare effectively.
QUESTION 5

COVID-19 has exposed the Global South to a new wave of economic imperialism.
Discuss it through theoretical lens of dependency and interdependency
discourse.
The COVID-19 pandemic has indeed had a profound impact on the Global South, and it can be analyzed
through the theoretical lenses of dependency theory and interdependency discourse, each offering a
distinct perspective on the economic dynamics between the Global North and the Global South:
1. Dependency Theory:
Dependency theory, which emerged in the mid-20th century, argues that underdevelopment in the
Global South is a result of economic and structural dependencies on the Global North. When applied to
the COVID-19 pandemic, the following points become relevant:
 Economic Vulnerability: The Global South often relies heavily on exports of raw materials,
commodities, and low-value-added goods to the Global North. During the pandemic, the
demand for such products declined, leading to economic hardships and a vulnerability to
external shocks.
 Debt Burden: Many countries in the Global South had already been burdened with
significant levels of debt prior to the pandemic. The economic fallout from COVID-19 led to
increased borrowing to cover healthcare and economic relief expenditures, exacerbating
their debt dependency on international financial institutions and Northern creditors.
 Vaccine Inequality: The Global South faced significant challenges in accessing COVID-
19 vaccines due to intellectual property rights, vaccine nationalism, and vaccine distribution
disparities. This unequal access reflects a dependency on pharmaceutical companies and
richer nations for life-saving resources.
 Economic Imperialism: The acquisition of strategic assets and resources in the Global
South by multinational corporations from the Global North intensified during the pandemic.
Bargain deals and takeovers in critical sectors were facilitated by the economic distress
caused by the crisis.
2. Interdependency Discourse:
Interdependency discourse, in contrast, emphasizes the interconnectedness of the global economy,
where both the Global North and the Global South rely on each other for trade, investment, and
economic growth. When applied to the COVID-19 pandemic:
 Global Supply Chains: The pandemic exposed the vulnerabilities of global supply chains,
with disruptions affecting both Northern and Southern economies. This highlighted the
interdependence of manufacturing, production, and trade.
 Development Assistance: The Global North provided development assistance and aid to
some countries in the Global South during the pandemic, recognizing that the health and
economic challenges faced by the South could have spillover effects on the North.
 Remittances: Many countries in the Global South rely on remittances from their diaspora
communities in the Global North. The economic downturn in Northern countries affected
remittance flows, which had a direct impact on Southern economies.
  Digital Interconnectivity: The pandemic accelerated digital transformation and
highlighted the interdependence of the global digital economy, where services, data, and
technology flows benefit both Northern and Southern economies.
In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities and inequalities in the global economic
system, affecting both the Global North and the Global South. Dependency theory highlights the
historical and structural disparities that exacerbated the South's vulnerability, while the interdependency
discourse underscores the interconnectedness of the global economy, where crises in one part of the
world can have repercussions worldwide. The challenge lies in addressing these issues to build a more
equitable and resilient global economic system.
QUESTION 6

Rising nationalism throughout globe is an evidence of looming end of American

Unipolar Era. Discuss in light of political and ideological nationalism.
The rise of nationalism across the globe can indeed be seen as evidence of the challenges facing the
American unipolar era, but it is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by political, economic, and
ideological factors. To discuss this, let's consider the impact of political and ideological nationalism on
the perceived decline of the American unipolar era:
1. Political Nationalism:
a. Assertion of Sovereignty: Many nations, regardless of their global power status, have sought to
assert their sovereignty and pursue policies that prioritize their national interests. This assertion of
sovereignty often takes the form of political nationalism, where countries resist external influence and
make decisions independently.
b. Erosion of Multilateralism: The American unipolar era was characterized by strong U.S. leadership
in international institutions and a commitment to multilateralism. However, some nations have
increasingly questioned the effectiveness and fairness of these institutions, leading to a shift towards
bilateralism and unilateralism.
c. Resurgence of Great Power Competition: The rise of political nationalism has fueled great power
competition, with countries like China and Russia challenging the dominance of the United States on
the global stage. This competition contributes to the perception of a declining unipolar era.
2. Ideological Nationalism:
a. Cultural Identity: Ideological nationalism often involves a strong emphasis on cultural identity,
values, and traditions. Nationalist movements may promote cultural preservation and protection against
perceived external influences, including globalization and Westernization.
b. Ethnonationalism: Ethnonationalism is a form of ideological nationalism where the primary focus is
on ethnic or racial identity. This form of nationalism has been associated with movements seeking
greater autonomy or independence based on ethnic lines.
c. Populism: Populist leaders and movements often appeal to ideological nationalism by framing
themselves as champions of the "ordinary people" against perceived elites or external forces. They may
promote protectionist economic policies and anti-immigration stances, contributing to a sense of
nationalism.
While political and ideological nationalism can challenge the unipolar era, it's essential to consider the
following points:
 Complexity of Nationalism: Nationalism is not a monolithic phenomenon. Its
manifestations vary from one country to another, and not all nationalist movements are
inherently anti-unipolar or anti-globalization.
 Continued U.S. Influence: Despite challenges, the United States remains a global
superpower with significant economic, military, and cultural influence. It continues to shape
international norms, institutions, and alliances.
 Global Interdependence: Economic and security interdependence remains a fundamental
feature of the international system. Nations, even in their pursuit of nationalism, often
recognize the benefits of international cooperation and trade.
In conclusion, the rise of political and ideological nationalism reflects a shifting global landscape, but it
does not necessarily signify the imminent end of the American unipolar era. The international system is
evolving, with multiple powers asserting their interests and challenging existing norms. The future
trajectory of international relations will depend on how nations navigate these complex dynamics and
whether they can strike a balance between nationalism and global cooperation.
QUESTION 7

