SESHADRIRAO GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRIRAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE MODULE ON

UN-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

(Abrasive Jet Machining, Water Jet Machining and Abrasive Water Jet
Machining)
(UNIT – II)

1
Abrasive Jet Machining
2.0 Introduction

A jet of inert gas consisting of very fine abrasive particles strikes the work piece at
high velocity (usually between 200 – 400 m/s) resulting in material removal through
chipping/erosive action. This erosive action has been employed for cutting, cleaning, etching,
polishing and deburring. This method of material removal is quite effective on hard and
brittle materials (glass, silicon, tungsten, ceramics etc) but not so effective on soft materials
like aluminium, rubber, etc. It can produce fine and complicated details on the parts made of
very brittle materials.
2.1 Working Principle
This process consists of directing a stream of fine abrasive grains mixed with compressed air
or some other gas at a high pressure, through a nozzle on to the surface of work piece to be machined.
The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas
or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a
controlled manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece
and the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material. This process is mainly
employed for such machining works, which are otherwise difficult, such as thin sections of hard
metals and alloys, cutting of materials which are sensitive to heat damage, producing intricate holes,
deburring, etching, and polishing etc. Fig. 2.1schematically shows the material removal process.

Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation of AJM

2
2.2 Abrasive Jet Machining Set-up

The essential parts of an AJM setup, developed for laboratory purposes are shown in
schematic diagram 2.2 and the same are discussed in the following.

Fig. 2.2 AJM Set-up

Gas Propulsion System:

The gas propulsion system supplies clean and dry gas to propel the abrasive particles. In AJM,
air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5 bar is used as the
carrier gas as shown in Fig. 2.2. Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly
be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first
passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. The gas is then passed
through an air dryer to remove any residual water vapour. To remove any oil vapour or particulate
contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. The gas should be nontoxic, cheap, and
easily available. It should not excessively spread when discharged from nozzle into atmosphere.

Abrasive Feeder:

The abrasive particles enter the mixing chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve. The sieve is
constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min)
entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The
particles are propelled by carrier gas to a mixing chamber. The abrasive particles are then carried by
the carrier gas to the machining chamber via an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining is
carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the nozzle onto a work piece
traversing under the jet.

3
AJM Nozzle:

The AJM nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire which has high resistance to wear.
The nozzle is made of either circular or rectangular cross section. The nozzle imparts high velocity to
the mixture which is directed at the workpiece surface. Material removal occurs due to the erosive
action of the jet of air-abrasive mixture impinging on the workpiece surface.

Machining Chamber:

The machining enclosure is essential to contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-
friendly manner. The machining chamber is well closed so that the concentration of the abrasive
particles around the working chamber does not reach to the harmful limit. Machining chamber is
equipped with a vacuum dust collector. Special consideration should be given to the dust collection
system if the toxic materials (say, beryllium) are being machined.

2.3 Abrasive Jet Machining

Abrasive jet machining process is shown in figure 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Principle of AJM

1. Workpiece 2. Abrasive Jet 3. Nozzle 4. Hose 5. Control valve for jet flow 6. Pressure guage 7. Hopper 8. Regulator
9. Filter 10. Gas/Air Regulator 11. Mixing chamber 12. Vibrating device

Fine grained abrasive powder is filled in a vibrating chamber, called mixing chamber.
The gas or air at high pressure is forced into this chamber, the pressure of gas varying from 2
kg/cm2 to 8.5 kg/cm2. For normal machining work the nozzle can be manipulated by hand,
but for cutting critical shapes or precision cutting along an intricate contour either the work
piece or the nozzle is mounted on suitable fixtures and moved by means or well designed
mechanisms along a predetermined path, such as cams, pantographs etc.

4
 The abrasive particles are contained in a suitable holding device, like a hopper and fed
into the mixing chamber. A regulator is incorporated in the line to control the flow of
abrasive particles, compressed air or high pressure gas is supplied to the mixing chamber
through a pipe line. This pipeline carries a pressure guage and regulator to control the gas
flow and its pressure. The mixing chamber carrying the abrasive particles is vibrated and the
amplitude of these vibrations controls the flow of abrasive particles. These particles mix in
the gas stream, travel further through a hose and finally pass through the nozzle at a
considerably high speed. The nozzle imparts high velocity to the mixture which is directed at the
workpiece surface. Material removal occurs due to the erosive action of the jet of air-abrasive mixture
impinging on the workpiece surface.

2.4 Process Parameters

Abrasives:
⎯ Material – Al O / SiC / glass beads
2 3

⎯ Shape – irregular / spherical

⎯ Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
⎯ Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), glass beads, crushed glass, and
sodium bicarbonate are some of the abrasives used in AJM. Selection of abrasives depends
upon the type of work material, material removal rate (MRR), and machining accuracy
desired. Al2O3 is good for cleaning, cutting and deburring while SiC is also used for the
similar applications but for harder work materials. For obtaining matte finish, glass beads are
good while crushed glass performs better for giving sharper edges. However, cleaning,
deburring and cutting of soft materials are better performed by sodium bicarbonate. The sizes
of abrasive particles available in the range available in the market range from 10 to 50 μm.
Small abrasive particles are used for cleaning and polishing while large particles perform
better during cutting. Fine grains are less irregular in shape; hence their cutting ability is
poor. The abrasives should have sharp and irregular shape and be fine enough to remain
suspended in the carrier gas. Re use of the abrasives is not recommended because of the two
reasons. Firstly, abrasives get contaminated with metallic chips which may block the nozzle
passage. Secondly, cutting ability of the used abrasive particles goes down. Further, cost of
the abrasives is also low.

