Step-by-step guide to critiquing

research. Part 2: qualitative research

Frances Ryan, Michael Coughlan, Patricia Cronin

explore individuals’ experiences (Vishnevsky and Beanlands,

2004) and in some instances the development of new theory.
Abstract
As with a quantitative study, critical analysis of a qualitative study Elements influencing believability of the study
involves an in-depth review of how each step of the research was The elements influencing believability can help the reader
undertaken. Qualitative and quantitative studies are, however, to focus on what to expect from a piece of research by
fundamentally different approaches to research and therefore asking questions regarding the researcher’s academic and
need to be considered differently with regard to critiquing. The professional qualifications and the skills demonstrated in
different philosophical underpinnings of the various qualitative presenting the study (Ryan-Wenger, 1992). These questions
research methods generate discrete ways of reasoning and distinct are similar to those asked when critiquing a quantitative
terminology; however, there are also many similarities within these study and were discussed in part 1 of this article (Coughlan
methods. Because of this and its subjective nature, qualitative research et al, 2007). Questions relating to these elements are
it is often regarded as more difficult to critique. Nevertheless, an presented in Table 1.
evidenced-based profession such as nursing cannot accept research at
face value, and nurses need to be able to determine the strengths and Elements influencing robustness of the study
limitations of qualitative as well as quantitative research studies when Statement of the phenomenon of interest
reviewing the available literature on a topic. Many of the topics examined in research studies are of an
abstract nature in that the particular experience may be
Key words: Critical appraisal n Qualitative research interpreted differently by another individual, or by the same
individual under different circumstances, e.g. when in pain. In
qualitative research these abstract encounters or experiences

Q ualitative and quantitative studies are fundamentally

different approaches to research and therefore
need to be approached differently with regard to
critiquing. Qualitative research is essentially an
assortment of various approaches that have commonalities as
well as differences (Parahoo, 2006). The different philosophical
are known as phenomena (Polit and Beck, 2006). The topic
being studied should be clearly identified by the researcher
(Connell Meehan, 1999).

Purpose/significance of the study

The researcher should explain next why the study needs
underpinnings of the various qualitative research methods to be undertaken and what he/she expects to glean from it.
generate discrete ways of reasoning and distinct terminology; The researcher should also state why the study will be of
however, there are many similarities within these methods significance and how it will add to the general body of
(Burns and Grove, 1999) that can be categorized together. information on the phenomenon (Connell Meehan, 1999).
Qualitative research does not regard truth as objective, At this stage the researcher should also justify the use of a
but as a subjective reality that is experienced differently by qualitative approach and the qualitative methodology to be
each individual (Vishnevsky and Beanlands, 2004). Nor do used (Connell Meehan, 1999).
proponents of qualitative research believe that a phenomenon
can be isolated into multiple variables that can be studied Literature review
independently. Qualitative research asserts that a phenomenon The function of a literature review in research studies is to
is more than the sum of its parts, and must therefore be studied provide an objective account of what has been written on a
in a holistic manner. As a result, the purpose of this paradigm given subject. This in turn should reflect prominent emerging
is not to attempt to generalize data to the population but to themes and inform the conceptual framework of the study.
Qualitative research follows the naturalistic paradigm
based on the assumption that multiple realities exist and such
Frances Ryan, Michael Coughlan, Patricia Cronin are Lecturers, realities are constructed by the research participants. It aims
School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Dublin, Trinity to explore the phenomenon in question by focusing on the
College, Dublin individuals who experience it (Vishnevsky and Beanlands,
2004). Qualitative methods are concerned with experiences,
Accepted for publication: March 2007 feelings and attitudes, as opposed to precise measurement
and statistical analysis. Qualitative methodologies vary

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Table 1. Research questions: guidelines for critiquing a qualitative research study

Elements influencing believability of the research

Elements Questions
Writing style Is the report well written – concise, grammatically correct, avoids the use of jargon?
Is it well laid out and organized?
Author Do the researcher’s qualifications/position indicate a degree of knowledge in this field?
Report title Is the title clear, accurate and unambiguous?
Abstract Does the abstract offer a clear overview of the study, including the research problem, sample,
methodology, findings and recommendations?

