Chapter 2

VECTOR SPACES

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2.(a) Introduction to Vector Spaces
1 A nonempty set V of objects (called elements or vectors) is
called a vector space over the scalars F(F = R or C) if the
following axioms are satisfied.
2 Closure axioms:
(i) (closure under vector addition) For every pair of elements
x, y ∈ V there is a unique element x + y ∈ V called the sum
of x and y.
(ii) (closure under scalar multiplication of vectors by elements of
F) For every x ∈ V and every scalar α ∈ F there is a unique
element αx ∈ V called the product of α and x.
3 Axioms for vector addition:
(iii) (commutative law) x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ V .
(iv) (associative law) x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z for all x, y , z ∈ V .
(v) (existence of zero element) There exists a unique element 0 in
V such that x + 0 = 0 + x = x for all x ∈ V .
(vi) (existence of inverse or negatives) For x ∈ V there exists a
unique element written as −x such that x + (−x) = 0.

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Vector Spaces: Definitions
1 Axioms for scalar multiplication:
(vii) (associativity) For all α, β ∈ F, x ∈ V ,

α(βx) = (αβ)x.

(viii) (distributive law for addition in V) For all x, y ∈ V and α ∈ F,

α(x + y ) = αx + βy .

(ix) (distributive law for addition in F) For all α, β ∈ F and x ∈ V ,

(α + β)x = αx + βx.

(x) (existence of identity for multiplication) For all x ∈ V ,

1x = x.

2 When F = R we say that V is a real vector space.

3 If we replace real numbers in the above definition by complex
numbers then we get the definition of a complex vector space.
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Vector Space: Examples
In the examples below we leave the verification of the vector
addition and scalar multiplication axioms as exercises.
1. V = R, F = R with ordinary addition and multiplication as
vector addition and scalar multiplication. This gives a real
vector space.
2. V = C, F = C with ordinary addition and multiplication as
vector addition and scalar multiplication. This gives a
complex vector space.
3. V = C, F = R with ordinary addition and multiplication as
vector addition and scalar multiplication. This gives a real
vector space.
4. V = Rn = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | a1 , . . . , an ∈ R}, F = R with
addition of row vectors as vector addition and multiplication
of a row vector by a real number as scalar multiplication. This
gives a real vector space.

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Vector Space: Examples
5. V = Cn = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | a1 , . . . , an ∈ C}, F = C with
addition of row vectors as vector addition and multiplication
of a row vector by a complex number as scalar multiplication.
This gives a complex vector space.
6. We can similarly define a complex vector space of column
vectors with n complex components.
7. Depending on the context Rn could refer to either row vectors
or column vectors with n complex components.
8. Let a < b be real numbers and set V = {f : [a, b] → R},
F = R. If f , g ∈ V then we set (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) for
all x ∈ [a, b]. If a ∈ R and f ∈ V then (af )(x) = af (x) for all
x ∈ [a, b]. This gives a real vector space. Here V is also
denoted by R[a,b] .
9. Let t be an indeterminate. The set
Pn (R) = {a0 + a1 t + · · · + an t n | a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R} is a real
vector space under usual addition of polynomials and
multiplication of polynomials with real numbers.
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Vector Space: Examples
10. C [a, b] := {f : [a, b] → R | f is continuous on [a, b] } is a real
vector space under addition and scalar multiplication defined
in item 4 of the last slide.
11. V = {f : [a, b] → R | f is differentiable at a fixed x ∈ [a, b] }
is a real vector space under the operations described in item 4
of the last slide.
12. The set of all solutions to the differential equation
′′ ′
y + ay + by = 0 where a, b ∈ R form a real vector space.
More generally, in this example we can take
a = a(x), b = b(x) suitable functions of x.
13. Let V = Mm×n (R) denote the set of all m × n matrices with
real entries. Then V is a real vector space under usual matrix
addition and multiplication of a matrix by a real number.
The above examples indicate that the notion of a vector space is
quite general.
A result proved for vector spaces will simultaneously apply to all
the above different examples.
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Not a Vector Space

1) Let the set V = the set of all positive integers (N) and
F = the set of all real numbers (R)
With respect to usual addition and scalar multiplication it is
not a vector space because scalar multiplication is not closed,
that is, Axiom (ii) is not satisfied.
2) Let the set V = R2 = {u = (u1 , u2 ) : u1 , u2 ∈ R} and
F = the set of all real numbers (R)
Addition: u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ) for u, v ∈ R2 .
Scalar Multiplication: k · u = (ku1 , 0) k ∈ R and u ∈ R2 .
It is not a vector space since Axiom (X) is not satisfied.
3) Let the set V = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 : a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ R and a2 ̸= 0}
F = the set of all real numbers (R)
With respect to usual addition and scalar multiplication it is
not a vector space because addition is not closed, that is,
Axiom (i) is not satisfied.