5
Carrier Gas:
- Composition – Air, CO2, N2
3
⎯ Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m
⎯ Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
⎯ Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
⎯ Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
Carrier gas to be used in AJM must not flare excessively when discharged from the
nozzle into the atmosphere. Further the gas should be nontoxic, cheap, easily available and
capable of being dried and cleaned without difficulty. The gases that can be used are air, Co2
and N2. Air is most widely used owing to easy availability and little cost.
Nozzle:
The nozzle is one of the most vital elements controlling the process characteristics.
Since it is continuously in contact with the abrasive grains flowing at a high speed, the
materials must be very hard to avoid any significant wear. Normally the nozzles are made of
sapphire and tungsten carbide is used. A tungsten carbide lasts between 12 hr and 30 hr,
where as a sapphire nozzle lasts for 300 hr approximately. For normal operation, the c/s area
of the orifice between 0.05 mm2 to 0.2 mm2.
With an increase in the wear of a nozzle, the divergence of the jet stream increases
resulting in more stray cutting and high inaccuracy. The stray cutting can be controlled by the
use of masks made of soft materials like rubber ( for less accurate work, or poor edge
definintion), or metals (for more accurate works or sharp edge definintion). Mask covers only
that part of the job where machining is not desirable. The nozzle should be designed that the
pressure loss due to bends, friction loss etc is as little as possible. Depending on the
requirements the nozzles may be either circular or rectangular in cross section.

Abrasive Jet:

The outgoing high speed stream of the mixture of gas and abrasive particles is known
as Abrasive Jet. The kinetic energy of the abrasive jet is utilized for metal removal by
erosion. The jet velocity ranges from 100 – 300 m/s. The jet velocity is a function of the
nozzle pressure, nozzle design, abrasive grain size and the mean number of abrasives per unit
volume of the carrier the gas.

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2.5 Modelling of Metal Removal

Material removal in AJM takes place due to brittle fracture of the work material due to
impact of high velocity abrasive particles.
Modelling has been done with the following assumptions:
 Abrasives are spherical in shape and rigid. The particles are characterized by the mean
grit diameter
 The kinetic energy of the abrasives are fully utilized in removing material
 Brittle materials are considered to fail due to brittle fracture and the fracture volume is
considered to be hemispherical with diameter equal to chordal length of the indentation
 For ductile material, removal volume is assumed to be equal to the indentation volume
due to particulate impact.

Fig. 2.4 schematically shows the interaction of the abrasive particle and the work material in
AJM.

Fig. 2.4 Interaction of abrasive particles with workpiece

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From the geometry of the identation
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
BC2 = r2 = AB2 – AC2
2 2
d d 
r       hw 
2

2 2 

r 2   h 2w  dh w

r  d h w  h w  d 

Volume of material removal in brittle material is the volume of the hemispherical impact
crater and is given by:
2 2
VB  r 3    d h w 
3/ 2

3 3
Kinetic energy of a single abrasive particle is given by
1 1 
KE g  m v 2   d3 g  v 2
2 2 6 
 3 2
 d g v
12
Where, v = velocity of the abrasive particle
m = mass of a single abrasive grit
dg = diameter of the grit
ρg = density of the grit
on impact, the work material would be subjected to a maximum force F which would lead to
an indentation of „hw‟. Thus the work done during such indentation is given by
1
W F hw
2
Now considering H as the hardness or the flow strength of the work material, the impact
force (F) can be expressed as :
F = indetation area x hardness
F   r2 H where r is the indentation radius
1 2
W   r H hw
2
Now, as it is assumed that the KE of the abrasive is fully used for material removal, then the
work done is equated to the energy
W = KEg

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 1 2 1 
 r H h w   d 3 g  v 2
2 2 6 
d 3 g v 2
hw 
6 r2 H

Now r  d h w

d 2 g v 2
h 2w 
6H
1/ 2
 g 
Or h w  d v  
 6H 
Now MRR in AJM of brittle materials can be expressed as:
MRRB = VB x number of impacts by abrasive grits per second = VB.N
MRRB = VB. (ma / mass of a grit)
Where ma is the mass flow rate of the abrasive jet
ma
MRR B  VB .
mass of abrasive particle
ma 6 VB ma
MRR B  VB . 
 3  d3 g
d g
6
2 2
As VB  r 3    d h w 
3/ 2

3 3
3/ 2
4 ma  h w 
 MRR B 
g  d 
.

1/ 2
 g 
As hw  d v  
 6H 

4 ma v 3 / 2
MRR B 
63 / 4 1/g 4 H3 / 4

ma v 3 / 2
or MRR B  1/ 4 3 / 4
g H

For ductile material, volume of material removal in single impact is equal to the volume of
the indentation and is expressed as:

 r2 
VD  .h w  d h 2w
2 2

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Now MRR in AJM of ductile materials can be expressed as:
MRRD = VD x number of impacts by abrasive grits per second = VD.N
MRRD = VD. (ma / mass of a grit)
Where ma is the mass flow rate of the abrasive jet
ma
MRR D  VD .
mass of abrasive particle
ma 6 VD ma
MRR D  VD . 
 3  d 3 g
d g
6
 2
As VD  d hw
2
3ma h 2w
MRR D 
d 2 g
1/ 2
 g 
As hw  d v  
 6H 

1 ma v 2
MRR D 
2 H
Finnie showed that the volume of material (Q) eroded by impacting particles of mass m
carried in a stream of air can be calculated as
C.f    m v n
Q

Where, C and n are constants, σ is minimum flow stress of work material, v is velocity of
impacting particles, and θ is impingement angle.
Sarkar and Pandey (1980) suggested a model to calculate MRR during AJM.
3/ 4
  
Q   Zd v3 3/ 2
 
 12 H w 
Where Z is number of particles impacting per unit time, d is mean diameter of abrasive
grains, v is velocity of abrasive grains, ρ is density of abrasive particles, Hw is the hardness of
work material (or flow stress of material) and χ is a constant. There is a significant effect of
change in mesh size and abrasive grain velocity on MRR. The equation also indicates that
harder the work material, smaller will be MRR for the same machining conditions.

