“Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 57 invent tableaux, ifthe actors remain attached to their symmetrical place- ‘ment and limited scope of action. From “Discourse on Dramatic Poetry’’"* ‘To Monsieur Grimm’? (On Dramatic Genres Imagine a nation where the only kind of dramatic entertainment was ‘amusing and happy, and where someone tried to introduce another type that was moving and serious. Do you know, my dear friend, what the cltizens of that nation would think of it? Unless I am much mistaken, once they had become aware of the possibilty, reasonable people would ‘undoubtedly say, “Why do we need this new genre? Are there not enough teal difficulties in life without bringing in other imaginary ones? Why do gven our amusements have to be suffused with sorrow?" They would Speak in the manner of people unacquainted with the pleasure to be derived from feeling compassion and shedding tears. ... ‘When one genre already exists, itis difficult to introduce a new Once this second genre is accepted, another misconception arises; soon people imagine that both genres are similar and are very close together... ‘in The Natural Son I tried to give the idea of a drama that was midway between comedy and tragedy. ‘The Father, which I had promised to write next, but whose composition was delayed by constant distractions, is halfway between the serious drama of The Natural Son and comedy. ‘And if ever I have the time and the courage, I hope to write a play that falls between serious drama and tragedy. Whether or not these two plays are well received, they still clearly demonstrate that there is a real and perceptible distance between these two established genres of tragedy and comedy. On Serious Comedy Here then is the complete range of the types of drama. Lighthearted comedy, which has as its aim ridicule and human folly; serious comedy, dealing with virtue and our duties as human beings: tragedy which would involve our domestic misfortunes; and the tragedy which treats of public disasters and the misfortune of important people. ‘But who wil be capable of giving us a clear and accurate picture of our 16.1758. Newly translated fom DiderotChoullet r980, 1 paokeetsMelehioe, Beron von Gesu (1723-1807) was a btrary etic and tend of Dadrot it prlodial Correspondance trae, plosophique et critique, to which Diderot aero trtor was intended to Keep is readers informed about teary and artistic trends in Paris.38 Denis Diderot duties? What qualities must be possessed by the poet who sets out to do this? ‘He must be a philosopher, who has gone deeply within himself to iscover his true human nature, He must also be thoroughly conversant ‘with the various professions in society, so that he is familiar with the tasks land responsibilities, the drawbacks and advantages of each one. ... “The fact that what people do for a living has given us such plays as Moliare's The Bores'® is already a considerable achievement, but I believe we can make even better use of this material. The obligations and dis- ‘advantages of a profession are not all equally important. It seems to me that one could concentrate on the main ones, making them the basis for the play, and the others could be filled in as details. Ths is what I set out to do in The Father, where the plot hinges on arranging suitable marriages for the son and daughter. Financial situation, family background, upbringing, the duties of fathers toward their children, and children’s obligations to their parents, marriage, the single if, everything that has to do with being a father comes in through the dialogue. ..- Our duties as human beings are as rich a source of inspiration for the playwright as are our foibles and vices, and plays that are honest and erious will be successful anywhere, but especially in a society that is corrupt. These people will escape from the company ofthe evil companions who surround them by going to the theatre. There they will find the kind of people with whom they would like to live, There they will see humankind as it is, and will become reconciled with it... "We should always have virtue and virtuous people in mind when we write... 'When I heard the scenes about peasant life in The Felgned Benefactor”? 