Explain Ukraine-Russia War on basis of concept of balance of power. Can

diplomacy yield peace dividends or the muscles will prevail.
The Ukraine-Russia conflict can be analyzed through the lens of the balance of power, a concept in
international relations that focuses on the distribution of power among states and how it influences their
behavior. In this context, the conflict has several key elements:
1. Power Imbalance:
 Ukraine and Russia have a significant power imbalance. Russia is a major global power
with a large military, while Ukraine is a smaller state, albeit with a sizable population and
territory. This power asymmetry has played a crucial role in shaping the dynamics of the
conflict.
2. Historical Context:
 The conflict has deep historical roots, dating back to the Soviet era and Ukraine's struggle
for independence. The historical context is important for understanding the competing
national identities and territorial claims involved.
3. Security Concerns:
  Russia has expressed security concerns regarding NATO's expansion into Eastern Europe
and Ukraine's potential membership. Russia views a NATO presence in Ukraine as a threat
to its security and regional influence.
4. Diplomatic Efforts:
 Diplomatic efforts have been made to resolve the conflict, including the Minsk agreements,
which aimed to achieve a ceasefire and a political settlement. However, these agreements
have faced challenges in implementation, and the conflict has continued to simmer.
5. Military Actions:
 The conflict has seen both military actions and hybrid warfare tactics. Russia's annexation
of Crimea in 2014 and ongoing support for separatist movements in Eastern Ukraine have
contributed to the escalation of the conflict.
Can Diplomacy Yield Peace Dividends?
Diplomacy can potentially yield peace dividends, but several challenges must be addressed:
1. Mutual Trust: A fundamental requirement for successful diplomacy is the establishment of
mutual trust among the parties involved. In the Ukraine-Russia conflict, trust has eroded
over the years due to the conflict's complexity and history.
2. Enforcement Mechanisms: Diplomatic agreements must include effective enforcement
mechanisms to ensure compliance. Past attempts, such as the Minsk agreements, have
faced difficulties in implementation and monitoring.
3. International Mediation: The involvement of credible international mediators can enhance
the chances of successful diplomacy. The role of organizations like the OSCE and
individual countries has been important in facilitating dialogue.
4. Compromise: A lasting resolution to the conflict may require compromise on key issues,
such as the status of Crimea and Eastern Ukraine. Finding a compromise that satisfies the
interests of all parties is a challenging task.
5. Domestic Factors: Domestic political considerations in Ukraine and Russia can influence
the willingness to engage in diplomacy and make concessions.
Muscle vs. Diplomacy:
The Ukraine-Russia conflict has seen elements of both muscle-flexing and diplomacy. The conflict's
resolution is likely to depend on a combination of factors:
 Diplomatic Engagement: Diplomacy remains an essential avenue for seeking a peaceful
resolution. International pressure, sanctions, and negotiations can influence the behavior
of the parties involved.
  Military Realities: The conflict's military realities cannot be ignored. A purely military
solution would come at a significant cost in terms of lives and resources and could lead to
further instability.
 International Involvement: The role of the international community, including
organizations like the United Nations and the OSCE, is critical in facilitating diplomatic
efforts and ensuring a peaceful settlement.
In conclusion, while the Ukraine-Russia conflict has a strong power dimension, diplomacy remains a
crucial tool for seeking a peaceful resolution. The key challenge is to find a diplomatic formula that
addresses the core concerns of all parties and builds the necessary trust for a sustainable peace
settlement. Muscles alone are unlikely to bring lasting stability to the region.