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2.6 Parametric Analysis

Fig 2.5 Fishbone Diagram for AJM Process

Fishbone diagram of AJM process is shown in figure. It indicates the various parameters
effect the performance of the process. Important parameters that affect the material removal
rate during AJM are stand – off – distance (i.e SOD, or sometimes called as nozzle tip
distance), type and size of abrasive particles, flow rate of abrasive, gas pressure, work
material and feed rate. The effects of these parameters on the process perfromance are
discussed below.

2.6.1 Stand-off distance

Stand off is defined as the distance between the face of the nozzle and the working
surface of the work. SOD has been found to have considerable effect on the MRR as well as
accuracy. A large SOD results in the flaring up of the jet, which leads to poor accuracy.
Figure 2.6 shows the effect of the SOD on the machining accuracy. A decrease in SOD
improves accuracy, decreases kerf width, and reduces taper in the machined groove. However
light operations like cleaning, frosting etc are conducted with a large SOD (say 12.5 to 75
mm). Figure 2.7 shows relationship between SOD and MRR. Small metal removal rates at a
low SOD due to reduction in nozzle pressure with decreasing distance, where as there is a
drop in MRR large SOD due to reduction in jet velocity with increasing distance.

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 Fig. 3.6 Effect of SOD on shape and size of cut

Fig 2.7 Effects of SOD on material removal rate (● penetration rate ○ volumetric
material removal rate)
Ingulli has shown that MRR increases only up to a certain value of abrasive flow rate beyond
which it starts decreasing as shown in figure 2.8. As abrasive flow rate increases, the number
of abrasive particles cutting the workpiece also increases thereby increasing MRR. However,
with a further increase in abrasive flow rate (other parameters remaining unchanged), the
abrasive flow velocity goes down. This decrease in abrasive flow velocity causes a reduction
in MRR.

12
 Fig 2.8 Variation in material removal rate with a change in abrasive flow rate
Nozzle Pressure
Effect of nozzle pressure on MRR is shown in figure 2.9. Kinetic energy of the abrasive
particles is responsible for removal of material by erosion process. Abrasives must impinge
on the work surface with a certain minimum velocity so that the erosion can take place. This
minimum velocity for machining glass by SiC particles (size 25μm) is found to be around
150 m/s.

Fig 2.9 Effect of nozzle pressure on material removal rate

Mixing Ratio
Mixing ratio also influences MRR.
Volume flow rate of abrasive particles Va
M 
Volume flow rate of carrier gas Vg

An increase in the value of M increases MRR but a large value of M may decrease jet
velocity and sometimes may block the nozzle. Thus, an optimum value of mixing ratio has
been observed that gives maximum MRR. Figure 2.10 shows the effect of SOD on MRR for
various values of mixing ratios. In place of M, the mass ratio α, may be easier to determine.
13
 Ma
 
M a c
Where, Ma is the abrasive mass flow rate, and Ma+c is abrasive and carrier gas optimum gas
combined mass flow rate. Verma and Lal have studied its effect on optimum volumetric
material removal rate.

Fig. 2.11 Effect of SOD on MRR for various mixing ratios

2.7 Process Capabilities

Although AJM gives low MRR but it can easily produce intricate datails in hard and briitle
materials. Production of narrow slots (0.12 – 0.25 mm), low tolerance (± 0.12 mm), good
surface finish (0.25 – 1.25 μm), and sharp radius (0.2 mm) on machined edge are some of the
characterisitcs of the AJM process. Steels upto 1.5 mm thick and glass upto 6.3 mm thick
have been possible to cut by AJM but at very low MRR and large taper. The process has a
special application for machining thin sectioned brittle materials, particularly in the areas
which are inaccessible for conventional machining methods.

2.8 Advantages, Limitations and Applications

Advantages
 The process has the ability to machine brittle materials with thin sections, especially in
areas, which are inaccessible by ordinary methods.
 Absence of tool work contact and metal removal at microscopic scale leads to very little
or no heat generation, resulting in insignificant surface damage.
 The process is characterized by low capital investment and low power consumption.

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 Dimensional tolerances of ± 0.05 mm can be obtained.
 Surface finish obtained is in the range of 0.5 – 1.2 mm CLA.
Disadvantages
 AJM is restricted to brittle materials because of the lower rates of metal removal rates
attainable in cases of ductile materails.
 Some times parts machined by this process have to undergo an additional operation of
cleaning, as there is a possibility of the abrasive grains sticking to the surface.
 The machining accuracy is poor
 The nozzle wear rate is high.
 The process tends to pollute the environment.

Applications
 Removing flash and parting lines form injection moulded parts.
 Deburring and polishing of plastic, nylon and teflon components.
 Cleaning metallic mould cavities which otherwise may be inaccessible.
 Cutting thin sectioned fragile components made of glass, refractories, mica etc.
 Producing high quality surface.
 Removing glue and paint from paintings and leather objects.
 Frosting interior surfaces of glass tubes.
 Etching markings on glass cylinders.
 Reproducing designs on a glass surface with the help of marks made of rubber, copper
etc.
Problems:
1. Estimate the material removal rate in AJM of a brittle material with flow strength of 4
GPa. The abrasive flow rate is 2 gm/min, velocity is 200 m/s and density of the abrasive
is 3 gm/cc.

