What is a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)?

A complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is the semiconductor technology used in most

of today's integrated circuits (ICs), also known as chips or microchips. CMOS transistors are based
on metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) technology. MOSFETs serve as
switches or amplifiers that control the amount of electricity flowing between source and drain
terminals, based on the amount of applied voltage.

There are two primary types of MOSFETs: p-channel MOS (PMOS) and n-channel MOS (NMOS).
Both PMOS and NMOS transistors use p-type and n-type semiconductors. In a PMOS transistor, the
source and drain use a p-type semiconductor, and the substrate uses an n-type semiconductor. An
NMOS transistor takes the opposite approach. The source and drain use an n-type semiconductor,
and the substrate uses a p-type semiconductor.

Before the introduction of CMOS, PMOS and NMOS were widely used in electronic devices. NMOS
eventually became the favored approach to integrated circuitry because it was faster and cheaper to
produce, although it was not without its own limitations, such as its static power consumption.

CMOS addressed the issues inherent in PMOS and NMOS by incorporating both types in a single IC
that contains symmetrical (complementary) PMOS-NMOS pairs. When used together, the two types
of transistors provide greater flexibility in circuitry design, while reducing complexity and
susceptibility to electronic noise.

Another advantage of complementary PMOS-NMOS pairs is that they require less power. This is
because current is applied briefly when switching between on and off states. In fact, CMOS ICs use
almost no power during static conditions. By extension, the lower power consumption also means
that CMOS-based ICs generate less heat, compared to those based on either PMOS or NMOS alone.
 Because power consumption and heat generation are two core concerns in designing ICs, CMOS
logic is now widely used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, image sensors and other
ICs. By all accounts, its use will continue to dominate the industry.

COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR(CMOS):

 The term CMOS stands for “Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor”. This one is the most
popular technology in the computer chip design industry and it is broadly used today to
form integrated circuits in numerous and varied applications.
 This technology makes use of both P channel and N channel semiconductor devices.
 One of the most popular MOSFET technologies available today is the Complementary MOS or
CMOS technology.
 This is the dominant semiconductor technology for microprocessors, microcontroller chips, memories
like RAM, ROM, EEPROM and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
 In CMOS gate both the NMOS and PMOS transistors are implemented on the same chip. A p-channel
is induced on the right and an n-channel on the left for the p- and n-channel devices.
 In this arrangement, the PMOS transistor is carried out directly in the n-type substrate (body) and the
NMOS transistor in a p-type region commonly referred to as the p-well.
 A well is a significant, low-doping-level deep diffusion that functions as the substrate for one device
and offers isolation between the two device types.
 The importance of CMOS in semiconductor technology is its low power dissipation and low operating
currents. It is manufactured using fewer steps as compared to the Bipolar Junction transistors.

 The n-channel MOSFET is called NMOS. It has a substrate of p-type, which consists of the
majority carrier’s holes.
 The n-channel consists of the majority carrier’s electrons. The flow of electrons is fast as compared
to holes.
 Hence, NMOS transistors are more rapid than PMOS transistors.
 The p-channel MOSFET is called PMOS. It has a substrate of n-type, which consists of the majority
carrier’s electrons.
 When a negative voltage is applied to the gate end of the PMOS, it repels the electrons.
 The attraction of holes results in the formation of the channel called the p-channel. The channel is
formed between the source and drain.
 The slow flow of holes makes the current controlled process of PMOS easy as compared to NMOS
transistors.

What is a CMOS :
The term CMOS stands for “Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor”. This is one of the most
popular technology in the computer chip design industry and it is broadly used today to
form integrated circuits in numerous and varied applications. Today’s computer memories, CPUs,
and cell phones make use of this technology due to several key advantages. This technology makes
use of both P channel and N channel semiconductor devices. One of the most popular MOSFET
technologies available today is the Complementary MOS or CMOS technology. This is the
dominant semiconductor technology for microprocessors, microcontroller chips, memories like
RAM, ROM, EEPROM and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).

Introduction to MOS Technology

In the IC design, the basic and most essential component is the transistor. So MOSFET is one kind
of transistor used in many applications. The formation of this transistor can be done like a sandwich
by including a semiconductor layer, generally a wafer, a slice from a single crystal of silicon; a layer
of silicon dioxide & a metal layer. These layers allow the transistors to be formed within the
semiconductor material. A good insulator like Sio2 has a thin layer with a hundred molecules
thickness.