IR II
QUESTION 1

Explain the concept of fascism and comparing the fascist agenda of Modi’s
regime with that of German and Italian fascism of 20th century.
Fascism is a complex and controversial political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century,
particularly in Italy and Germany, but also had variations in other countries. It is characterized by several
key features:
1. Authoritarianism: Fascist regimes are highly authoritarian, with centralized control under a single
leader or a small elite group. Individual liberties and democratic institutions are often suppressed.
2. Nationalism: Fascism emphasizes extreme nationalism and the belief in the superiority of one's own
nation or ethnicity. It often promotes a sense of national rebirth and a return to past glory.
3. Totalitarianism: Fascist governments seek total control over all aspects of society, including the
economy, media, education, and culture. They aim to shape and control public opinion and behavior.
4. Militarism: Fascist regimes typically prioritize a strong military and may engage in expansionist or
imperialistic actions to assert their dominance.
5. Anti-Communism: Fascism often opposes communism and socialism, viewing them as threats to
the nation. Anti-Semitic and xenophobic beliefs are also common in fascist ideology.
6. Propaganda and Mass Mobilization: Fascist governments use propaganda extensively to shape
public perception and mobilize the masses behind their agenda. They employ mass rallies, symbols,
and charismatic leaders to create a cult of personality.
7. Suppression of Opposition: Political opposition and dissent are forcefully suppressed, often through
violence and intimidation. Political opponents, minorities, and perceived enemies of the state are
persecuted.
8. Corporatism: Fascist regimes may promote a form of corporatism, where the government
collaborates closely with business interests to control and regulate the economy.
9. Expansionism: Some fascist regimes pursue territorial expansion and imperialistic goals to achieve
regional or global dominance.
10. Cult of Leadership: Fascist leaders are often revered and given absolute authority. Loyalty to the
leader and the state is paramount.
When comparing Modi's regime in India with German and Italian fascism of the 20th century, it's
important to note significant differences:
1. Democratic Framework: India remains a democratic republic with regular elections and a
multi-party system, whereas German and Italian fascism involved the dismantling of
democratic institutions.
2. Absence of Militarism: India has not engaged in aggressive expansionism or imperialistic
actions akin to Nazi Germany's territorial ambitions.
3. Ethnic and Religious Differences: Modi's regime is marked by concerns about Hindu
nationalism and its impact on religious minorities, particularly Muslims. While there are
concerns about religious and ethnic nationalism, it is not directly comparable to the extreme
racial ideologies of Nazi Germany.
4. Economic Policy: India's economic policies differ significantly from fascist corporatism.
India has adopted market-oriented economic reforms, whereas fascism often involves state
control and collaboration with businesses.
5. Absence of a Single Leader: While Modi is a prominent leader in India, he does not wield
absolute power to the extent seen in fascist regimes, where leaders like Hitler and Mussolini
had unchecked authority.
While there are concerns and controversies surrounding Modi's government, it is essential to avoid facile
comparisons with historical fascism. The term "fascism" should be used carefully and accurately, as it
carries significant historical and ideological baggage. Analyzing contemporary political movements and
leaders should be done with a nuanced understanding of their specific context and actions.
QUESTION 2

Evaluate key events between two great wars from theoretical lens of IR. How
these events contributed in onset of World War-II?
The period between the two World Wars, roughly from the end of World War I in 1918 to the outbreak
of World War II in 1939, was marked by a series of key events that significantly shaped international
relations. Analyzing these events through the theoretical lens of International Relations (IR) can help us
understand how they contributed to the onset of World War II:
1. Treaty of Versailles (1919):
  IR Lens: Realism and Power Politics.
 Analysis: The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended World War I, imposed heavy
reparations and territorial losses on Germany. It reflected the power dynamics and interests
of the victorious Allied powers, especially France and the UK. The treaty created
resentment in Germany, contributing to economic hardship and political instability.
2. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes:
 IR Lens: Realism and Authoritarianism.
 Analysis: The interwar period saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in Italy, under Mussolini,
and in Germany, under Hitler. These regimes pursued expansionist agendas and
militarization, challenging the existing international order.
3. Expansionism of Japan:
 IR Lens: Realism and Power Transition Theory.
 Analysis: Japan's expansionist policies in Asia, including the invasion of Manchuria in
1931, challenged the balance of power in the Asia-Pacific region. This expansionism
alarmed other major powers and contributed to tensions in the international system.
4. Great Depression (1929):
 IR Lens: Economic Factors in IR.
 Analysis: The Great Depression had severe economic and social consequences
worldwide. Economic hardship fueled political instability and nationalism in many countries.
Protectionist policies and trade barriers further strained international relations.
5. Appeasement Policies:
 IR Lens: Realism and Diplomacy.
 Analysis: The policy of appeasement, notably by the UK and France, aimed to avoid
conflict with aggressive powers like Nazi Germany. However, it emboldened Hitler, allowing
him to pursue territorial expansion in Eastern Europe with little resistance.
6. Failure of Collective Security:
 IR Lens: Liberalism and Collective Security.
 Analysis: The League of Nations, established after World War I, failed to prevent acts of
aggression. Its inability to respond effectively to events such as the Italian invasion of
Ethiopia (1935) and the Spanish Civil War (1936) weakened the concept of collective
security.
7. Spanish Civil War (1936-1939):
 IR Lens: Proxy Conflicts and Ideological Competition.
  Analysis: The Spanish Civil War served as a proxy conflict where the interests of major
powers clashed. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy supported Francisco Franco's
Nationalists, while the Soviet Union backed the Republicans. It further polarized the
international system.
8. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939):
 IR Lens: Realpolitik and Alliances.
 Analysis: The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, signed between Germany and the Soviet
Union, allowed Hitler to invade Poland in 1939 without fearing a two-front war. This pact
shocked Western democracies and paved the way for the outbreak of World War II when
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.
In summary, the interwar period witnessed a complex interplay of power politics, economic hardship,
nationalism, expansionist ambitions, and failed attempts at collective security. These factors, when
analyzed through various IR theories, highlight how a combination of historical events and the behavior
of major powers contributed to the onset of World War II. The failure to prevent aggression and the
erosion of the existing international order were key elements in this tragic transition from one world war
to another.
QUESTION 3