Sol:

Flow strength of workmaterial, H = 4 GPa = 4 x 109 N/mm2

Abrasive flow rate, ma = 2 gm/min = 2 x 10-3/ 60 kg/sec

Velocity, v = 200 m/s

Density of the abrasive, ρg = 3 gm/cc = 3000 kg/m3

15
 ma v 3 / 2
MRR B 
1/
g H
4 3/ 4

2 x103
x  200 
3/ 2

MRR B  60
 3000 1/ 4 x  4 x109 
3/ 4

MRR B  8 x1010 m3 / s  8 x10 1 x 60 mm 3 / min

 48 mm 3 / min

2. Material removal rate in AJM is 0.5 mm3/s. Calculate material removal per impact if mass
flow rate of abrasive is 3 gm/min, density is 3 gm/cc and grit size is 60 μm as well as
indentation radius.

Sol:

MRRB = 0.5 mm3/s

Mass flow rate of abrasive, ma = 3 gm/min = 3 x 10-3/ 60 kg/s

Desity, ρg = 3 gm/cc = 3000 kg/m3

Grit size, d = 60 μm

ma
Number of impacts / time, N =
mass of abrasive particle

3 x103
6x
ma 60
 
 3
 
3
d g  x 50x106 x 3000
6

N = 254648

MRR B 0.5
Volume of material removed, VB   1.9 x106 mm3 1960 m3
N 254648

2 3
Indentation volume or Volume of material removed =   r  1960 m3
3

Indentation radius, r = 9.78 μm ~ 10 μm

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17
Water Jet Machining
2.9 Introduction
In this process, a high velocity water jet is made to impinge on to the work piece. This
jet pierces the work material and performs a sort of slitting operation. A simple example of
this process is when a finger is put over part of a tap, the stream of water flows with higher
pressure so that it washes away mud far more effectively, giving a jet cleaned item. This
process is good for cutting and slitting of porous non-metals like wood, leather, foam etc. It is
also used for cutting composites, wire stripping, and deburring. Quality of the machined edge
obtained during this process is usually superior to the other conventional cutting processes. In
water jet machining, water jet is cutting tool which never dulls or breaks. This process does
not generate airborne dust; hence hazards during machining of fibre composites and asbestos,
are minimum. Basic cutting action is performed by tight water jet core. Interaction with air
diverges the shroud around the core.
2.10 Working Principle
If the jet of water is directed at a target in such a way that, on striking the surface, the
high velocity flow is virtually stopped, then most of the KE of the water is converted into
pressure energy. In fact, in the first few milliseconds after the initial impact of the jet on the
target, before the lateral flow of water is initiated, a transient pressure as much as three times
the normal stagnation pressure may be generated. The kinetic energy possessed by a jet
increases in quadrature with the velocity. Hence in precision jet cutting with small diameter
jets, though the mass flow rate is reduced, the kinetic energy possessed by the jet increases
with the increase in velocity imparted by high pressure.
Material removal is done mechanically by erosion caused due to localized
compressive failure which occurs when the local fluid pressure exceeds the ultimate
compressive strength of the target material. When a jet impinges a flat plate at right angles,
the fluid spreads out radially over the plate from the centre of impact. The initial velocity of
the outward flowing liquid is much higher than the impact velocity. The jet produces a
shallow indentation on the surface of ductile materials and a ring fracture in brittle materials.
The radial flow of liquid across the surface leads to erosive shearing along the edges of the
deformed area. Even the smallest surface discontinuities act as nuclei for erosion pits. Thus,
in ductile materials surface depressions are eroded by the shearing action of the surface flow.
The failure in brittle materials is by fracture where as that in high strength alloys are probably
due to fatigue.

18
2.11 WJM Set – up

Fig. 2.12 WJM Set - up

Figure 2.12 show the schematic diagram of WJM system. The elements of a jet
cutting system basically consist of a high pressure source (pump) and a shaped nozzle which
concentrates the liquid and forms the jet through the nozzle mouth. Other accessories include
high pressure tubing and their fittings, valves, various holding fixtures, and a control panel.
The last element is the drainage system which collects the water (together with fine dust like
chips of the work material) after it has passed through the workpiece.

In operation, Water is pumped at a sufficiently high pressure, 200-400 MPa (2000-4000

bar) using intensifier technology. An intensifier works on the simple principle of pressure
amplification using hydraulic cylinders of different cross-sections as used in “Jute Bell Presses”.
When water at such pressure is issued through a suitable orifice (generally of 0.2- 0.4 mm dia),
the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy, yielding a high velocity jet (1000
m/s). Such high velocity water jet can machine thin sheets/foils of aluminium, leather, textile,
frozen food etc.

19
 The pumping unit (oil pump) is driven by an electric motor. The oil drawn from a
reservoir, is pumped to an intensifier which uses low pressure oil to produce very high
pressure water. The intensifier that acts as a high pressure pump, produces water as high as
40 times that of the oil pressure. Water pressure can be determined by

Pw = (p0 x A0) / Aw

Where, p0 is oil pressure, A0 is oil piston area, and Aw is water piston area.

To minimize pulsation in water flow, a high pressure accumulator (i.e a pressure

vessel to store high pressure water to give smooth outflow) is used. High pressure water is
transported to nozzle through the rigid high pressure tubing and rigid connectors. Off/on
control valve of water flow can be operated manually or electronically.

Proper design of nozzles has made it possible to discontinue the use of long chain
polymers to lower down friction in fluid flow. Internal diameter of nozzle usually ranges
from 0.07 to 0.5 mm. These nozzles are made of synthetic sapphire which is wear resistant
but easily machinable. Presence of foreign particles in water results in failure of nozzle by
chipping. Sometimes, constriction of nozzle by mineral deposits also results in nozzle failure.
Life of a sapphire nozzle is usually 250 – 500 hr.
Water jet, outside the nozzle, travels at very high speed. In pure WJM, commercially
pure water (tap water) is used for machining purpose. However as the high velocity water jet
is discharged from the orifice, the jet tends to entrain atmospheric air and flares out
decreasing its cutting ability. Hence, quite often stabilizers (long chain polymers) that hinder
the fragmentation of water jet are added to the water.
To minimize the exposed length of a jet, from safety point of view and also to
minimize the process noise, a catcher (a slot type or tube type) is used. It is attached to a
draining hose. The catcher uses hard and replaceable inserts to break the jet quickly and
completely before it reaches bottom of the tube. Slot type catcher is less efficient in reducing
noise level.
2.12 Process Parameters and Process Performance
Pressure, diameter of nozzle, traverse rate, and stand-off-distance are four important
variables that affect the performance of WJM process. Stand-off-distance is less effective
variable and its value normally lies between 3 – 25mm. Cutting at higher water jet pressure is
faster. Thick materials can be machined without difficulty at high jet pressure and low
traverse rate.