1 said, "Here is something that will please people at all times and in all places, and everyone will shed tears to hear it.” ... This episode was undoubtedly an example of the honest and serious genre, “The example of a single successful episode proves nothing,” some people will say, “and if you do not break up the monotony of speeches bout virtue with some boisterous, ridiculous, and even somewhat exag- gerated characters, as all the other writers have done, whatever you may say about the honest and serious genre, [ am stil afraid you will merely produce scenes that are fat and colorless, moralizing that will bore and depress the audience, and little more than dramatized sermons.” Tet us examine the parts of a play and see. Should it be Judged by the subject matter? In the honest and serious genre, the subject is no less important than in lighthearted comedy, and it is handled in a more 1 Les Bichewe, a coméae-ballt, produced in 1661, In which the hero's courtship # Ine rupted by a series of nsstent bores, as fe Faux Géniracs by Antoine Beet was performed in January 1738. The play We ‘condemned by Grim.ss out to do himself to conversant inthe tasks ‘h plays as ut I believe 1s and dis- vems to me xe basis for Tset outto “Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 59 realistic way. Should we Judge by the characters? They can be just as ‘varied and original, and the poet is obliged to make them even more forceful. Is it to be judged by the emotions? They will be all the more dynamic since the interest wil be greater. 1s it to be judged by style? It will ‘be more spirited, more serious, more elevated, more tempestuous, and more conducive to what we call feeling: without this quality no style can touch the heart. Is it by the absence of ridicule? When foolish actions and words are prompted by misplaced self-interest or by emotional turmoll, is this not the real absurdity of life? .. Tet us take two comedies, one serious and one humorous. Let us construct ftom them, scene by scene, two picture galleries, and see in which one we will continue to walk the longest and with the greatest pleasure, where we will feel the strongest and most delightful emotions, ‘and to which we will be most eager to return. I repeat, the honest fand serious] genre. It touches us more nearly and ‘more tenderly than work that elicits derision and laughter . Poets, ifyou are sensitive and of subtle understanding, strike this chord and you will hear it resonate in every heart. “Does this mean that human nature is good?” Yes, my friend, very good indeed. . Itis the miserable conventions that pervert humankind, and not human nature that is to blame. ... "The theatre is the only place where the tears of the virtuous and of the wicked are mingled. There the wicked take umbrage at the kind of injustice they themselves may have committed, feel compassion for the kind of suflering they may have caused others, and are filled with indignation by a person whose character resembles their own. But the impression is received and remains indelibly within us, whether we like it or not. And the wicked leave their seats in the theatre less inclined to wrongdoing than ifthey had been chastized by a harsh and unyielding moralist. ... On a Kind of Moral Drama Sometimes it has occurred to me that the most important tenets of morality might be discussed on stage without hindering the flow of the dramatic action, How could this be done? The conduct of the plot would be organized in such a way that moral questions would arise naturally. as for example, the abdication of the empire Is central to the action of Cinna.?? Thus a playwright would discuss the questions of suicide, of honor, of duels, of fortune, of the dignities of office as well as countless others. Our plays would take on a seriousness that they now lack. .. When I leave the theatre, itis not words I want to take away with me, but impressions. ... 20 Tragedy by Corneille, written in 1640.60 Denis Diderot Playwrights. the true applause that you mus ‘alm to elicit, Is not the clapping of hands that suddenly erupts rafter a damaing line, but the deep Sigh that comes fom the depths of our hearts releasing the tension after & long silence. + On Simple and Complex Plays oe or me, {prefer a passion ora character tha develops gradually until it Baally can be seen in all its power, rather ‘than those combinations of dedats that are woven together ino a play Wat {s equally unsettling for the characters and the audience, ... owet ‘that is what we call ine Jement. The Ancients had quite a diferent idea. A simple plot line, an moto selected as close as possible its ending. ‘so that everything was at acti, a catastrophe that was always Immine? and always avolded by a ert that was simple and believable. Speeches full of power, strong, passions, tableaux, one or two clearly Vielineated characters, that was all they needed. ... da play is tobe performed only once and neve published, I would say to dhe pent "Make It 2s complicated a8 you like, Yow will certainly stir the ine Ponce up and keep them entertained. But keep Yo ‘work simple if you rant your play to be read and to rematn for posterity. “Any author who undertakes to carry on Wo. plot lines at the same time ‘wi be obliged to untangle them both at the Same ‘moment, If the main action is resolved frst, ‘cannot stand om its own. If, acti contrary, the subplot finishes first, there ls ‘another disadvantage: op