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Epy Topic 5 Notes

This document discusses the biological and environmental bases of behavior. It addresses the nature versus nurture debate regarding the influence of heredity and environment on human traits and behavior. Both heredity and environment play important roles, as traits are determined by an interaction between genetic and environmental factors. The document also describes the major divisions of the nervous system and how neurons transmit signals to influence behavior.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
36 views25 pages

Epy Topic 5 Notes

This document discusses the biological and environmental bases of behavior. It addresses the nature versus nurture debate regarding the influence of heredity and environment on human traits and behavior. Both heredity and environment play important roles, as traits are determined by an interaction between genetic and environmental factors. The document also describes the major divisions of the nervous system and how neurons transmit signals to influence behavior.

Uploaded by

marubegeoffrey41
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LECTURE 5

BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

5.1 Introduction

In this lecture, we are going to look at the controversy that existed among

psychologists on how heredity and environment contribute to the

differences in human behaviour. The issue of how much of human

behaviour is inherited and how much is acquired through experience


within the environment has been one of the greatest problems in

psychology. We shall also discuss the nervous system and see how it
affects our behaviour. In our discussion we shall examine the major

divisions of the nervous system; the central nervous system (CNS), which

consists of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), which consists of the nerves in the body outside the central

nervous system. We will also examine the endocrine system, which

consists of glands that help regulate our behaviour by secreting

hormones, or chemicals into our blood stream. An understanding of how

heredity and environmental factors interact to determine behaviour and

how much our inherited potential can be realized can help us to

understand individual differences in behaviour.

Learning Activity:

Which one do you think is more important than the other in determining

your characteristics – heredity or environment?


Behaviour is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment

(nurture). For a long time in the history of psychology, psychologists have

debated on the relative importance of heredity and environment in


determining our behaviour. The question they have tried to answer is

whether our behaviour is determined or decided upon by heredity or by

environment.
5.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• Explain the nature versus nurture controversy.
• Explain how heredity and environment interact to determine human behaviour.
• Give the implication of the nature versus nurture debate on the learning process.
• Explain how neurons convey electrochemical information throughout the body.
• Discuss how the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system initiate
bodily activity and regulate body functions.
• Identify the major structures of the brain and state their role in behaviour.
• Explain the role of hormones in human behaviour.

5.3 Genetic Influence

The influence of heredity on our behaviour cannot be overemphasized. At

the moment of conception, when the sperm unites with an ovum an

incredible number of personal features and developmental patterns are


determined. The hereditary instructions are transmitted through the

chromosomes that contain thousands and thousands of genes, which

determine our inherited traits. Chromosomes are long chainlike

structures containing genes and are found in the nuclei of body cells.

The individual inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent. These

chromosomes combine to make a pair of 23, meaning that each single

human cell will have a total of 46 chromosomes. The thousands and

thousands of genes carried in each chromosome determine the sequence

of growth, timing of maturity, skin colour, hair colour, body size,


vulnerability to some diseases (e.g., sickle-cell anaemia and mental

disorders), body shape, height, intelligence, athletic potential, personality

characteristics and other traits. If you are more interested in the


mechanisms of genetic inheritance you can read books on developmental

psychology. In this lecture our concern is to show how hereditary and

environmental factors interact to influence our behaviour. Both heredity


and environment are important in determining behaviour and

development. The two are inseparable. As one grows, there is a constant

interaction between the forces of nature and nurture. Therefore, the total

person is a product of heredity and environmental factors.

Learning Activity:
Give a brief explanation of how heredity determines various traits

Heredity shapes behaviour and development by providing a framework of

personal potentials and limitations that are altered by environmental

factors such as nutrition, culture, disease, learning, parents, peers, home,

school and so on. Environmental factors determine how much of our

inherited potentials or capacities will be realized. For example, a child with

a very high inherited academic potential will not achieve high grades
unless he or she is exposed to an ideal and conducive learning

environment. The observed academic achievement in this case may be far


much below the child’s inherited ability.

5.4 Environmental Influence


The influence of environment on behaviour and development begins

immediately after conception and continues until death. During prenatal

(before birth) development a number of factors can affect the foetus


before it is born. The mother’s nutrition and exposure to disease, drugs

and radiation through x-ray can result to malformation of the baby, low

birth weight, mental retardation and other permanent effects.

After birth, the influence on behaviour and development includes a variety

of environmental factors such as the culture, peers, media, family,

nutrition, parents, disease, learning and school. In the early years of life,

the most important influence comes from an infant’s caretaker. Thus the

quality of mothering is of prime importance (Omulema&Sindabi, 1999).