20
 This process is useful for cutting materials which are porous, fibrous, granular or soft.
It includes the materials like corrugated board, granite, rubber, plywood, glass, aluminium,
etc. This process does not require predrilled hole to start cutting in any direction and location
provided the location is accessible for the water jet. Too thick materials can be cut in more
than one pass. Second and subsequent passes are used to make the cut deeper rather than
wider. Energy consumption per unit length in multi pass cutting is less than single pass
cutting of the same workpiece material but with a more powerful jet. Water jet at low
pressure (69 – 200 Mpa) has been used to cut insulation of the cables without damaging the
underlying metallic cable.

2.13 Advantages, Limitations and Applications

 Water is cheap, non-toxic, and readily available and can be easily disposed.
 Water jet approaches the ideal single point tool.
 Any contour can be cut. Further operation is possible in horizontal and vertical planes
 The process gives a clean and sharp cut
 Unlike conventional machining methods, this method does not generate heat.
 Best suited for explosive environments
 Dustless atmosphere – this is particularly advantageous for cutting asbestos and glass
fibre insulation materials, which produce dust.
 Noise is minimized as the power units and pumps can be keeping away from the
cutting point.
 Jet takes away the entire cutting residue and hence there are no pollution problems.
 Fluid can be reused by filtering out the solids.
 Only small amount of fluid is required.
Limitations:
 Initial cost is high
 Hard materials cannot be cut

Applications:
 Hydraulic mining of coal
 Cutting both coal and rock
 Cleaning and descaling
 Board and paper products, food, asbestos and foot wear
 In aerospace and other similar industries, cutting of asbestos is done by wjm to
minimize airborne dust in the atm
 It is also used to cut fiber glass and polyethylene automotive parts
 Used for cutting high speed corrugated box.

21
Abrasive Water Jet Machining

2.14 Introduction

Abrasive jet machining and ultrasonic machining are the processes which use
abrasives for machining of materials. In AJM, air driven abrasive jet strikes the workpiece
and removes the material while in USM, abrasive grains in liquid slurry strike the workpiece
surface at ultrasonic frequency and cut the material at low MRR. Recent developments have
witnessed improvements in jet cutting technology by using abrasive water jets where water is
used as a carrier fluid.

The cutting ability of water jet machining can be improved drastically by adding hard and
sharp abrasive particles into the water jet. Thus, WJM is typically used to cut so called “softer”
and “easy-to-machine” materials like thin sheets and foils, non-ferrous metallic alloys, wood,
textiles, honeycomb, polymers, frozen meat, leather etc, but the domain of “harder and “difficult-
to-machine” materials like thick plates of steels, aluminium and other commercial materials,
metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, reinforced plastics, layered composites etc are
reserved for AWJM.

In principle, this process is similar to abrasive jet machining except that in this case
water is used as a carrier fluid in place of gas. These processes offer advantage of cutting
electrically non conductive as well as difficult to machine materials comparatively more
rapidly and efficiently than other processes. Other advantages claimed for this process may
be listed as: practically no dust, high cutting speed, multi directional cutting capacity, no fire
hazards, no thermal or deformation stresses, high quality of machined edge, recycling of
abrasive particles, low power consumption, almost no delamination, and reduced striations.

2.15 Working Principle

Fig. 2.13 Schematic view of working principle

22
 A water jet and a stream of abrasives coming from two different directions mix up
and pass through the abrasive jet nozzle. Here, a part of the momentum of water jet is
transferred to the abrasives. As a result, velocity of the abrasives rises rapidly. Thus, a high
velocity stream of mixture of abrasives and water impinges on the workpiece and removes
material. Depending upon the type of the workpiece material being cut, material removal may
occur due to erosion, shear, or failure under rapidly changing localized stress fields.

In abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC), an erosive action of an abrasive laden water jet
is employed for cutting, drilling, and cleaning of hard materials. The pressure at which water
jet operates is about 400 MPa which is sufficient to produce a jet speed as high as about 900
m/s. Water – abrasive mixture jet exiting from the nozzle at such a high velocity is fully
capable to cut ceramics, composites, rocks, metals, etc. Removal of material from upper most
position of a kerf is governed by erosive action while that at depth it is governed by
deformation wear.

2.16 Abrasive water Jet Machine Set – up

Fig. 2.14 Schematic set – up of AWJM

Abrasive water jet machining set-up shown in figure 2.14 is made of four important elements,
viz. pumping system, abrasive feed system, abrasive jet nozzle, and catcher.

23
It produces a high velocity water jet by pressurizing water t as high as 415 MPa by means of
an intensifier. To acquire such a high pressure, 75 HP motor may be required. Water flow
requirements up to 3 gpm are quite common. Intensifier, shown in Fig. 2.15 is driven by a
hydraulic power pack. The heart of the hydraulic power pack is a positive displacement hydraulic
pump. The power packs in modern commercial systems are often controlled by microcomputers
to achieve programmed rise of pressure etc.

Fig. 2.15 Intensifier

The hydraulic power pack delivers the hydraulic oil to the intensifier at a pressure of Ph . The
ratio of cross-section of the two cylinders in the intensifier is say Aratio (Aratio = Alarge / Asmall ).
Thus, pressure amplification would take place at the small cylinder as follows.