sracters either disappear suddenly, or else reapPear for no reason, and the play is truncated or becomes DOHng: “theve is no middle ground: what you gain on oe side, you lose on the mieve interest end momentam by combining many inc oi, you will have no more dialogue: your charters veil barely have dents speak. They willbe in constant movement instead of developing: speak from experience. (On Burlesque Drama (Farce) opm cannet be too much action and movement farce; ...in humorous Comedy there will be less, even less in serious ‘comedy, and almost none it tragedy. nBedy. improbable a genres, the ease Its fo MAKE fast-paced and ively Liveliness and excitement mean tha theres less truth and decorust. ws iy aves ond ep clef ines makes eu 0 S20 liveliness. ..- ‘Wile the movement varies from one genre 1 another, the action always continues. It does not even“Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 6r less dialogue when there is more action, there should be more talk than action in the first acts, and more action and less talk in the later acts. .., On the Plan and the Dialogue Is it more difficult to establish the plan than to write the dialogue? ... A person who is at home in the company of other people, who speaks with ease, who knows other people, has studied and listened to them, finds itdificult to write the plan. Another person, who has breadth of mind, has reflected on the art of poetry, who knows the theatre, who has learned from experience and the development of taste what situations are inherently interesting, and who knows how to arrange events, will easly be able to compose the plan, but will have trouble writing the scenes. ... Moreover, both require talent, but it is not the same kind of talent, The plan is essential to a complex play; itis the art of discourse and dialogue ‘that make a simple play compelling to see or to read. Plans are worked out using the imagination, while dialogue is based on nature. .. Listen to [other] people and carry on conversations with yourself; these are the ways to train yourself in writing dialogue. Have a fertile imagination, observe the order and sequence of things in reality, do not be afraid of diffcult scenes or of hard work, enter into the hheart of the subject, see clearly the moment when the action must begin, know what can properly be left aside, know what situations have the most ‘impact. With these abilities you will be able to work out the plan, Above all, make ita rule not to write down on paper a single idea about the details before you have completed your plan <1:Lp/188>...,, On the Outline «+» But how to formulate your plan? In Aristotle's Poetics there is an ‘excellent idea on this subject <1:/Ar/55>.... Whether you are working on ® familiar subject, or are trying to make up @ new one, begin by making an outline of the plot; later you will think of the episodes or details that will fll itout.... On the Incidents If the poet has imagination and adheres to his outline, he will find it a Source of inspiration for a host of incidents, so that his only problem will be to choose among them. He should be scrupulous in his choice of incidents, and abstemious in his use of them. They should fit the importance of his subject, and the links between them should seem almost necessary. Ifyou use a small number of incidents, you will have a small number of characters. Use no superfluous characters, and make sure that all your incidents are imperceptibly held together. Above all do not lay false trails. if62 Denis Diderot you raise my anticipation with @ problem that does not ‘materialize, you will distract my attention... On the Plan of Tragedy and Comedy "A plan is fanciful story, distributed according to te rules of drama. “This sebey is partially made up by the tragic playwright, and completely Le the basis of dramatic art? ‘Nothing is more reasonable. Poetry (literature) bas rly been com Tpirxo>, bat @ more useful and more revealing :Cv/T30>+ Freclscly what is meant by the idea of the marvellous erm Soran to Pir poetic genres, but which most poets are unable to define properly. Poet Estorig events are suitable for usein tragedy. nor reall domestic events suitable subjects for comedy. « ents sues happens that ee natural order of things brings together eo comimnary events. This same natural order marks the diference atoen the marvellous and the miraculous. Rare oocurrences ar6 MA” aertees occurrences that ae naturally impossible are miraculous, Prami- tic art rejects miracles . ar ectever inked events together in an extraordinary wae that the poet might imagine beyond the pain, cold unlfomity of ‘mundane the Poet pal be unlbeievabe. But this isnot the case. What then does the these extraordinary sequences of events, of that are similar, But, whereas we often fall to see the ‘causal link between events in nature + Of the factors, we merely see an inevitable simul poet, for his part, is determined that the entire textors pont | gether in a clear and understandable way. Thus he ess accu ate, but more credible than the = a ie that is played by the gods in tragedy, must be layed by hunt beings in comedy. Fatality and malice are the bases for dramatic interest 12 tragedy and comedy respectively. needy oe fhe novelsic veneer that has been crite In some of plays?” oF wil be novelitic If the marvellous element stems fom stimultoneity ofthe evens, if there are gods, oF if the people involved are arm aneteked oF too good, ifthe sbuations ot characters devin “rom history ot experience, and particulaely if en events is t00 improbable or complicated. ee that any novel which would not make a 600!“Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 63 play, may still be a good novel; but there is no good play which would not make an excellent novel. These two types of literature differ by their rules. Iusion is their common goal, but on what does illusion depend? On the circumstances, which make illusion more or less dificult to achieve, ‘May [be permitted for a moment to speak the language of geometry? We know what is meant by an equation. Illusion is on one side of the equation, by itself. It s a constant quality that Is equal to a sum of terms, some positive and some negative, whose number and arrangement may be infinitely varied, while their total value is always the same. The positive terms represent ordinary circumstances, and the negative terms are extra- ordinary circumstances, They must balance each other out. ... When I say that illusion is a constant quality, I mean that it remains constant within one individual judging different works of art, and not from ‘one person to another. On the entire surface of the earth, there may not be two people who have the same degree of certainty, and yet the poet is obliged to make them all believe in illusion. He overcomes the intelligent, experienced, and educated person as easily as a governess outwits a dull child. A good piece of literature isa tale fit to be told to sensible people. ‘The novelist has the time and space that are denied to the playwright. Given two works of equal merit, I would appreciate the play more than the novel, "The Ancients had tragedies in which everything wes made up by the playwright. Not even the names of the characters were taken from history. ‘And what does it matter, as long as the poet does not go beyond the true ‘measure of the marvellous. ... Domestic tragedy would involve the problems inherent in two genres: to produce the emotional effect of heroic tragedy and to make up the entire story as in comedy, ... ‘Without imagination, one is neither a poet, nor a philosopher, nor an intelligent person, nor one capable of reason, nor a human being. ... Imagination is the ability to remember images. Anyone who was com- pletely lacking in this faculty would be an imbecile, whose intellectual functions would be limited to producing the sounds learned in childhood, and to applying them mechanically to the circumstances of life. ... [The playwright] has received from nature, to a high degree, the quality that distinguishes a genius from an ordinary person and an ordinary person from an imbecile: imagination. ... But the poet cannot surrender completely to the power of his imagin- ation. There are certain limits imposed on him. The model for his conduct is found in the rare occurrences within the general order of nature, This is his guiding principle. The more strange and singular these occurrences are, the more he will require art, time, space, and ordinary circumstances to compensate for the ‘marvellous element and give the illusion a basis in reality.64 Denis Diderot Ifthe historic fact is not sufficiently marvellous he will reinforce it with extraordinary incidents. If it is too remarkable, he will tone it down with ordinary incidents. ... ‘The art of poetry would certainly be greatly advanced, if we had completely dealt with the question of historic certainty. The same prin~ Ciples would apply to the story (conte), to the novel, to the opera, to farce, and to all types of poetry, including fables. ..