“War on Terror was an American misadventure.” Discuss the main causes of US

failure in War on Terror and evaluate the event of fall of Kabul?

The War on Terror, launched by the United States in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, has been
a complex and contentious endeavor. Many critics argue that it was a misadventure due to various
reasons. Let's discuss the main causes of the U.S. failure in the War on Terror and evaluate the event
of the fall of Kabul:
Causes of U.S. Failure in the War on Terror:
1. Lack of Clear Objectives: One of the primary criticisms of the War on Terror was the
absence of well-defined and achievable objectives. The U.S. initially aimed to dismantle al-
Qaeda and eliminate Osama bin Laden but later became involved in nation-building efforts
in Afghanistan and Iraq, which lacked clear goals.
2. Unilateralism: The U.S. pursued a largely unilateral approach, often disregarding
international institutions and allies. This approach eroded diplomatic support and hindered
cooperation, especially in Iraq.
3. Insufficient Planning and Resources: The invasion of Iraq in 2003 was marked by
inadequate planning for the post-war phase, leading to instability and insurgency. In both
Afghanistan and Iraq, there were not enough troops, resources, or a clear exit strategy.
 4. Civilian Casualties: High numbers of civilian casualties and collateral damage eroded
public support, both domestically and internationally. These casualties fueled anti-
American sentiment and recruitment for extremist groups.
5. Tribal and Sectarian Divisions: In Iraq and Afghanistan, deep-seated tribal and sectarian
divisions complicated the efforts at state-building and reconciliation. The U.S. struggled to
navigate these complex sociopolitical landscapes.
6. Evolving Insurgencies: The insurgencies in Iraq and Afghanistan adapted to U.S. tactics
and strategies. They employed asymmetric warfare, improvised explosive devices (IEDs),
and suicide bombings, making it challenging for U.S. forces to counter them effectively.
7. Proxy Conflicts: In both Afghanistan and Iraq, the involvement of neighboring countries
and proxy actors complicated the conflicts. This included Pakistan's support for the Taliban
in Afghanistan and Iran's influence in Iraq.
8. Shift in Priorities: The U.S. shift in focus from Afghanistan to Iraq in 2003 diverted
resources and attention from the original objectives of the War on Terror. This allowed the
Taliban to regroup and regain strength in Afghanistan.
Evaluation of the Fall of Kabul:
The fall of Kabul in August 2021, with the rapid advance of the Taliban and the hasty withdrawal of U.S.
and NATO forces, was a significant event that underscored many of the failures and challenges of the
War on Terror:
 Failure of Nation-Building: Despite two decades of U.S. involvement, the Afghan
government proved unable to establish stability, address corruption, and build effective
institutions. The sudden collapse of the Afghan government exposed the lack of progress
in nation-building efforts.
 Weak Afghan Security Forces: Despite extensive training and funding, the Afghan
security forces were ill-prepared and lacked the morale to resist the Taliban's advance. This
highlighted the issues of corruption, leadership, and sustainability.
 Strategic Inconsistencies: The U.S. decision to withdraw without a clear plan for
sustaining the Afghan government or mitigating the risks of a Taliban resurgence was seen
as strategically inconsistent.
 Geopolitical Implications: The fall of Kabul had significant geopolitical implications, as
regional actors, including China, Russia, and Iran, sought to fill the power vacuum left by
the U.S. withdrawal. It also raised concerns about the potential resurgence of terrorism in
the region.
In conclusion, the War on Terror is widely viewed as a misadventure due to a combination of factors,
including unclear objectives, unilateralism, insufficient planning, and evolving insurgencies. The fall of
Kabul served as a stark reminder of these challenges and underscored the need for careful
consideration of the long-term consequences of military interventions and nation-building efforts.
 CSS 2023 PAPER
IR I
QUESTION 1