Without the interaction of heredity and environment behaviour may not


be manifested. For example a child will not learn language unless he/she

is exposed to a spoken language. As one grows, there is a constant

interaction or interplay between the forces of nature and nurture. Our

heredity does not change, but produces various physical changes that

occur throughout our life time.

Learning Activities:

i. Give a brief explanation of how environment determines various

traits.

ii. Discuss how much you can do on heredity and environment to

improve your traits.


The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors differs from

one trait to another. A certain trait may be determined largely by heredity

but not much by environment and vice-versa. For example, genes


contribute more to intelligence than they do to other personality traits

such as, attitudes, beliefs, prejudice, interest and values. The real issue in

understanding human behaviour and development is the question of how


heredity and environment interact or work together to produce our

psychological traits and developmental changes but not the percentage

of contribution of each.

Today psychologists support an interactionist model or approach. From

a policing point of view, the most important thing to learn is that many of

our characteristics can be influenced by the environment. Although there


is little or nothing we can do about heredity, much of the environment still

remains under our control. Therefore, we should try to improve the

environment for our police force to enable them realize their full potential

and perform to their best.

Research findings on the contributions of heredity and environment have

revealed that:

• The intelligence quotient (IQ) correlations between identical twins (who

develop from the same egg) are exceptionally high when raised

together and slightly less when raised in separate environments

(Eysenck &Kamin, 1981). The slight variation can be attributed to

differences in their environment.


• The IQ scores of fraternal twins (who like siblings develop from different

eggs) are correlated at about the same level as those of non-twin

brothers and sisters.


• The more closely two people are genetically, the higher their IQ

correlations.

• The correlation between the IQ scores of a child and its mother is the
same as the correlation between the IQ score of the child and its father.

• The IQ scores of adopted children show correlation with those of their

biological parents.

• The correlation between unrelated children reared in separate

environments is zero, whereas if the same set of children are brought

up in the same environment it rises to about 0.25.

• The IQ scores of adopted children are more closely related to their


biological parents than their adoptive parents, who raised them

(Bourchard, 1984).

5.5 The Nervous System

Why do psychologists study the nervous system? Psychologists study the

nervous system to understand how it affects behaviour. For example, the

areas of your brain that control speech are known. Physiology is an

integral part of psychology. The kind of behaviour of which a species is

capable is determined partly by the kind of nervous system it possesses.

The human nervous system, especially the brain is highly developed and

more complex compared to that of other animals. Hence, human

behaviour is complex compared to that of other animals.


The nervous system is divided into two major divisions: central;

constituting the brain and spinal cord; and peripheral which includes
nerves outside the central nervous system serving muscles, glands and

sensory receptors. Each of these systems is made up of several

components that contribute in one way or the other to behaviour. They


initiate bodily activity and regulate body functions.

The Neuron

This is the basic unit of the nervous system (a single nerve cell). Neurons

transmit information throughout the body as well as the brain. Each

neuron receives and sends signals to other neurons. All behaviour -

everything you do, think or feel is a result of neural activity. Your


movement, thinking, heartbeat and so on depends on what happens at

the level of the neuron. A neuron has three basic features: dendrites, cell

body and an axon. Neurons in different parts of the nervous system may

differ in size and shape but they all have the three major parts.

The dendrites receive information from other neurons. Each neuron may

have hundreds or thousand of dendrites. The cell body, or soma has

several functions;

• It integrates the electrical information coming from the dendrites.

• It absorbs needed nutrients.

• It produces the majority of protein molecules needed for normal

functioning of the cell.


The axon which is a tube like structure transmits neural information to

axon terminals (nerve endings). It is highly sensitive to changes in the

electrical charge of its membranes. If the electrical charge is sufficient, an


action potential (an electrochemical impulse) is initiated at the junction

between the soma and the axon. This action potential travels down and

branches into the axon terminal buttons. These terminal buttons form
junctions with other neurons and with muscles, which in turn are activated

by chemicals released by the terminal buttons. While a neuron is a single

cell consisting of the three parts discussed, a nerve is a bundle of axons

that have a similar function.

Neurons do not touch one another. They are separated by a gap between

them known as a synapse. When an action potential reaches the axon


terminals, it causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic

gap, the space between the two cells. Neurotransmitters are chemicals

(such as acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin) released from terminal


buttons into the synaptic gap.