- ‘Once the poet has drawn up his plan, by expanding his outline to @ hhas been divided into acts and scenes, he ‘may now set to work. He should begin with the first scene and finish with the last. He will be mistaken if he believes he can follow his whims, jumping back and forth from one section to another, wherever his talent may inspire him to go. He has no idea of the trouble he will have late, ithe Wants his work to be unifed, ... Scenes have an influence on one another, that he will not have understood. ... Before going from one scene to the next, one should be thoroughly rooted in the previous scenes. On [Dramatic] Interest In plays with complicated plots, the interest comes more from the plan than the dialogue. In simple plays, on the other hand. itresides more in the dialogue than in the plan. But should the interest be viewed in relation to the characters or to the spectators? "The spectators are merely unacknowledged witnesses of the events. “is the characters who must be considered then?” $0 I believe. They must create the complications without realizing It Everything should remain unfathomable to them. They should move toward the outcome unawares. If they are in a state of agitation I will have to follow them and experience the same emotions. [disagree so completely with most dramatic theorists, who believe that the audience must not suspect the outcome <1:Lp/188>, that would not ‘consider it a task too far beyond my abilities to try to write a drama where the outcome was announced in the first scene, and I would elicit the most intense interest based on this very circumstance. ‘Everything must be clear to the spectator. ... People may find as many paradoxes as they like in my ideas, but I shall persist in believing that for Every instance where It is advisable to keep the audience from knowing ‘bout an important incident before it happens, there are several others where dramatic interest requires the opposite. By keeping it secret, the playwright has given me a moment of surprise; By letting me know, he would have kept me in a state of anxiety for a long time. Twill have only a moment of pty for someone who is struck down in & moment. But what do experience if the fatal blow is long awaited, or it wee the storm clouds gathering above my head or above someone else's hhead, and hanging suspended there for a long time? ...ith ms, ent che ue. the not shere most many cat for guise. along mina orifT “Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 65 All of the characters may be unaware of their true relationships with each other, if you like, but the audience must know who they all are...» ‘Why do certain monologues have such striking effects? It s because they reveal to me the secret plans of a character, and this revelation immedi- ately fils me with fear or hope. Ifthe identities of the characters are unknown, the spectator can take no more interest in the action than the characters do. But the interest will double forthe spectator ifhe knows enough to understand that the words ‘and actions would be very different if the characters knew each other's true identity. Thus you will create in me an intense expectation of how they will feel when they are able to compare what they are with what they hhave done or have tried to do. ... Moreover, the more I reflect on dramatic art, the more angry I become with those who have written about it. It is a muddle of particular rules, from which general precepts have been drawn. People have seen that certain incidents produced great effects, and have immediately concluded that the dramatist must use the same means to achieve the same effects, ‘Whereas, if they had looked more closely, they would have noticed even greater effects to be produced by completely opposite means. ‘Whether you are a playwright or an actor. take no more thought for the spectator than if he aid not exist. Imagine, at the edge ofthe stage, a great wall separating you from the audience. Act as ifthe curtain did not go up. On Exposition ‘The first part of the dramatic structure is the exposition, according to our catics. In tragedy, where the story is familiar, the exposition can be a single ‘word, Ifmy daughter sets foot in Aulis, she will die”... I would be just as happy if they asked the dramatist to arrange his first scenes so that they contain the actual outline of his play... "To achieve clarity, everything must be explained. The nature of drama requires rapidity, How can we explain everything and keep the action moving rapidly? "The incident chosen to begin the action will be the subject of the fist scene, It will naturally lead to the second, the second scene will lead to the third, and the act will be filed out. The important point Is for the action to gather momentum and to be very clear. Here is where the audience must be considered, Thus we see that the exposition must be given gradually, as the drama unfolds, and the audience does not know or see everything until the final curtain, ... The more rapid the pace and the more complete the exposition, the more careful the dramatist must be. Beyond a certain point hhe cannot put himself in the spectators place. His plot is so familiar to him, 2 phigena, the daughter of Agamemaon and Clytemnestra, was tobe scrficed to the gods Te er father, This was the subject of Buripides’ Iphigenia In Auli (c. 405 8.) and of Racine'sipigéle en ude, produced in 1674.66 Denis Diderot ve eam say hn ngs ae ca wen 6 