Elements influencing robustness of the research

Elements Questions
Statement of the Is the phenomenon to be studied clearly identified?
phenomenon of interest Are the phenomenon of interest and the research question consistent?
Purpose/significance of the study Is the purpose of the study/research question clearly identified?
Literature review Has a literature review been undertaken?
Does it meet the philosophical underpinnings of the study?
Does the review of the literature fulfil its objectives?
Theoretical framework Has a conceptual or theoretical framework been identified?
Is the framework adequately described?
Is the framework appropriate?
Method and philosophical Has the philosophical approach been identified?
underpinnings Why was this approach chosen?
Have the philosophical underpinnings of the approach been explained?
Sample Is the sampling method and sample size identified?
Is the sampling method appropriate?
Were the participants suitable for informing research?
Ethical considerations Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research?
Was the autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed?
Were the participants protected from harm?
Was ethical permission granted for the study?
Data collection/data analysis Are the data collection strategies described?
Are the strategies used to analyse the data described?
Did the researcher follow the steps of the data analysis method identified?
Was data saturation achieved?
Rigour Does the researcher discuss how rigour was assured?
Were credibility, dependability, transferability and goodness discussed?
Findings/discussion Are the findings presented appropriately?
Has the report been placed in the context of what was already known of the phenomenon?
Has the original purpose of the study been adequately addressed?
Conclusions/implications and Are the importance and implications of the findings identified?
recommendations Are recommendations made to suggest how the research findings can be developed?
References Were all the books, journals and other media alluded to in the study accurately referenced?

regarding the inclusion of a literature review before the data theory or conceptual framework. The literature review is
collection period. Similarly, there is debate over whether the therefore carried out after the data have been collected. The
conceptual framework should precede the period of data aim of this approach is to explore concepts embedded in the
collection and data analysis. data, thereby allowing theory to be generated from the data
When critiquing qualitative studies, the reviewer must rather than vice versa (Robinson, 2002).
decide whether the researcher has rationalized his/her chosen Similarly, in phenomenological investigations the literature
approach. A major premise of grounded theory, for example, review may be delayed until the data analysis is complete.
is that data are collected in isolation from any predetermined This ensures that the findings reflect participants’ experiences

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 and are truly grounded in the data. This is congruent with provide a comprehensive and balanced account of previous
the philosophical orientation of phenomenology, which work, identifying, where appropriate, the relevant themes,
views the subjective experience of participants as central to conceptual models and theoretical frameworks that provide
the methodology (Burns and Grove, 2001). The conceptual a sound background to the research.
frameworks or themes that emerge from the study may
then be supported by evidence gleaned from a subsequent Research question
examination of the literature. In qualitative research, a research question that reflects the
The ethnographic approach attempts to examine the identified phenomenon of interest is used to direct the
experiences of the person in the context of his/her course of the research. A research hypothesis is never used
natural world and explores the topic of study through the in qualitative research, unlike quantitative research (Connell
perceptions of the subjects of study. The literature review in Meehan, 1999). Depending on the qualitative approach
ethnographic studies is used to demonstrate knowledge of adopted, e.g. grounded theory, the research question may
previous work in the area, as well as frameworks used in the be modified as new data bring new direction to the
analysis of data. phenomenon of interest. Such modifications should be
According to Meadows (2003), existing literature provides explained and justified by the researcher when they occur.
both the basis for research and the context for interpreting
findings. When critiquing qualitative research studies it is Theoretical framework
necessary to appraise the literature review in the context Many qualitative studies are described as inductive/atheoretical
of the particular methodology used. If the literature review or theory-generating research. This means that the purpose
is appropriate only after the period of data collection, then of the study is to develop theory not test it. Therefore, the
the researcher needs to identify how this process is to be researcher does not use an existing or known theory to direct
achieved and in what way the literature is going to be used to the study. This approach, which is heavily based on the work
determine similarities with or differences from the research of Glaser and Strauss (1967), is known as grounded theory.
findings. Conversely, if the literature review is carried out Ethnography and phenomenology are also classed as theory
before data collection and analysis, then it is required to generating. It is important that the researcher indicates this
in the study and justifies the adoption of such a stance, e.g.
where little is known about the phenomenon under study or
Table 2. Characteristics of qualitative research where existing theories do not seem to provide the answer
(Cronin and Rawlings-Anderson, 2004).
Truth There are multiple truths – generalization is not sought Some qualitative studies use known theories to ‘frame’
their studies (McKenna, 1997). This provides boundaries or
Purpose Concerned with discovery and description although
verification is also possible
parameters for the study and guides all stages, including the
literature review, data collection, analysis and presentation of
Context There is attention to the social context in which events findings (Parahoo, 2006).
occur and have meaning An important point for qualitative descriptive/exploratory
Emphasis There is an emphasis on understanding the social world research is that there are some limits or boundaries to
from the point of view of the participants in the study what is being studied. For example, if the researcher
– an emic perspective wished to study an aspect of patients’ postoperative pain
it would be critical to establish how the particular focus
Approach The approach is primarily inductive
was determined. This is sometimes done by exploring the
Relationship between There is integration between researcher and literature and identifying the main themes or concepts,
researcher and participant participant – interaction is valued which are then used to focus data collection and/or data
Sample Usually small in number but consists of those who are analysis and presentation of the findings.
able and willing to describe the experience
Methodology: research design
Data Elicits ‘soft data’, i.e. words
Design in qualitative research incorporates a range of
Data collection The major data collection techniques include approaches within what is often referred to as the
interviewing, participant observation, examination of naturalistic, interpretive or constructivist world view. The
personal documents and other printed materials important point here is that such a view of the world
Procedures and tools for data gathering are subject to incorporates a set of beliefs about knowledge and how
ongoing revision in the field situation this knowledge is developed. Qualitative research therefore
comprises a set of characteristics that reflect this world view
Analysis Analysis is presented for the most part in a narrative
(Table 2). However, it is also important to note that the
rather than numerical form, but the inclusion of some
quantitative measures and numerical expressions is
main qualitative approaches do differ in their disciplinary
not precluded in qualitative research or philosophical origins, hence the focus and manner in
which they undertake sampling, data collection and analysis
Rigour Credibility, transferability (fittingness), dependability, will vary (Table 3). For the reviewer it is essential that the
confirmability, goodness researcher outlines and justifies the chosen approach in
order to establish coherence and congruence.