Ph x A l arg e  Pw x A small
A l arg e
Pw  Ph x
Asmall
Pw  Ph x A ratio
Thus, if the hydraulic pressure is set as 100 bar and area ratio is 40, p = 100 x 40 = 4000 bar.
w

By using direction control valve, the intensifier is driven by the hydraulic unit. The water
may be directly supplied to the small cylinder of the intensifier or it may be supplied through
a booster pump, which typically raises the water pressure to 11 bar before supplying it to the
intensifier. Sometimes water is softened or long chain polymers are added in “additive unit”.
Thus, as the intensifier works, it delivers high pressure water. As the larger piston changes
direction within the intensifier, there would be a drop in the delivery pressure. To counter
such drops, a thick cylinder is added to the delivery unit to accommodate water at high

24
pressure. This is called an “accumulator” which acts like a “fly wheel” of an engine and
minimizes fluctuation of water pressure.
High-pressure water is then fed through the flexible stainless steel pipes to the cutting
head. It is worth mentioning here that such pipes are to carry water at 4000 bar (400 MPa)
with flexibility incorporated in them with joints but without any leakage. Cutting head
consists of orifice, mixing chamber and focusing tube or insert where water jet is formed and
mixed with abrasive particles to form abrasive water jet. Fig. 2.16 shows a cutting head or jet
former both schematically. Typical diameter of the flexible stainless steel pipes is of 6 mm. Water
carried through the pipes is brought to the jet former or cutting head.

Fig. 2.16 Schematic of the AWJM Cutting head

The potential or pressure head of the water is converted into velocity head by
allowing the high-pressure water to issue through an orifice of small diameter (0.2 – 0.4 mm).
The velocity of the water jet thus formed can be estimated, assuming no losses as Vwj =
(2Pw/ρw)1/2 using Bernoulli‟s equation where, Pw is the water pressure and ρw is the density of
water. The orifices are typically made of sapphire. In commercial machines, the life of the
sapphire orifice is typically around 100 – 150 hours. It is directed into the mixing chamber.
The mixing chamber has a typical dimension of inner diameter 6 mm and a length of 10 mm.
As the high velocity water is issued from the orifice into the mixing chamber, low pressure

25
(vacuum) is created within the mixing chamber. Metered abrasive particles are introduced
into the mixing chamber through a port. The abrasive particles are metered using different
techniques like vibratory feeder or toothed belt feeder.
Abrasive water jet nozzle performs two functions: (i) mixing of abrasive jet and
water, and (ii) to form a high velocity water abrasive jet. It should give a coherent, and
focused abrasive stream at exit from the nozzle which is made of sapphire, tungsten carbide
(WC), or boron carbide. Internal details and two kinds of abrasive jet nozzles (viz. single side
jet feed nozzle and multiple jet central feed nozzle) are shown in figure 2.17.

Fig. 2.17 Abrasive water jet nozzle, (a) details of construction (b) single jet side
feed nozzle (c) multiple jet central feed nozzle

In a single jet side feed nozzle, abrasives fed from the side mix with water jet in the
mixing chamber. This nozzle is less expensive, simple to make but does not provide an
optimal mixing efficiency, and experiences a rapid wear at the exit part of the nozzle. The
multiple jet central feed nozzle consists of a centrally located abrasive feed system
surrounded by multiple water jets which are disposed such as a converging annulus of water
is produced. It gives higher nozzle life and better mixing of abrasives into the water jet.
However, it is difficult and costly to fabricate such nozzles because of the angle of
convergence.

26
 Once the abrasive jet has been used for machining, they may have sufficiently high
level of energy depending on the type of application. Such high-energy abrasive water jet
needs to be contained before they can damage any part of the machine or operators.
“Catcher” is used to absorb the residual energy of the AWJ and dissipate the same. Fig. 2.18
shows three different types of catcher – water basin type, submerged steel balls and TiB2
plate type. Moreover the catcher can be of pocket type or line type. In pocket type, the
catcher basin travels along the jet. In line type, the catcher basin only travels along one axis
of the CNC table and its length covers the width of the other axis of the CNC table.

Fig 2.18 Some Typical Catchers

2.17 Parametric Analysis of AWJM Process

Fishbone diagram of AWJM is shown in figure 2.19.

27
Process Parameters

 Water - Flow rate and Pressure

 Abrasives - Type, Size and Flow rate
 Water and Abrasive Jet Nozzle - Material and Design
 Cutting Parameter - Feed rate and SoD
 Work piece Material
 Mixing Tube - Diameter and Length
 Angle of Cutting
 Traverse Speed
 Number of Passes

2.17.1 Water

Water Jet Pressure:

Relationships between pressure and depth of cut for different abrasive flow rates (kg/min)
and nozzle diameters are shown in figure 2.20. Figure 2.20 (a) shows the effect of water jet
pressure on the depth of cut for various abrasive flow rates. Figure 2.20 (b) shows the
relationship between depth of cut and water jet pressure for two nozzle diameters. There is a
minimum pressure (i.e. critical pressure or threshold pressure) below which no machining
would takes place. The critical pressure is different for different workpiece materials. The
machined depth tends to stabilize, beyond a certain value of water jet pressure. The machined
depth versus pressure relationship becomes steeper as the abrasive flow rate increases. An
increase in pressure also increases rate of nozzle wear and cost of pump maintenance, and
lowers volumetric efficiency.