Discuss the main principles of Constructivism in International Relations. Give a

comparative analysis of constructivism and realism with examples
Constructivism is a prominent theory in International Relations that emphasizes the role of ideas,
norms, and beliefs in shaping international behavior and outcomes. Unlike realism, which focuses on
material power and self-interest, constructivism highlights the significance of non-material factors and
the social construction of reality. Here are the main principles of constructivism, followed by a
comparative analysis with realism:
Main Principles of Constructivism:
1. Ideational Nature: Constructivism posits that ideas, norms, and identities are central to
understanding international relations. It asserts that the meanings attributed to material
factors (such as power and resources) are socially constructed and can change over time.
2. Identity and Role of Actors: Constructivists argue that state behavior is influenced by how
states perceive themselves and others. The identities and roles states ascribe to
themselves and others shape their actions. For example, a state may see itself as a
responsible global actor or as a revisionist power.
3. Norms and Rules: Constructivism emphasizes the importance of norms and rules in
shaping state behavior. International institutions, treaties, and agreements are seen as
powerful in socializing states and fostering cooperation. For example, the norm against the
use of chemical weapons has influenced state behavior.
4. Social Interactions: Constructivists emphasize the role of social interactions in
international relations. These interactions can lead to the diffusion of ideas, the formation
of alliances, and the emergence of shared understandings. For example, the Arab Spring
movements were driven by transnational social interactions facilitated by technology.
5. Change and Adaptation: Constructivism asserts that the international system is not fixed
but evolves as states and non-state actors adapt to new ideas and circumstances. States
can change their behavior and interests over time based on evolving norms and identities.
6. Epistemic Communities: Constructivists highlight the importance of epistemic
communities—groups of experts and practitioners who share common knowledge and
beliefs. These communities influence state behavior by shaping policy debates and
influencing decision-makers.
Comparative Analysis with Realism:
Realism is another major theory in International Relations that contrasts with constructivism in several
ways:
1. Nature of International System:
 Realism: The international system is anarchic, characterized by a self-help mentality
where states pursue power and security in a competitive environment.
 Constructivism: The international system is socially constructed, and state behavior
is influenced by norms, identities, and shared understandings.
2. Drivers of State Behavior:
 Realism: Material power (military, economic, and political) is the primary driver of
state behavior. States seek to maximize their power and security.
 Constructivism: Ideas, norms, and identities play a crucial role in shaping state
behavior. States may prioritize normative goals, such as human rights or
environmental protection.
3. Cooperation and Conflict:
 Realism: Cooperation among states is viewed as temporary and based on self-
interest. Conflict is seen as inherent in international relations.
 Constructivism: Cooperation can be enduring and is influenced by shared norms
and identities. Conflict is not inevitable and can be mitigated through normative
change.
4. Examples:
 Realism: The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union was
driven by power politics and the security dilemma, with both states seeking to
maximize their influence and security.
 Constructivism: The formation of the European Union, driven by the idea of a united
Europe and shared norms of democracy and human rights, exemplifies
constructivist principles.
In summary, constructivism and realism offer distinct perspectives on international relations.
Constructivism highlights the ideational and social aspects of state behavior, while realism focuses on
material power and self-interest. These theories provide complementary insights into the complex
dynamics of international politics.
QUESTION 2
What are the best policy options to deal with asymmetrical warfare?
Dealing with asymmetrical warfare, where one party is significantly weaker than the other and employs
unconventional tactics, presents unique challenges. Effective policy options should address both the
military and non-military dimensions of the conflict. Here are some of the best policy options to deal with
asymmetrical warfare:
1. Counterinsurgency (COIN) Strategy:
 Adopt a counterinsurgency strategy that prioritizes protecting the civilian population,
winning hearts and minds, and isolating insurgents from their support base.
 Focus on intelligence gathering, including human intelligence (HUMINT), to understand the
insurgency's networks and intentions.
2. Comprehensive Approach:
 Take a holistic approach that combines military, political, economic, and social components
to address the root causes of the conflict.
 Engage in nation-building efforts, such as infrastructure development, education, and
healthcare, to improve living conditions and reduce support for insurgents.
3. Multinational and Multilateral Cooperation:
 Collaborate with international partners and regional actors to share intelligence, coordinate
operations, and address the cross-border nature of many asymmetrical conflicts.
 Engage in diplomacy and conflict resolution efforts, including negotiations with insurgents
if feasible.
4. Cyber and Information Warfare:
 Enhance capabilities in cyber warfare and information operations to disrupt the
communication and propaganda efforts of insurgent groups.
 Counter disinformation and propaganda with accurate and timely information.
5. Special Operations Forces (SOF):
 Utilize Special Operations Forces for targeted operations, intelligence gathering, and
unconventional warfare.
 SOF can play a crucial role in training local security forces and conducting high-value target
raids.
6. Counterterrorism:
 Implement effective counterterrorism measures to disrupt the financing, recruitment, and
logistics of insurgent groups.
 Strengthen border security and intelligence-sharing to prevent the movement of insurgents
and foreign fighters.
7. Local Capacity Building:
  Train and equip local security forces to take the lead in combating insurgents. This
enhances their ability to address the conflict's root causes and maintain long-term stability.
 Build community resilience to extremist ideologies through education and social programs.
8. Humanitarian Assistance:
 Provide humanitarian aid to conflict-affected populations to alleviate suffering and reduce
grievances that may fuel support for insurgents.
 Collaborate with international organizations and NGOs to deliver aid effectively.
9. Political Reconciliation:
 Explore political solutions and reconciliation processes to address grievances and bring
former insurgents into the political mainstream.
 Offer amnesty and incentives for insurgents to lay down their arms.
10. Counter Radicalization and Preventive Measures: - Implement programs to counter radicalization
and extremist ideologies, including community outreach, deradicalization programs, and vocational
training. - Promote moderate religious voices and interfaith dialogue to counter extremist narratives.
11. Adaptive Strategies: - Continuously assess and adapt strategies based on the evolving nature of
the conflict and the capabilities of insurgent groups. - Maintain flexibility and avoid rigid plans that may
become obsolete.
12. Public Diplomacy: - Engage in public diplomacy efforts to garner international and domestic support
for counterinsurgency efforts. - Communicate the importance of the mission and the progress being
made.
Dealing with asymmetrical warfare requires a multifaceted and adaptive approach that addresses not
only the military aspects but also the political, social, and economic dimensions of the conflict.
Collaboration with international partners, local communities, and affected populations is essential for
success in countering asymmetrical threats.
QUESTION 3