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Table 3. Approaches in qualitative research

Phenomenology/
Generic qualitative research Grounded theory hermeneutics Ethnography

Origin Broad term for all qualitative Symbolic interactionism Various schools of Cultural anthropology
research and may have its origins and social sciences philosophy
in any of the other disciplines
Aims Description of the issue under Generation of theory from the data Description/interpretation/ Direct description of a
study Modification/extension of existing understanding/meaning of group, culture or community
theory the lived experience/
phenomenon under study
Sample Purposive/convenience Initial sampling of people able to give Purposive Purposive, non-probability,
information on the topic. This is followed criterion-based
by theoretical sampling where further
sampling is guided by the analysis and
emerging theory
Data Interviews often semi-structured Interviews, participant observation, Unstructured, formal, Observation, interviews and
collection diaries and other documents, multiple interviews, examination of documents in
researcher’s own experience written texts, e.g. diaries the field
Data Generic data analysis tools, Constant, comparative analysis – data Data analysis tools vary Description, analysis and
analysis e.g. Miles and Huberman (1994) collection and analysis are linked from depending on school of interpretation of the culture
the beginning of the research philosophy adopted
Findings Description of the phenomenon Description of the emergent theory, Description/interpretation The culture as experienced by
under study incorporating the cultural processes of the phenomenon under its members is presented
and meanings study

Sampling Participants should always have the right to give informed

In qualitative research, participants are usually recruited to consent regarding their participation in any research study.
a study because of their exposure to or their experience In order to do this, participants should be fully aware of
of the phenomenon in question. This type of sample tends the purpose of the study, what sort of information is being
to ensure richness in the data gathered and is known as sought, how it will be used and the implications for them as
purposive or purposeful sampling (Fossey et al, 2002). contributors to the research. This moral principle is known
Samples can also be selected as a result of themes that as autonomy (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001); it also
emerge from the data analysis. The researcher can then implies that participants have the right to withdraw from the
explore these themes in more depth and/or develop a research at any time.
theory from these data. This type of sampling is known as In qualitative interviews the role of the interviewer is
theoretical sampling (Fossey et al, 2002) and is frequently to encourage participants to ‘open up’ and discuss their
used in grounded theory. experiences of the phenomenon. In doing this, participants
Qualitative samples are often small (Fossey et al, 2002) can inadvertently discuss personal information that they
but this is not usually a problem as the researcher is not had not planned to reveal, or that may rekindle tragic
attempting to generalize the findings. Data gathered from or uncomfortable experiences related to the topic being
participants build on the information from previous subjects studied. Process consent involves continually negotiating
and the accumulated data can offer a significant depth of with participants to ascertain whether they are comfortable
information on the phenomenon. As a result the researcher continuing with the interview or would prefer to discontinue
may discover that no new material is emerging; at this point, participation (Polit and Beck, 2006) and can be a useful tool
data gathering usually stops (Parahoo, 2006). in these situations. However, discontinuing participation
alone can be insufficient to meet the principle of non-
Ethical considerations maleficence, so psychological support should be in place
In qualitative research the most common tools used for to manage any emotional distress that may result from the
data collection are interview and participant observation. interview (Smith, 1992).
The participants are therefore known to the researcher and In qualitative research, if vulnerable groups are being
anonymity is not possible.The researcher must therefore assure asked to contribute to the study, it is important to
participants that their identities will not be revealed to the ensure that their rights are protected. Ethical committee
reader and the raw data collected will not be released to any or institutional review board approval has to be sought
third party (Parahoo, 2006). Both interviews and observations before the research can be undertaken. The role of ethical
in qualitative research can give rise to ethical dilemmas. committees and institutional review boards is to determine