These chemicals cross the gap and stimulate/excite the presynaptic

terminals of the next cell which in turn releases an electrical charge or

spark. The neurotransmitters may either have excitatory or inhibitory

effect on their target cells. Excitatory neurotransmitters instruct the


receiving neuron to fire or conduct an action potential. Inhibitory

neurotransmitters instruct the receiving neuron not to fire an action

potential. Excitatory neurotransmitters include acetylcholine,


norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. An example of an inhibitory

neurotransmitter is endorphine that blocks neural signals (Huffman, et al.,

1995).

Learning Activity:

What does excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters do?

Figure 1: Structure of a neuron

Psychoactive drugs (drugs that affect the nervous system like alcohol or

caffeine) have their effect by either increasing or decreasing the amount

of neurotransmitters released into the synapse. Drugs like alcohol and

pain killers work by suppressing the release of neurotransmitters or

increasing the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters. Drugs like caffeine

and cocaine increases the amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse or


directly activates receptor sites on the dendrites – thus they have a

stimulating effect on the nervous system.

The nervous system is made up of millions of neurons, which make up the

basic structural units of the nervous system. About 80 percent of all


neurons are found in the brain.

Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the central nervous system
to the rest of the body. It includes all the nerves going to and from the

brain and the spinal cord. It serves to transmit neural impulses to and

from the brain and the spinal cord. It consist of two systems, the somatic

and the autonomic nervous systems. The two divisions work jointly with

the CNS in carrying out their functions.

The somatic nervous system directs the movement of the skeletal


muscles, which are usually under our voluntary control. It regulates

voluntary actions. For example, when you move your hand when writing,

the somatic nervous system sends neural impulses to and from the brain
with instructions for the skeletal muscles to contract or relax.

The autonomic nervous system controls the more automatic (self-

regulating) bodily functions such as heart rate, sweating and breathing,

which are beyond our voluntary control. It maintains homeostasis – the

regulation of body balances necessary for survival. It regulates the glands,


heart muscles, muscles of the blood vessels, internal organs and other

involuntary responses.
The autonomic nervous system is made up of two systems, the

parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous systems. These two

tend to work in opposition to each other in regulating the functioning of


such organs as the heart, intestines and the lungs.

The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant when a person is in a

relaxed, non-stressful physical and mental state. It slows the heart rate,

lowers blood pressure, dilates arteries, and increases digestive and


eliminative processes. In short, it performs bodily maintenance.

The sympathetic nervous system which is an emergency system takes

over when a person is under some type of stress, or some type of mental

and physical strain. It stops digestive and eliminative processes, increases

blood pressure, respiration, heart rate and causes several hormones to be

released into the bloodstream. This happens to get more oxygenated


blood and glucose to the skeletal muscles, thus making a person able to

deal with the source of stress. In other words, it prepares the body to fight

or flee from whatever is causing the stress or anxiety. When you feel very
tense and anxious when taking a very important examination or being

interviewed for a job, the sympathetic nervous system is the one that

would be responsible for such feelings. When the crisis is settled, the

parasympathetic division resumes control and the activity of the related

organs returns to their usual level.

Peripheral nervous system


(All nerves going to and from the CNS)

Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system


Figure 2: Subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system

During combat, the sympathetic nervous system will be active and when

the combat is over and the threat from the enemy is no more, the

parasympathetic division will take over.


Table 21 The actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic

branches

of the Autonomic Nervous system

Parasympathetic Body system/organ Sympathetic

Constricts Pupil Dilates

Stimulates salivation Salivary glands Decreases salivation

Constricts Blood vessels Dilates


Slows Heart Speeds

Constricts Airways in lungs Opens

Relaxes Hair Erects


Constricts Sweat glands Opens

Increase Stomach Reduces contractions

contractions

Contracts Bladder Relaxes

Relaxes Reproductive system Excites

In short, the function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to quiet


the body and bring it to a lower level of arousal whereas the function of

the sympathetic nervous systems is to generally activate the body.

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain is the control centre for all voluntary behaviour (such as writing,

computing and talking) and a good part of involuntary behaviour (such as


feeling embarrassed). The spinal cord contains the structures responsible

for reflex actions and the nerve fibres that link the brain and other parts

of the body.
(a) The spinal cord

It is the part of the nervous system found within the spinal column which

is involved in reflexes and the relay of neural information to and from the
brain. It is involved in all the voluntary and reflex responses of the body

below the neck. A reflex is a simple, automatic response integrated within

the spinal cord such as a knee jerk.