The transistors which we use polycrystalline silicon (poly) instead of metal for their gate sections.
The Polysilicon gate of FET can be replaced almost using metal gates in large scale ICs. Sometimes,
both polysilicon & metal FET’s are referred to as IGFET’s which means insulated gate FETs,
because the Sio2 below the gate is an insulator.

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor):

The main advantage of CMOS over NMOS and BIPOLAR technology is the much smaller power
dissipation. Unlike NMOS or BIPOLAR circuits, a Complementary MOS circuit has almost no
static power dissipation. Power is only dissipated in case the circuit actually switches. This allows
integrating more CMOS gates on an IC than in NMOS or bipolar technology, resulting in much
better performance. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor transistor consists of P-channel
MOS (PMOS) and N-channel MOS (NMOS). Please refer to the link to know more about the
fabrication process of CMOS transistor.
 CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
NMOS:

NMOS is built on a p-type substrate with n-type source and drain diffused on it. In NMOS, the
majority of carriers are electrons. When a high voltage is applied to the gate, the NMOS will
conduct. Similarly, when a low voltage is applied to the gate, NMOS will not conduct. NMOS is
considered to be faster than PMOS, since the carriers in NMOS, which are electrons, travel twice
as fast as the holes.

NMOS Transistor
PMOS:

P- channel MOSFET consists of P-type Source and Drain diffused on an N-type substrate. The
majority of carriers are holes. When a high voltage is applied to the gate, the PMOS will not conduct.
When a low voltage is applied to the gate, the PMOS will conduct. The PMOS devices are more
immune to noise than NMOS devices.

PMOS Transistor
CMOS Working Principle:

In CMOS technology, both N-type and P-type transistors are used to design logic functions. The
same signal which turns ON a transistor of one type is used to turn OFF a transistor of the other
type. This characteristic allows the design of logic devices using only simple switches, without the
need for a pull-up resistor.

In CMOS logic gates a collection of n-type MOSFETs is arranged in a pull-down network between
the output and the low voltage power supply rail (Vss or quite often ground). Instead of the load
resistor of NMOS logic gates, CMOS logic gates have a collection of p-type MOSFETs in a pull-
up network between the output and the higher-voltage rail (often named Vdd).

CMOS using Pull Up & Pull Down

Thus, if both a p-type and n-type transistor have their gates connected to the same input, the p-type
MOSFET will be ON when the n-type MOSFET is OFF, and vice-versa. The networks are arranged
such that one is ON and the other OFF for any input pattern as shown in the figure below.

CMOS offers relatively high speed, low power dissipation, high noise margins in both states, and
will operate over a wide range of source and input voltages (provided the source voltage is fixed).
Furthermore, for a better understanding of the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor working
principle, we need to discuss in brief CMOS logic gates as explained below.

Which Devices use CMOS?

Technology like CMOS is used in different chips like microcontrollers, microprocessors, SRAM
(static RAM) & other digital logic circuits. This technology is used in a wide range of analog circuits
which includes data converters, image sensors & highly incorporated transceivers for several kinds
of communication.

CMOS as an Invertor
Introduction
CMOS is a type of MOSFET, where its fabrication process uses complementary & symmetrical P-
type & N-type MOSFET pairs for logic functions. The main CMOS devices characteristics are
consumption of low static power & high noise immunity. The inverter is accepted universally as the
basic logic gate while performing a Boolean operation on a single i/p variable. A basic inverter
circuit is used to accomplish a logic variable by complementing from A to A’. So, a CMOS inverter
is a very simple circuit, designed with two opposite-polarity MOSFETs within a complementary
way.
What is CMOS Inverter?
CMOS inverter definition is a device that is used to generate logic functions is known as CMOS
inverter and is the essential component in all integrated circuits. A CMOS inverter is a FET (field
effect transistor), composed of a metal gate that lies on top of oxygen’s insulating layer on top of a
semiconductor. These inverters are used in most electronic devices which are accountable for
generating data n small circuits.

CMOS Inverter Symbol & Truth Table

CMOS Inverter Schematic Diagram

The logic element like an inverter reverses the applied input signal. In digital logic circuits, binary
arithmetic & switching or logic function’s mathematical manipulation are best performed through
the symbols 0 & 1. The CMOS inverter truth table is shown above. If the input logic is zero (0) then
the output will be high (1) whereas, if the input logic is one (1), then the output will be low (0).

CMOS Inverter Circuit

The CMOS inverter circuit diagram is shown below. The general CMOS inverter structure is the
combination of both the PMOS & NMOS transistors where the pMOS is arranged at the top &
nMOS is arranged at the bottom.