Discuss the significance of IAEA. Critically evaluate its role in nuclear

nonproliferation

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an independent international organization

that plays a crucial role in the field of nuclear energy and nuclear nonproliferation. It was
established in 1957 as an autonomous agency under the United Nations (UN) to promote the
peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing its use for any military purpose. The IAEA's
significance lies in several key areas:
1. Safeguarding Nuclear Materials:
  The IAEA is responsible for implementing safeguards agreements with member states to
ensure that nuclear materials and facilities are used exclusively for peaceful purposes. This
includes monitoring and verifying the declared nuclear activities of states to prevent the
diversion of materials for weapons.
2. Preventing Nuclear Proliferation:
 The IAEA plays a pivotal role in preventing the spread of nuclear weapons by verifying
compliance with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). Its
inspections and reporting mechanisms help detect and deter potential violations.
3. Promoting Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy:
 The agency assists member states in developing and utilizing nuclear technology for
peaceful purposes, such as electricity generation, healthcare, and agriculture. It provides
technical assistance, conducts research, and offers training programs.
4. Nuclear Safety and Security:
 The IAEA establishes safety standards and guidelines for the operation of nuclear facilities,
as well as for the handling, transportation, and disposal of radioactive materials. It also
assists member states in enhancing nuclear security to prevent theft or sabotage.
5. Crisis Response and Verification:
 The IAEA can respond to nuclear emergencies and accidents, providing expertise and
technical assistance. It also plays a role in verifying disarmament agreements and nuclear
arms control treaties.
6. Disarmament and Verification:
 The agency has been involved in disarmament efforts, including the verification of arms
control agreements such as the Treaty on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) and
the New START Treaty between the United States and Russia.
Critique and Challenges:
While the IAEA has made significant contributions to nuclear nonproliferation, it faces several challenges
and criticisms:
1. Limited Enforcement Power: The IAEA's authority is based on cooperation and consent.
It cannot force states to comply with safeguards agreements or inspections, which limits its
effectiveness in cases of non-cooperation or violation.
2. Political Biases: The agency has been accused of having a Western bias, particularly in
its approach to countries like Iran and North Korea. This has sometimes raised questions
about its impartiality and effectiveness.
3. Resource Constraints: The IAEA faces resource constraints that limit its capacity to
conduct thorough inspections and provide assistance to member states effectively.
 4. Nuclear-Armed States: The IAEA's ability to monitor disarmament efforts by nuclear-
armed states is limited. These states often maintain a level of secrecy around their nuclear
arsenals.
5. Emerging Technologies: Advancements in nuclear technology, including the potential
use of dual-use technologies for military purposes, pose new challenges for the agency's
verification capabilities.
In conclusion, the IAEA plays a significant role in nuclear nonproliferation by promoting the peaceful use
of nuclear energy, monitoring compliance with nonproliferation agreements, and enhancing nuclear
safety and security. However, it faces limitations in enforcement, resource constraints, and challenges
related to political biases and emerging technologies. Despite these challenges, the IAEA remains a
vital international institution in efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote global
nuclear security.