Fig.2.20 (a) Effect of water jet pressure on machined depth 2.20 (b) for various nozzle
diameters

28
Water Flow Rate:
In abrasive jet machining where gas is used as a propelling fluid, only small mass
flow rates of abrasives can be achieved. In AWJM, water is used as a propelling fluid which
enables high abrasive flow rates (0.1 – 5 kg/min) to be achieved, and makes it possible to
accelerate abrasives to high velocities (over 300 m/s). It is concluded from the experimental
study that a percentage increase in depth of cut is always lower than a percentage increase in
water flow rate. Water flow rate Q is proportional to square root of pressure ( Q  P ) and

square of diameter of the nozzle ( Q&a d 2n ). It is concluded from the experimental study that a
percentage increase in depth of cut is always lower than a percentage increase in water flow
rate. Increase in water flow rate beyond a certain value may result in insignificant gain in
particle velocity, higher pressure losses in supply lines, unacceptable environmental
conditions (in mining or constructional applications), and in some cases with reduced
machined depth.

2.17.2 Abrasives

Abrasive Flow Rate

 ) and square of
Machined depth (depth of cut) is proportional to the abrasive flow rate ( m
particle velocity ( Vp ). However, an increase in abrasive flow rate beyond the critical value

 c ) would reduce machined depth. Increase in abrasive flow rate enhances wear rate of
(m
mixing nozzles and reduces mixing efficiency inside AWJ nozzle. Relationships between
abrasive flow rate and depth of cut for various work materials (Fig 2.21(a).), and for various
nozzle diameters (Fig.2.21 (b)) are shown.

Fig 2.21(a) Effect of abrasive flow rate on machined depth for different work materials
(b) for different nozzle diameters
29
2.17.3 Traverse Speed

A decrease in traverse rate (u) increases the depth of cut (Fig.2.22 (a) ). However, if
one goes below a minimum critical traverse rate there would be hardly any increase in the
depth of cut. Fig. 2.22 (b) shows an optimum traverse rate that exists for generation of a
maximum kerf area (Traverse rate × depth of cut). However, in case of mild steel, the rate of
kerf (slot) area generation decreases with an increase in traverse speed beyond the optimum
value.

Fig. 2.22 Effect of traverse rate on (a) depth of cut, (b) area generation

30
2.17.4 Number of Passes

Multiple passes can be employed in the following two different ways:

1. a single water jet with multiple passes, and
2. multiple tandem AWJs with a single traverse (pass).
In case of a single water jet, whole power and quantity of abrasives are used by a single
jet while in second case both the available power and abrasives are divided among multiple
jets. The distribution of power and abrasives among them are considerations for overall
optimization. Multiple pass cutting requires special catching and containment precautions
because the initial pass cutting results in jet back flow and rebounding. Fig.2.23 shows a
relationship between number of passes and cumulative depth of cut.

Fig. 2.23 Variation in depth of cut with a change in number of passes

It is also evident that as the number of passes increases, the slope of the curve also increases.
This increase in slope has been attributed to the fact that the kerf acts as a local mixing
chamber that tends to focus the abrasive jet stream for more effective cutting. However, this
effect is nullified in case of a greater cumulative depth at lower traverse rate by the effects of
„Stand-off-distance‟ (SOD) and kerf friction drag.

2.17.5 Stand Off Distance

An increase in stand-off-distance rapidly decreases machined depth (Fig.2.24). This has been
in by arguing that the liquid phase of the jet breaks up into droplets resulting in free abrasive
particles. These free abrasive particles rebound upon impact that leads to a shallower
penetration. There is an upper value of SOD beyond which the process will no longer do the

31
cutting. However, in case of multi pass cutting the kerf made in the earlier passes helps the jet
to remain intact. It is concluded that the smaller the stand-off-distance the deeper is the cut.

Hashish [1989] has developed a model to predict the depth of machining. It has been
reported that the correlation coefficient between the predicted and experimental values for
different materials is greater than 0.9. Two properties, viz, flow stress and critical velocity are
found to be most significant (note that the flow stress has dependence on the modulus of
elasticity) parameters.

Fig. 2.24 Effect of SOD on depth of cut

2.18 Modeling of Mixing Process

Mixing process may be mathematically modelled as follows. Taking into account the energy
loss during water jet formation at the orifice, the water jet velocity may be given as,

2p w
Vwj  
w
Where,
Ψ = Velocity coefficient of the orifice
The volume flow rate of water may be expressed as

q w    Vwj  A orifice

 
q w    Vwj  d 0 2
4

32
   2p w
q w    d02  
4 w

  2p w
q w  cd  d 0 2 
4 w

Where,

 =Coefficient of “vena-contracta”
c d =Discharge coefficient of orifice
Thus, the total power of water jet can be given as

p wj  p w  q w

 2p w
p wj  p w  cd  d 0 2 
4 w
 2p w 3
p wj  cd  d 0 2 
4 w

During mixing process as has been discussed both momentum and energy are not conserved
due to losses that occur during mixing. But initially it would be assumed that no losses take
place in momentum, i,e., momentum of the jet before and after mixing is conserved.

   
  
m v    m v 
 before  after

       
 air air
m v  m v
w wj  m abr abr 
v   air air
m v  m v
w wj  m abr vabr 
 before  after
The momentum of air before and after mixing will be neglected due to very low density.
Further, it is assumed that after mixing both water and abrasive phases attain same velocity of
v wj . Moreover, when the abrasive particles are fed into the water jet through the port of the

mixing chamber, their velocity is also very low and their momentum can be neglected.


 

 m w v wj   m w  mabr  v awj
 

mw
v  v wj
 

awj

 w
m  m abr 
 

33
 1
v  v
awj
1  R  wj
Where,

mabr
R= loading factor= 
mw
As during mixing process momentum loss occurs as the abrasives collide with the water jet
and at the inner wall of the focusing tube multiple times before being entrained, velocity of
abrasive water jet is given as,

1
v  v
awj
1  R  wj
Where,  = momentum loss factor

In water jet machining, the material removal rate may be assumed to be proportional to the
power of the water jet.