The connection of both the PMOS & NMOS transistors in the CMOS inverter can be done like this.
The NMOS transistor is connected at the drain (D) & gate (G) terminals, a voltage supply (VDD) is
connected at the source terminal of PMOS & a GND terminal is connected at the source terminal of
NMOS. Input voltage (Vin) is connected to both the gate terminals of transistors & output voltage
(Vout) is connected to the drain (D) terminals of the transistor.

It is very significant to observe that the CMOS device does not have any resistors, so it will be more
power-efficient. Once the input voltage of CMOS changes between 0 to 5 volts, then both the
transistors state will be changed accordingly. If we design every transistor like a simple switch that
is operated through input voltage (Vin), then operations of the inverter can be observed very simply.

CMOS Inverter Operation & Working

The working of CMOS inverter is the same as other types of FETs except depends on an oxygen
layer to divide electrons within the gate & semiconductor. They are designed with a power supply,
input voltage terminal, output voltage, gate, drain, and PMOS & NMOS transistors which are
connected to the gate & the drain terminals.

When the low input voltage is given to the CMOS inverter, then the PMOS transistor is switched
ON whereas the NMOS transistor will switch OFF by allowing the flow of electrons throughout the
gate terminal & generating high logic output voltage.

Similarly, when the high input voltage is given to the CMOS inverter then, the PMOS transistor is
switched OFF whereas the NMOS transistor will be switched ON avoiding as many electrons from
attaining the output voltage & generating low logic output voltage.

Thus, direct current supplies from the supply voltage (VDD) to the output voltage (Vout) & the load
capacitor (CL) can be charged and shows that Vout = VDD. As a result, the above circuit works like
an inverter.

Inverter Static Characteristics or VTC

The quality of the inverter can be measured frequently by using the VTC or voltage transfer curve,
which is plotted between input voltage (Vin) and output voltage (Vo). From the following static
characteristics, the parameters of devices like gain, operating logic levels & noise tolerance, and
noise can be obtained.

Voltage Transfer Curve:

The VTC or voltage transfer curve looks like an inverted step-function that specifies accurate
switching in between ON & OFF however in real devices, a gradual transition region exists. The
voltage transfer curve specifies that for less input voltage Vin, the circuit generates high voltage
Vout, whereas, for high input, it generates 0 volts.

The transition region slope is a measure of quality – steep slopes yield exact switching. The tolerance
toward noise can be calculated by evaluating the smallest input to the highest output for every region
of ON or OFF operation.

Inverter Dynamic Characteristics

The CMOS inverter dynamic characteristics are shown below. So, some of the following formal
definitions of different parameters are discussed below. Here, all the percentage (%) values are the
steady-state values.
 Dynamic Characteristics of CMOS Inverter
 Rise Time or tr: Rise time is the time used to increase the signal from 10% to 90%.
 Fall Time or tf: Fall time is the time used to drop the signal from 90% to 10%
 Edge Rate or trf : It is (tr + tf )/2.
 The propagation delay from high to low or tpHL: The time used to drop from VOH – 50%.
 The propagation delay from low to high or tpLH: The time used to increase from 50%- VOL.
 Propagation Delay or tp: It is (tpHL + tpLH)/2.
 Contamination Delay or tcd: It is the smallest time from the 50% input crossing to the 50% output
crossing.
Advantages:

 The CMOS inverter’s steady-state power dissipation is negligible virtually, apart from small power
dissipation because of leakage currents.
 The VTC (voltage transfer characteristic) exhibits a complete o/p voltage swing in between 0 V &
VDD, and the transition of voltage transfer characteristic is normally very sharp. Thus, the
characteristics of the CMOS inverter look like an ideal inverter.
 These inverters use electricity once they are switched ON & OFF resulting in less power
consumption. As a result, these inverters generate extremely less waste heat to make them highly
efficient, so used in small and delicate electronic devices.
 These inverters include high noise immunity, which lets them block both incoming & outgoing
frequency spikes.
 These are low-cost to produce mass.
Disadvantages:

 As compared to other inverters, the switching speed of the CMOS inverter is high.
 These are very difficult to fabricate due to both the transistors used on the same Silica piece.
 It uses two transistors to make an inverter, so it uses more space on the IC as compared to the NMOS
inverter.
Applications:

The applications of CMOS inverters include the following.

 CMOS inverters are used in different ICs (integrated circuits) like microprocessors, static
RAM, microcontrollers, data converters, image sensors & transceivers.
 These are found in mobile devices, digital cameras, home computers, cell phones, routers, network
servers, modems & virtually each other electronic device that needs logic functions.