IR II
QUESTION 1

John Mearsheimer blames the United States for the ongoing Ukraine Crisis. How
do you assess this crisis? Support your argument by drawing empirical evidence
from the conflict scenarios
John Mearsheimer is a prominent realist scholar in International Relations who has indeed argued that
the United States bears a significant share of responsibility for the ongoing Ukraine Crisis. His
perspective is rooted in realist theories of international politics, particularly the notion of great power
politics and the security dilemma. To assess the Ukraine Crisis and evaluate Mearsheimer's argument,
it's essential to consider various factors and empirical evidence:
Mearsheimer's Argument: Mearsheimer's central argument is that the expansion of NATO (the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization) eastward, including the incorporation of former Soviet bloc countries like
Poland and the Baltic states, has been a provocative move that directly threatens Russia's security
interests. He contends that this expansion has ignored Russia's historical security concerns and has
contributed to the Ukraine Crisis. From a realist perspective, he suggests that great powers will naturally
seek to secure their borders and protect their spheres of influence, leading to conflict when their interests
clash.
Empirical Evidence and Factors:
1. NATO Expansion: The expansion of NATO, which began in the 1990s, moved the alliance
closer to Russia's borders. This expansion included the admission of countries like Poland,
Hungary, and the Czech Republic. Russia viewed this expansion as encroachment into its
traditional sphere of influence.
2. Color Revolutions: The "color revolutions" in countries like Georgia (2003) and Ukraine
(2004) were seen by Russia as Western-backed efforts to promote pro-Western
 governments in its neighborhood. The Orange Revolution in Ukraine in 2004-2005 was
particularly significant.
3. 2008 Russo-Georgian War: The conflict between Russia and Georgia in 2008 over the
breakaway regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia demonstrated Russia's willingness to
use military force to protect its interests in the region.
4. Ukraine's Association Agreement: Ukraine's pursuit of closer ties with the European
Union (EU) and its signing of the EU Association Agreement in 2014 triggered Russia's
intervention in Crimea and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine. Russia viewed this as a move to
pull Ukraine into Western orbit.
5. Annexation of Crimea: In February-March 2014, Russia annexed Crimea following a
controversial referendum. This move was seen as a violation of Ukraine's sovereignty and
led to international condemnation and sanctions.
6. Conflict in Eastern Ukraine: The ongoing conflict in Eastern Ukraine, particularly in
Donetsk and Luhansk regions, has resulted in thousands of deaths and displacement of
civilians. It involves pro-Russian separatists and Ukrainian forces.
Counterarguments and Complexity:
It's important to note that the Ukraine Crisis is a complex and multifaceted conflict with multiple
contributing factors. While Mearsheimer's argument highlights the role of NATO expansion and Western
policies, other factors include Ukraine's desire for sovereignty, internal political divisions, and Russia's
broader strategic interests. Moreover, many Ukrainians themselves have sought closer ties with the
West.
Conclusion:
While John Mearsheimer's argument focuses on the role of the United States and NATO expansion in
the Ukraine Crisis, it's only one perspective in a complex geopolitical puzzle. The crisis has deep
historical, political, and regional dimensions, and its resolution requires a nuanced understanding of
these factors. The situation in Ukraine underscores the challenges of balancing the security interests of
great powers with the rights and aspirations of smaller states, and it highlights the need for diplomatic
efforts to address the underlying issues and seek a peaceful resolution.
QUESTION 2