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 that ethical principles are being adhered to and that include use of an expert panel or member checking
participants are protected from potential sources of harm (verifying with participants).
(Burns and Grove, 1999). It is important to note that within Several computer-assisted packages are available to assist
qualitative research, ethical issues often arise at different the qualitative researcher during analysis, e.g. NUD*IST
stages in the study and may be discussed when they occur (Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing, Searching
rather than under a specific heading. and Theorising), Ethnograph and NVivo (Robson, 2002).
There are inherent advantages to these packages in terms
Data collection of handling large amounts of data and assisting with coding
In a qualitative study any number of strategies can be and organizing the material. However, the rationale for how
adopted when collecting data, including non-numerical and why a particular tool was chosen should be evident.
questionnaires with open-ended questions, interviews Although data analysis is central to qualitative research, it
(semi-structured and unstructured), participant observation, is often poorly delineated in research publications. Very few
written texts such as diaries or emails, and historical or offer sufficient detail to determine the emergence of the
contemporary documents. The researcher should outline findings from the raw data, with the result that readers are
the rationale for the chosen method of data collection asked to ‘accept’ what they see. According to Thorne and
and offer sufficient information of the process. If using a Darbyshire (2005), the obligation to show the data that led
particular approach, such as grounded theory, it should be to the findings is a reasonable one.
evident from the discussion that the researcher has adhered
to the processes inherent in the methodology (Table 3). Rigour (trustworthiness)
Interviews are by far the most common method of Unlike the quantitative (positivist) paradigm that seeks to
data collection and are mainly either semi-structured or examine objective, measurable data and causal relationships
unstructured (Holloway and Wheeler, 2002). If a semi- between variables, qualitative research or naturalistic inquiry
structured interview format is selected it should be evident concerns itself with processes and meanings that cannot
how the themes or questions were derived. In unstructured always be experimentally examined. Socially constructed
interviews the initial opening question should be presented realities and relationships between the researcher and what
and clearly linked to the purpose of the study. Interviews is being studied are essential components of qualitative
are more frequently conducted face to face, but online or inquiry (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003). Proponents of
telephone interviews are also used. They can be undertaken qualitative approaches emphasize the value-laden nature
with individuals or groups, such as focus groups, and can be of naturalistic inquiry; a commonly heard criticism is that
one-off or multiple. The rationale for each of these decisions qualitative research is subjective, anecdotal and subject to
should be clearly presented. researcher bias (Koch and Harrington, 1998).
Although traditionally associated with grounded theory, Pilkington (2002) suggests that because qualitative
‘data saturation’ is often referred to by some qualitative methods are aimed at primarily understanding human
researchers as a point where they claim no new information experiences and ultimately theory development, alternative
will arise from further sampling. Thorne and Darbyshire criteria are required for ensuring the scientific merit of
(2005) suggest that some researchers use the concept of qualitative research studies. As quantitative studies are
data saturation as a convenient stopping point, and it may concerned with the generalizability and reproducibility
be pertinent to assess whether the study being evaluated, of findings, the concepts of reliability and validity are
particularly if it is a small-scale descriptive study, could have seen as appropriate criteria to use when evaluating the
achieved this. adequacy or robustness of quantitative research. There is
much discussion about the applicability of validity and
Data analysis reliability to qualitative research (Koch and Harrington,
In qualitative research the process by which data analysis is 1998; Tobin and Begley, 2004; Hoye and Severinsson,
undertaken is fundamental to determining the credibility 2007). The challenge to alternative paradigms or qualitative
of the findings. Essentially it involves the transformation of approaches is to produce plausible, robust research and to
raw data into a final description, narrative, or themes and demonstrate rigour.
categories. There is considerable variation in how this is Rigour is the means of demonstrating the plausibility,
undertaken, depending on the research question and the credibility and integrity of the qualitative research process.
approach taken (Vishnevsky and Beanlands, 2004). The rigour, or trustworthiness, of a study may be established
Some researchers use generic data analysis tools whereas if the reader is able to audit the actions and developments
others use less structured and more creative approaches. of the researcher (Koch, 2006). According to Burns and
What is important is that the process is described in Grove (2001), the critique of qualitative research requires an
sufficient detail to enable the reader to judge whether the appraisal of the rigour in documentation, procedural rigour,
final outcome is rooted in the data generated (Holloway and ethical rigour:
and Wheeler, 2002). The researcher should demonstrate ■ Rigour in documentation ensures there is a correlation
understanding of concurrent data collection and analysis, between the steps of the research process and the study in
the processes of organizing and retrieving data, as well question, commencing with the phenomenon of interest
as the steps in coding and thematic analysis. In addition, and following through to the recommendations and
verification strategies, if used, should be presented. Examples implications for practice.