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An Unusual Vector Space

Exercise:
Let the set V = {u ∈ R : u > 0} and
F = the set of all real numbers (R)
Addition: u + v = uv for all u, v ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: k · u = u k for all k ∈ R and u ∈ V .
Show that, with respect to usual addition and scalar multiplication
it forms a vector space.

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Some Properties of Vectors

Theorem 11
Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V , k is a scalar, then:
(a) 0u = 0.
(b) k0 = 0.
(c) (−1)u = −u.
(d) If ku = 0, then either k = 0 or u = 0.

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Subspace Definition

Definition
A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace
of V if W is itself a vector space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V .

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Subspace Definition

Definition
A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace
of V if W is itself a vector space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V .

The following theorem shows a characterization of subspaces.

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Subspace Definition

Definition
A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace
of V if W is itself a vector space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V .

The following theorem shows a characterization of subspaces.

Theorem
Let W be a non-empty subset of V a vector space V over F. Then
W is a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold.
(a) If u, and v are vectors of W , then u + v ∈ W .
(b) If k is a scalar and u is a vector in W , then ku is in W .

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Examples of Subspaces

1 Trivial Subspaces: For any vector space V

(a) the set consisting of zero vector, that is, W = {0} is the zero
subspace.

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Examples of Subspaces

1 Trivial Subspaces: For any vector space V

(a) the set consisting of zero vector, that is, W = {0} is the zero
subspace.
(b) whole set, that is W = V .
2 Non-trivial Subspaces:
Lines through the origin are subspaces of R2 and R3 .

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Examples of Subspaces

1 Trivial Subspaces: For any vector space V

(a) the set consisting of zero vector, that is, W = {0} is the zero
subspace.
(b) whole set, that is W = V .
2 Non-trivial Subspaces:
Lines through the origin are subspaces of R2 and R3 .
Planes through the origin are subspaces of R3 .

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Examples of Subspaces

1 Trivial Subspaces: For any vector space V

(a) the set consisting of zero vector, that is, W = {0} is the zero
subspace.
(b) whole set, that is W = V .
2 Non-trivial Subspaces:
Lines through the origin are subspaces of R2 and R3 .
Planes through the origin are subspaces of R3 .
The set of symmetric n × n matrices w.r.t the usual matrix
addition and scalar multiplication forms a subspace of Mnn , the
set of all n × n matrices.
Following this, the sets of upper traingular matrices, lower
traingular matrices and diagonal matrices are also subspaces of
Mnn .

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Not a Subspace

1 Any straight-line not passing through origin is not a subspace

of R2 .
2 Any planes not passing through origin is not a subspace of R3 .
3 The set
W = {(x, y ) ∈ R2 |, x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0}
is not a subspace.

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Not a Subspace

1 Any straight-line not passing through origin is not a subspace

of R2 .
2 Any planes not passing through origin is not a subspace of R3 .
3 The set
W = {(x, y ) ∈ R2 |, x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0}
is not a subspace.
4 The set of all invertible n × n matrices is not a subspace is not
a subspace of the set of all n × n square matrices.
5 The set of all non-invertible matrices also not a subspace of
the set of all n × n square matrices.

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New subspace from known subspaces

Theorem
If W1 , . . . , Wr are subspaces of a vector space V , then the
intersection of these subspaces is also a subspace of V .

What about union of subspaces of a vector space ?

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Exercise Problems:

1 Which of the following sets from a subspace of R3 ?

W1 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 + x2 + x3 = 0}
W2 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 + x3 = 0}
W3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 x2 = 0}
W4 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 x2 = 1}
W5 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 = x2 }
2 Which of the following sets from a subspace of C [a, b]?
W1 = {f ∈ C [a, b] : f ( a+b
2 ) = 0}
W2 = {f ∈ C [a, b] : f ( a+b ) = 1}
Rb 2
W3 = {f ∈ C [a, b] : a f (t)dt = 0}

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