How are international financial institutions i.e., FATF, IMF and multilateral
organizations used as tool of coercion and what are options for countries like
Pakistan to safeguard their interests?
International financial institutions and multilateral organizations like the Financial Action Task Force
(FATF) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) can sometimes be used as tools of coercion or
leverage by more powerful countries to advance their interests or pressure other nations. Here's an
explanation of how this can happen and what options countries like Pakistan can consider to safeguard
their interests:
1. Use of International Financial Institutions as Tools of Coercion:
 FATF: FATF is primarily responsible for combating money laundering and terrorist
financing. However, it has been used by some countries as a means to pressure others on
broader political and foreign policy issues. Placing a country on the FATF "gray list" or
"black list" can have significant economic consequences, as it can restrict access to
international financial markets and create uncertainty for investors.
 IMF: The IMF provides financial assistance to member countries facing economic crises.
In some cases, powerful countries or groups of countries, including the United States and
major European nations, have used their influence within the IMF to attach conditions to
loans or financial assistance. These conditions can include economic policy changes,
structural reforms, and even geopolitical concessions.
2. Options for Countries like Pakistan to Safeguard Their Interests:
 Diversify Economic Partnerships: Countries can reduce their vulnerability to coercion by
diversifying their economic partnerships and reducing dependency on a single country or
group of countries. Expanding trade and investment relationships with a broader range of
partners can enhance economic resilience.
 Strengthen Economic Resilience: Implementing economic reforms and building a strong
and resilient economy can reduce a country's susceptibility to financial pressure. Sound
economic policies, fiscal discipline, and a stable investment climate can enhance a nation's
economic standing.
 Enhance Diplomacy and Alliances: Building and maintaining strong diplomatic ties and
alliances with multiple countries can provide political and economic support in times of
external pressure. Diplomatic engagement can help counterbalance coercive measures.
 Engage in International Organizations: Active participation in international organizations
can provide countries with a platform to voice their concerns and advocate for their
interests. Engaging in multilateral diplomacy and building coalitions with like-minded
countries can amplify a nation's voice on the global stage.
 Address the Root Causes: Countries should address the underlying issues that may lead
to coercive actions. This can involve addressing concerns related to money laundering,
terrorism financing, or economic instability. Taking proactive steps to mitigate these
concerns can reduce the risk of punitive measures.
 Seek Technical Assistance and Capacity Building: Countries can work with
international organizations like the IMF and FATF to strengthen their capacity in areas such
as financial regulation, anti-money laundering, and counterterrorism financing.
Demonstrating a commitment to addressing these issues can enhance a nation's credibility.
 Diplomatic Negotiation: Diplomatic negotiations and dialogue can be used to address
concerns and seek resolutions to disputes without resorting to punitive measures.
 Engaging in diplomatic efforts can demonstrate a country's willingness to cooperate and
find mutually acceptable solutions.
In conclusion, international financial institutions and multilateral organizations can indeed be used as
tools of coercion, but countries like Pakistan have various options to safeguard their interests. These
options involve diversifying economic partnerships, strengthening resilience, enhancing diplomacy and
alliances, and addressing underlying concerns through proactive measures and negotiations. Building
a strong and credible international presence is crucial for protecting national interests in the face of
external pressure.
QUESTION 3

Pakistan has affirmed its commitment to the 2030 Agenda of Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs). How modest is Pakistan’s progress on SDGs and
what are the challenges that Pakistan faces in realizing these goals?
Pakistan has indeed affirmed its commitment to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which provides a comprehensive framework for addressing global challenges and improving
the well-being of its citizens. However, the progress toward achieving the SDGs in Pakistan has been
modest, and the country faces several challenges in realizing these goals:
Modest Progress on SDGs:
1. Poverty and Inequality: Pakistan faces persistent challenges related to poverty and
income inequality. While there has been progress in reducing poverty rates over the years,
a significant portion of the population still lives below the poverty line.
2. Healthcare: Access to quality healthcare remains a major concern. Maternal and child
mortality rates are high, and there are disparities in healthcare services between urban and
rural areas.
3. Education: Although there has been an increase in school enrollment, Pakistan still
grapples with low literacy rates and a high out-of-school population, particularly among
girls. Quality of education also remains a challenge.
4. Gender Equality: Gender disparities persist in various aspects of Pakistani society,
including education, employment, and political participation. Gender-based violence is
another critical issue.
5. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability: Pakistan is vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change, including extreme weather events and water scarcity. Ensuring
environmental sustainability and addressing water management are pressing concerns.
6. Infrastructure and Urbanization: Rapid urbanization has led to challenges related to
infrastructure development, including housing, transportation, and sanitation in cities.
 7. Political Stability and Governance: Political instability, governance challenges, and
corruption have hindered effective policymaking and implementation, which is essential for
achieving the SDGs.
Challenges in Realizing the SDGs:
1. Resource Constraints: Pakistan faces fiscal and budgetary constraints that limit its ability
to allocate adequate resources to SDG-related programs and initiatives.
2. Security Concerns: Ongoing security challenges, including terrorism and militancy, divert
resources and attention away from development efforts.
3. Water Scarcity: Pakistan is grappling with severe water scarcity, which has significant
implications for agriculture, food security, and access to clean water and sanitation.
4. Population Growth: Rapid population growth places additional pressure on resources and
services, making it challenging to meet the needs of a growing population.
5. Education Quality: Improving the quality of education, including curriculum development
and teacher training, is essential to ensure that children receive a meaningful education.
6. Political and Institutional Reforms: Addressing governance challenges and promoting
transparency and accountability in public institutions are critical for effective implementation
of the SDGs.
7. Gender Empowerment: Achieving gender equality and addressing gender-based violence
require not only legal reforms but also changes in societal attitudes and norms.
8. Climate Adaptation: Adapting to the impacts of climate change and implementing
sustainable environmental practices require substantial investments and technological
advancements.
Despite these challenges, Pakistan has taken steps to align its national development priorities with the
SDGs and has developed a framework for monitoring and reporting progress. To accelerate progress
on the SDGs, Pakistan may need to focus on enhancing governance, mobilizing resources,
strengthening social safety nets, and fostering public-private partnerships. International cooperation and
support can also play a significant role in helping Pakistan achieve its sustainable development goals.