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

■ Procedural rigour refers to appropriate and precise data inquiry and must be reflected in the entire study. Goodness
collection techniques and incorporates a reflective/critical needs to be evident in the philosophical background and
component in order to reduce bias and misinterpretations. study design, providing explicit explanations regarding
■ Ethical rigour describes how confidentiality issues and the the study context, data collection and management and
rights of participants are dealt with during the research the interpretation and presentation process. Goodness,
process. therefore, is a principle that should be present during
The most common criteria used to evaluate qualitative all stages of the research study and explicit in the final
research studies are credibility, dependability, transferability written report.
and confirmability (Table 2). Other terms such as goodness
and fruitfulness may also be used (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Findings and discussion
The researcher needs to identify the criteria used and the As stated above, findings from qualitative studies can be
reader should be able to clearly follow each step of the represented as a narrative (story), themes, description of
research process: the phenomenon under study or an interpretive account
■ Credibility refers to the faithfulness to the description of the of the understanding or meaning of an experience.
phenomenon in question (Koch and Harrington, 1998). It Regardless of how the final outcome is presented, the
addresses the issue of whether there is consistency between researcher should discuss the findings in the context of
the participants’ views and the researcher’s representation what is already known.
of them. Koch (2006), asserts that credibility may be For many this will involve further literature review related
enhanced by the researcher describing and interpreting to the final outcome. However, the reviewer should beware
his/her experiences as researcher, and also by consulting of exaggerated claims as to the significance of the research
with participants and allowing them to read and discuss the and implications for practice, and further research should
research findings. Credibility may also be demonstrated by be located in the study’s findings. Moreover, the researcher
prolonged engagement, observation and audit trails. should relate the findings of the study back to the original
■ Dependability (auditability) is an integral component of research purpose, and illustrate whether or not it has been
rigour and involves the researcher giving the reader adequately addressed (Thorne and Darbyshire, 2005).
sufficient information to determine how dependable the
study and the researcher are. A study may be deemed Conclusions, implications and recommendations
auditable when another researcher can clearly follow the The researcher should conclude by placing the findings
trail used by the investigator and potentially arrive at the in a context that indicates how this new information is of
same or comparable conclusions. A research study may interest, and its implications for nursing. These conclusions
be shown to be dependable by producing evidence of a should reflect the study’s findings and ideally should offer
decision trail at each stage of the research process. According recommendations as to how they may be developed.
to Koch (2006), this provides the reader with evidence of
the decisions and choices made regarding theoretical and References
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discussing explicitly the reasons for such decisions. It is also other media referred to in the study should be included in a
necessary for each stage of the research to be traceable and reference list at the end of the study (Polit and Beck, 2006).
clearly documented. For the reader who has an interest in the topic that was
■ Transferability (fittingness) refers to whether or not findings studied, the reference list can be a good source of further
can be applied outside the context of the study situation. reading.
When critiquing qualitative research, a study can be
deemed to have met the criterion of transferability when Conclusion
the findings can ‘fit’ into other contexts and readers can As with a quantitative study, critical analysis of a qualitative
apply the findings to their own experiences. Transferability study involves an in-depth review of how each step of the
is also enhanced when the results are meaningful to research was undertaken. Because of the subjective nature of
individuals not involved in the research study. qualitative research it is often regarded as more difficult to
■ Confirmability requires the researcher to demonstrate how critique. However, an evidenced-based profession cannot
conclusions and interpretations have been reached. It is accept any research at face value and needs to be able to
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