The spinal cord has two major components, the grey matter and white

matter. The grey matter near the centre contains mainly cell bodies within

which information is processed within the spinal cord itself. The white

matter is the outer layer of the spinal cord. Within the white matter, axons
transmit information to and from the brain. When damaged, all muscles

served by sections of the spinal cord below the damaged part will not

function normally and a person may be paralysed.

(b) The brain

Learning Activity:

As you read through this section draw a table with two columns and

indicate in one column the various parts of the brain and in the other

one the behaviours controlled by those parts.

As we have seen, the brain is the control centre for the body. It controls

what we do, think and feel. The human brain is complex and highly
developed as compared to that of other animals. This accounts for the

complicated nature of human behaviour. The major divisions of the brain

are the cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral cortex and sub cortical areas,
the cerebellum and the brain system.

(i) The cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex makes the outside surface of the brain. It is the largest

structure of the brain and accounts for more than 70 percent of the
neurons in the central nervous system. It is composed of two hemispheres

connected by a thick band of fibres called Corpus callosum. The two

sides control opposite sides of the body. The right half mainly controls

the left body areas. The left half mainly controls the right side of the body.

Each hemisphere is divided into four areas or lobes according to their


general functions and structures. The four areas are the frontal, parietal,

occipital and temporal lobes (see figure 3).


Figure 3: Parts of the Brain

The frontal lobes


The frontal lobes are located at the top front portion of the brain

hemispheres. Their functions include self-awareness, initiative and ability


to plan ahead. At the back of the frontal lobes lies the motor control

areas which controls all voluntary body movements. For example, when

you remove your pen from your bag, it is the motor control area of the
frontal lobes that guide your hand.

A specialized area in the left frontal lobe on the surface of the brain near

the bottom of the motor control area is the broca’s area, which controls
the muscles used to produce speech. The remaining part consists of

association cortex that is believed to control mental operations or


complex psychological functions such as, thought, perception, imagery,

problem solving, emotions, memory, language and thinking (Luria, 1973,

1980). The association areas organize and integrate sensory information


received from other brain areas to enable us to perform various functions.

The parietal lobes

The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes. They control body

sensations and memory about the environment. Bodily sensations such


as touch, pain, pressure and temperature are channeled to the parietal

lobes.

The occipital lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They mainly

control vision and visual perceptions. When you are hit at the back of your

head with your eyes closed you will see stars or flashes of light. This is
because the blow activates the nerve cells in the occipital lobes. Damage

or injury to this area can affect vision.

The temporal lobes


The temporal lobes are located on the sides of the brain. Their major

functions are auditory perception (hearing), language, memory and some

emotional control. They are also important in the formation of new

concepts and memories. Damage to the temporal lobes will cause

impairment to the above functions.

(ii) Sub cortical brain areas

The sub cortical brain areas are found in the centre of the brain and are

surrounded by the cerebral cortex. They include the corpus callosum,


thalamus, hypothalamus and a group of structures collectively known as

limbic system.

The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres and makes it

possible for the hemispheres to communicate or coordinate with each


other. If this part is damaged, we will have two brains that can function

independently of each other, conditions known as split brain. In such a

case, each hemisphere will have its own sensations, perceptions and
concepts. For example, if one sees or learns something with one eye and

blindfolds it and uses the other, the second eye will not recognize what

was seen or learned. However, in conflict one side overrides the other and

therefore one will behave normally.

The thalamus is located below the corpus callosum and between the two

hemispheres. It serves as the major sensory relay centre for the brain. It
receives input from nearly all the sensory system, and then projects this

information to the respective or appropriate areas of the brain. It sorts

out and directs information from the sensory organs to specific sensory
and motor regions of the brain. The thalamus also plays a role in learning

and memory. If damaged, one would have problems in forming new

memories.

The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. Its major function is

homeostasis, that is, the regulation of the internal environment of the


body. It controls blood temperature, the concentration of salt and sugar

in the blood, the concentration of hormones and other chemicals in the

body. It accomplishes this function through regulating the endocrine


system. For example, if it detects high levels of sugar in the blood, it will

send signals to the pancreas to produce insulin that will bring it down to

the required level. It is a master control centre for emotion and other basic
motives. The hypothalamus controls behaviours such as sexual response,

rage, anger, eating and drinking, sleeping, waking and emotion. If

damaged, all these functions may be impaired. It is also a part of a group


of subcortical and cortical structures collectively known as limbic system.

Figure 4: The limbic system

The limbic system comprises of the hypothalamus, hippocampus,

amygdala, septum, parts of the thalamus and parts of the frontal and

temporal cortical lobes. It controls emotional and motivated behaviour


especially aggression, rage, fear, pleasure and other intense arousals.