 2p w 3
MRR  p wj  cd  d 0 2 
4 w

 2p w 3
MRR  u  cd  d 0 2 
4 w

The proportionality constant‟ u‟ is the specific energy requirement and would be a property
of the work material.

The power of the abrasive phase of the abrasive water jet can be estimated as,

1 
pabr  mabr v awj2
2
2
1   1 
pabr  mabr  v wj 
2  1  R  

2
1   1 
pabr  m w R  v wj 
2  1  R  


2
1  1 
pabr  cd  d 0 2w v wjR2   v wj
2

2 4 1 R 

34
 
2
 1 
pabr  cd  d 0 2w R2   v wj
3

8 1 R 
3/2
  1   2p w 
2

pabr  cd  d 0 2w R2    

8  1  R   w 

2
 1  pw
3/2
2
pabr  cd  d 0 2 R2  
 1  R  w
1/2
4

   
2
2
pabr  cd  d 0 2 R   pw
3/2

4 1 R  w

Thus it may be assumed that the material removal rate is proportional to the power of
abrasive phase of AWJ. The water phase does not contribute to material removal in AWJM.
 p abr
MRR  Q 
u job

Where,

u job = specific energy requirement in machining a material in AWJM

Now MRR  h t wvf

Where, h t = depth of penetration

w = width of the kerf

=  w top  w bottom  / 2

 di , the diameter of the focusing tube or nozzle or the insert

v f = traverse speed of the AWJ or cutting speed

Therefore,

MRR  h t di vf

    pw
2
3/2
2
 h t  cd  d 0 2 R  
4  1  R  u jobd i vf w

35
Generally,

pabr
MRR  
u job

Where,  is a coefficient, which takes into account several factors like sharpness or dullness
of the abrasive, friability of the abrasives, stand-off-distance, process in homogenities etc

Therefore,

 2    p w 3/2
2
2
 h t  cd  d 0 R  
4  1  R  u jobd i vf w

Now the manufacturing strategy should be selected in such a way so that maximization of ht
takes place.

mabr
R 
, is the loading parameter.
mw

Optimal loading ratio is required to be determined by differentiating with respect to the

loading ratio, R

R2
ht  k
1  R 
2

Where, k is the constant

h t
 k 1  R   2R  2 1  R  R 2  0
2

R

1  R   2R  0
1 R  0  R 1

Thus, theoretically maximum depth of penetration occurs at R = 1. The variation in ht with R

is shown in fig. However, in practice maximum ht is obtained at R = 0.5 to 0.6 for all other
parameters remaining same.

36
2.19 Advantages, Limitations and Applications

Advantages:

 Virtually ALL materials can be cut with an AWJ. Abrasive water jets can machine
a wide range of thicknesses and materials, including metals (aluminum, stainless steel,
titanium, inconel, gold, copper, etc.), plastics, glass, and ceramics. Even materials that
have been heat treated can be cut with an AWJ.
 Quality finish. Materials cut by the abrasive jet have a smooth, satin-like finish,
similar to a fine sandblasted finish.
 No heat in machining process. Abrasive jets abrade material at room temperatures.
As a result, there are no heat-affected areas or structural changes in materials.
Abrasive jets can also machine hardened metals and materials with low melting
points. Since the workpieces are water cooled, there is very little temperature increase
in the actual cutting zone compared to traditional machining methods.
 Environmentally responsible. Abrasive jets use garnet as an abrasive. Garnet is a
reddish natural crystal, with a Mohrs hardness of 6.5 to 7.5. No noxious gases or
liquids are used in abrasive jet machining, nor are there any oils used in the machining
process.
 No tool changing. A wide range of conventional processes can be performed with
this single tool, such as sawing, drilling, profile milling, gear cutting, punching, spline
cutting and slitting.
 Minimal burr. No heavy burrs are produced by the abrasive jet process. Parts can
often be used directly without deburring.
 Flexibility. You can machine virtually any 2D shape. The only limitation is the radius
of the jet, which usually limits inside corners to a radius of 0.015” or larger.
 Can maintain moderately high tolerances. Modern AWJ systems can produce part
tolerances of ±0.010" per half inch of material thickness.

Limitations:

 Cannot drill flat bottom

 Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture

 Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough
cutting

37
  The major disadvantage of abrasive water jet cutting is high capital cost and high
noise levels during operation

 The jet starts to break up when cutting hollow profiles

 Multi-layer parts with softer material in between will be washed out

 The jet cannot drill blind holes or mill flat surfaces on the workpiece

 Machining medium sized tubes requires a special catcher design.

Applications:

 This process has been employed to cut a wide range of materials including both metals
(copper and its alloys, lead, tungsten carbide, aluminium, etc), and non-metals
(graphite, silica, glass, acrylic, concrete, etc).

 The process has been applied to machine the sandwiched honeycomb structural
materials currently used in the aerospace industries.

 Its advantage is the capability of omnidirectional cutting having no burrs.

 The edges of structural aluminium plate have also been successfully cut. This technique
is getting acceptance as a standard tool for cutting materials in a number of industries
like aerospace, nuclear, oil, foundry, automotive, construction and glass.

 The specific advantages claimed by promoters of this technique are economic and
environmental.

 AWJ cutting has been employed for decommissioning nuclear facilities. The optimum
performance has been reported with 0.38 mm jet at 200 MPa with an abrasive flow rate
of 0.54 kg/min. In some cases, this technique has proved to be economical as compared
to conventional bulk material removal methods.

• Slotting is one of the common applications of AWJC. Various steels (stainless steel,
mild steel, special alloy steel, etc) have been cut into different shapes like plate, tube,
corrugated structure, etc. Kerf (slot) widths observed are in the range 0.75-2.25 mm.
Roughness of the cut surfaces varies with the machined depth and abrasive water
cutting parameters.

38
39