NI be Ger-riic [eenseur] to point this out hhim, for however talented & writer may be, be needs ‘an impartial reader or criti. yverything that requires an explanation, Ot jothing more. .. ‘and the first incident will set the cerything else must have the jays have been ruined. weak beginning, and Ihe could not sustain the impressions made ‘on the audience. (On Character Types”? Giibe structure of the drama has been well worked out, if the dramatist thas correctly chosen the first moment ‘has started in the center of the atom. ihe has accurately portrayed the temperamel Sty should he not succeed? But its the situations the nature of the characters.» She characters wil be well drawn if the situations become more difi- Wal gute of te temperaments of He DD seldom seen. hhero stands alone. ‘ther kinds of comedy it is superfluous. «- a ‘ype’ ‘aractbre” meaning nature tosuon as inthe (orale) hat Diderot apears to besup to his talented a wgmore. ... will set the ast have the cen ruined inning, and ssions made ve dramatist center of the » characters, st determine e more diff- F ahe people varacters are og character t. but I must e that one of ats task fs to ‘Ps technique seems to me be used. It is aracters. The character. In boracte, or dls- ‘abe invoking. “Discourse on Dramatic Poetry” 67 On Customs and Mores In general, the more polite and civilized a nation is, the less poetic its ‘menners and customs will be. ... What does the dramatist require? Ts it nature in its wild or cultivated state, tranquil or in torment? ... Poetry needs something vast, uncivilized, and wild. ... We may marvel at the peculiarities of civilized nations, where fastidious- ness may be exaggerated to the point of prohibiting dramatists from using situations, even though they are part of their experience, and have beauty, simplicity, and truth. Who in our society would dare to spread straw on the stage and show a newborn baby lying there? Ifthe playwright put a cradle on the stage, some lout in the pit would undoubtedly imitate the crying baby, the people in the boxes would burst out laughing, and the play would be a failure... ‘Anation’s taste must be very dubious, ifit acknowledges the existence in nature of things which artists are not permitted to imitate, or when it admires in art, things which it disdains in nature, ... On Stage Décor s. You expect your dramatist to abide by the unity of place, and yet you ‘abandon the stage to the ignorance of an incompetent scene painter. If you want to bring your dramatists closer to truth in their plot structure and dialogue, if you want your actors to bring more naturalness and true emotion to their parts, raise your voices and simply demand that the place represented on stage be shown as it ought to be. ... ‘Once you have decided that the dramatist's play is worthy of being performed for you, let him send for the stage designer and read his play to ‘him. Once the latter Is familiar with the place where the action occurs, he should reproduce it exactly as it is, being particularly aware that scene painting must be much more rigorous and authentic than any other kind of painting, ... There must be no distractions, no suppositions that awake in my mind any impressions other than those the dramatist wants me to have. .. Scene painting is limited to those details that serve the illusion. ... On Costume «+» Comedy should be performed in ordinary clothes. On stage one should not be more elaborately nor more casually dressed than one would be at home. Actors, if you spend a fortune on clothes to impress the audience,? you have no taste, and you forget that the audience should not, exist for you. The more serious the genre, the more sober and restrained the style of dress should be. How realistic sit, ina moment of tumultuous action, for people to take the time to dress up as if they were golng to a parade or a celebration... 25 Abthle time, actors stil provided ther own costumes.68 Denis Diderot On Stage Directions (Pantomime) OP te description of movements and geste must be written down every ‘hope it constitutes a tableau, whenever it intensifies or clarifies the dia~ logue, whenever it reveals character ‘eben itis some subtle form of Byplay that cannot be guessed at, whenever It represents an answer, and almost ‘always atthe beginning of Scenes.» Tadmit, nev reader, does it not he was writing, ‘throughout the perfos . simplest way to tea aot they have a right to expect from thet aces -+++ nt they ane eco tne sia deco to the actors, "This s the way Tsay the lines these are the things I saw in amy imagination as I was writing» ie rights. Do what the moment and your anes eg do you are ade of Sah ad oe et feelings, ie 0 1 hot oy itereenc. el be sles m9 interfere, and I Boe go badly. you are made of wood or marbex a “actors, take advantage of 9° SOS USDRERBESEREREEE