Damage to this brain system will affect all these behaviours.

(iii) The cerebellum

The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain. It regulates posture

(maintenance of balance when walking, riding, sitting etc), muscular

coordination and motor activities/movements. The cerebellum makes our

movements coordinated and smooth. It also plays a role in some types of


memory.

(iv) The brain stem

The brain stem consists of the pons, medulla and the reticular activating

system. The Pons is involved in functions such as respiration, movement,

facial expression and sleep.

Figure 5: The Brain Stem


The Medulla is located at the bottom of the brain and at the top of the

spinal cord. It mainly controls automatic bodily functions such as


breathing, heartbeat and swallowing. Injury to the medulla can affect

these functions and endanger life.

The Reticular activating system (RAS) which is also known as the

Reticular formation filters incoming information. It selectively attends to


some information and ignores or excludes unimportant sensory input. It

is important for attention and arousal. This part of the brain is also

responsible for various degrees of alertness and wakefulness. If damaged

one can go into coma resembling sleep.

As you have seen in this lecture, behaviour is a complex process that has

its roots in the interaction between heredity and environment and also the
nervous and endocrine systems. The more you learn about the influence

of heredity and environment on behaviour and the brain and nervous

system the more you will understand why people behave the way they do.

Learning Activity:

As you read through this section draw a table with three columns and

indicate in one column the various endocrine glands and in the second
column indicate the hormones/chemicals they secrete and in the third

one, the behaviours controlled by each of them.

5.6 The Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of several glands that release hormones

into the blood stream. The nervous system and the endocrine system

work together to direct our behaviour and maintain our body’s normal

functioning. The nervous system activates the endocrine system to

secrete hormones which are passed into the blood stream which circulates

them throughout the body. These hormones affect behaviour and the
nervous system itself. These glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal,

gonads and the pancreas.

(a) The pituitary gland

It is located at the base of the brain. One of the major hormones produced
by the pituitary gland is the growth hormone which controls the growth

of the skeletal system. Too much growth hormone produces gigantism

and too little of it produces dwarfism. It regulates the functioning of the


other glands (especially the thyroid, adrenal glands and the gonads). It

functions mostly under the control of the hypothalamus, to which it is

attached. In women, it controls the production of milk. The pituitary gland

is also called the master gland because of its many effects on other glands.

(b) The thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is located in the neck region. It produces thyroxin

hormone, which controls metabolism rate of the body (i.e., the rate at

which energy is produced and expended). As a result, it has an effect on


personality. A person with an overactive thyroid (termed

hyperthyroidism) tends to be thin, tense, excitable and nervous. An under

active thyroid (termed hypothyroidism) can cause inactivity, sleepiness,


slowness and overweight among adults. In infancy, hypothyroidism limits

development of the nervous system and can cause mental retardation.

Deficiency of iodine which is part of the thyroxin hormone causes goitre


which is the swelling of the thyroid gland.

(c) The adrenal gland

The adrenal glands are located at the upper end of the kidneys. They are

always two, with an inner core/layer called adrenal medulla and an outer

layer called adrenal cortex.

The adrenal medulla is the source of adrenaline, which helps the body to
perform in emergencies by increasing heart rate, permitting the flow of

sugar and oxygen etc. It also influences emotional behaviours such as

crying and aggression.

The adrenal cortex produces hormones called corticoids whose function

is to regulate salt balance in the body and helps the body to adjust to

stress. The adrenal cortex is also a secondary source of sex hormones.

(d) The gonads

The gonads are the testes and ovaries. They play a key role in sexual

behaviour. They produce gametes (sperms and ovum). Among other

hormones the ovaries produce oestrogen which influences sex drive,


development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., the development of

breasts and pubic hair) and ovulation. One of the major male hormones

is testosterone which influences sex drive, development of secondary


sexual characteristics(e.g., the development of beards and deep voice).

The hormones produced by the gonads contribute to the physical and

psychological development during the onset of adolescence and


continues to influence sexual responsiveness throughout adulthood.

(e) The pancreas

The pancreas secretes insulin – a hormone that controls the amount of

sugar circulating in the blood. If little insulin is produced, there will be

more sugar freed from the liver and vice versa. Diabetes results due to

non-insulin production. This affects brain functioning which utilizes about


¼ of the sugar in the body.

In conclusion, you have seen how behaviour and personality among other

body functions are tied to the flow of hormones in the blood which are

produced by the endocrine system.

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