Mechatronics

Introduction to Mechatronics: Evolution, Scope, Advantages and disadvantages of

Mechatronics The integration of mechanical engineering, electronics engineering and
computer technology is increasingly forming a crucial part in the design, manufacture and
maintenance of a wide range of engineering products and processes. As a consequence of the
synergy of systems in industry, it is becoming increasingly important for engineers and
technicians to adopt an interdisciplinary and integrated approach towards engineering
problems. The term ‘mechatronics’ is used to describe this integrated approach. In the design
of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras, microwave ovens, and many
other machines, an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to engineering design is
increasingly being adopted.
The term ‘mechatronics’ was first coined by the Japanese scientist Yoshikaza in 1969. The
trademark was accepted in 1972. Mechatronics is a subject which includes mechanics,
electronics, and informatics. The word, mechatronics is composed of mecha from mechanics
and tronics from electronics. In other words, technologies and developed products will be
incorporating electronics more and more into mechanisms, intimately and organically, and
making it impossible to tell where one ends and the other begins

Mechatronics basically refers to mechanical electronic systems and normally described as a

synergistic combination of mechanics, electrical, electronics, computer and control which,
when combined, make possible the generation of simple, more economic, and reliable
systems
Physically, a mechatronic system is composed of four prime components. They are sensors,
actuators, controllers and mechanical components. Figure shows a schematic diagram of a
mechatronic system integrated with all the above components.

“Integration of electronics, control engineering, and mechanical engineering.” W. Bolton,

Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical Engineering Longman, 1995.
“Application of complex decision making to the operation of physical systems.” D. M.
Auslander and C. J. Kempf, Mechatronics: Mechanical System Interfacing, Prentice-Hall,
1996. “Synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent
computer control in the design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes.” F.
Harshama, M. Tomizuka, and T. Fukuda,
Evolution Level of Mechatronics
Primary Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates I/O devices such as sensors and
actuators that integrates electrical signals with mechanical action at the basic control levels.
Examples: Electrically controlled fluid valves and relays.
Secondary Level Mechatronics: This level integrates microelectronics into electrically
controlled devices. Examples: Cassette players
Third Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates advanced feedback functions into control
strategy thereby enhancing the quality in terms of sophistication called smart system. The
control strategy includes microelectronics, microprocessor and other ‘ Application Specific
Integrated Circuits’ (ASIC) Example: Control of Electrical motor used to activate industrial
robots, hard disk, CD drives and automatic washing machines
Fourth Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates intelligent control in mechatronics
system. It introduces intelligence and fault detection and isolation (FDI) capability systems.
Evolution of Mechatronics as a Contemporary Design Paradigm
Technological advances in design, manufacturing, and operation of engineered
products/devices/processes can be traced through: – Industrial revolution-Allowed design of
products and processes for energy conversion and transmission thus allowing the use of
energy to do useful work Semiconductor revolution-Led to the creation of integrated circuit
(IC) technology. Information revolution-Development of VLSI technology led to the
introduction of microprocessor, microcomputer, and microcontroller
Advantages of Mechatronics
• It is cost effective and it can produce high quality products.
• Production of parts and products of international standards gives better reputation and
return.
• It serves effectively for high dimensional accuracy requirements.
• It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the systems.
• It provides excellent performance characteristics.
• It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.
• Mechatronic systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing organization.
• Reconfiguration feature by pre supplied programs facilitate the low volume production.
• It provides higher level of flexibility required for small product cycles.
• It provides the possibility of remote controlling as well as centralized monitoring and
control.
• It has greater extend of machine utilization.
• Higher life is expected by proper maintenance and timely diagnosis of the fault.
Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• The initial cost is high.
• Maintenance and repair may workout costly.
• Multi-disciplinary engineering background is required to design and implementation.
• It needs highly trained workers to operate.
• Techno-economic estimation has to be done carefully in the selection of mechatronic
system.
• It has complexity in identification and correction of problems in the systems.
Industrial applications of Mechatronics
Mechatronics has a wide range of applications, as discussed in the following subsections.
1. Design and Modelling
Design and modelling are simplified to a large extent by the use of mechatronic systems.
Basically, design involves drawing, analysis, and documentation. In earlier days, the
processes of design were performed manually and it took weeks or months together. Now, the
computer is used to complete processes of design faster. There are many designing tools such
as AUTOCAD, IDEAS, and PROENGG, through which 2D or 3D drawings can be made.
There are a number of tools to edit drawings at a faster rate. Analysis of the design involves
working out the stress distribution, temperature distribution, weight analysis, and animations.
The virtual modelling of a manufacturing plant gives an idea of the time taken for a particular
component to be manufactured and also shows virtually how the operations will be
performed. The drum plotter, x-y plotter, printer, etc. give complete documentation of design
drawings. Important parameters such as surface roughness and tolerance value can be
incorporated in the drawing. Digitizers, plotters, CD drives, and many such devices are
mechatronic systems.
2 Software Integration
Different kinds of software are used in manufacturing, design, testing, monitoring, and
control of the manufacturing process. Examples of such software include computer aided
design (CAD), computer aided testing (CAT), computer aided engineering (CAE), and
computer aided processing planning (CAPP). The integration of the packets of software leads
to computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) or just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing. Software
integration is not only used for manufacturing but also for communication networks,
economic analysis, etc.
3 Actuators and Sensors
Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators are widely used in the industry.
Toggle linkage and quick return mechanics are typical examples of mechanical actuators.
Switching devices, solenoid-type devices, and drives such as alternative current (ac) and
direct current (dc) motors can be used as electrical actuators. Hydraulic and pneumatic drives
use linear cylinders and rotary motors as actuators. The term sensor is used for an element
which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured. For example, an electrical
resistance temperature device transforms the input of temperature into change in resistance.
The term transducer is often used in place of sensor. Transducers are defined as devices
which when subject to some physical change experience a related change. In the
displacement transducer, force is not an error. Addition of extra force into the system reduces
backlash and play. For example, in the dial gauge, an additional tension spring is provided on
the rack so that the play between the set of gear trains is minimized. Similarly, in a force-
transmitting transducer, the provision of more displacement is not an error. Reduction in the
play in force transmitting devices produces a loss in power due to friction.
4 Intelligent Control
Feedback control systems are widespread not only in nature and the home but also in
industry. There are many industrial processes and machines which control many variables
automatically. Temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure, speed, etc. are maintained
constant by process
controllers. Adaptive control and intelligent manufacturing are the areas where mechatronic
systems are used for decision making and controlling the manufacturing environment.
5 Robotics
Robot technology uses mechanical, electronic, and computer systems. A robot is a
multifunctional reprogrammable machine used to handle materials, tools, or any special items
to perform a particular task. Manipulation robots are capable of performing operations,
assembly, and spot welding, spray painting, etc. Service robots such as mail service robots,
household servant robots, nursing robots in hospitals are being used nowadays.
6 Manufacturing
In the domain of factory automation, mechatronics has had far-reaching effects in
manufacturing. Major constituents of factory automation include computer numerically
controlled (CNC) machines, robots, automation systems, and computer integration of all
functions of manufacturing. Low volume, more variety, higher levels of flexibility, reduced
lead time in manufacture, and automation in manufacturing and assembly are likely to be the
future needs of customers, and mechatronic systems will play an important role in this
context.
7 Motion control
A rigid body can have a very complex motion which might seem difficult to describe.
However,
the motion of any rigid body can be considered to be combinations of translational and
rotational motions. By considering a three-dimensional space, a translational movement can
be considered to be one which can be resolved into components along one or more of three
axes. The rotation of a rigid body has rotating components about one or more of the axes. A
complex motion may be a combination of translational and rotational motion. Motion control
is important in many industrial applications such as robots, automated guided vehicles, NC
machines, etc. If the robot arm cannot reach a particular location, then the movements of
work piece have to be analyzed further. Anybody has six degrees of freedom, three
translations and three rotations. A point has only three translations. In a machine tool, the
work piece has six degrees of freedom and the tools also have six degrees of freedom. Thus, a
machine tool with twelve degrees of freedom can be manufactured. Such a tool can perform a
complicated machining operation.
8 Vibration and Noise Control
When a machine member is subjected to a periodic dynamic force, it will vibrate. If the
vibration level ranges from a frequency of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, it produces noise. Vibration
and noise isolation are important in industry. Vibration isolation can be achieved by passive,
semi-active, or active dampers. In passive dampers the structure is mounted on damping
materials with initial spring loading. In semi-active dampers, both passive and active
damping elements are used. In active damping, extra energy is used to damp the structure.
When a structure is subjected to a pulse input, a shock is produced. Different types of shock
absorbers are used to reduce the shock amplitude. Noise isolation is equally important in
industry since noise is harmful to human beings. Adaptive control techniques are used for
noise isolation. In this method, the system predicts the noise level in each interval of time and
noise is introduced through the speaker in phase opposition. This adaptive control system
reduces the noise level.
9 Microsystems
It is fair to say that microsystems are a major step towards the ultimate miniaturization of
machines and devices such as dust-size computers and needle type robots. The advancement
of nanotechnology will certainly result in the realization of super miniaturized machinery.
The need for miniaturization has increased manifold in recent years, and engineering systems
and devices have become more and more complex and sophisticated. Pico satellites, space
crafts, table-top manufacturing units, and micro electromechanical systems will become a
reality in the future. The knowledge of mechatronics is very useful for microsystems.
10 Optics
All slip gauge blocks are calibrated against light wavelength as a standard. Angle gauges can
be calibrated to an accuracy of 0.1 sec using a light wave standard—the angstrom unit. A
combination of optical and electronic principles has led to the development of instruments
such as the midarm which measures angular displacement with an accuracy of 0.05 sec.
Optical angle measurement systems for inertial guidance with an accuracy of 0.02 sec have
been in use since 1961. Optoelectronic systems use a lens or telescope to form an optical
image of an object under study on a photocathode image detector tube. The motion of the
object causes the motion of the photocathode optical image and the corresponding motion of
the electron image. The optical image is obtained by a conventional videcon camera or a
coupled charge device. The camera converts an array of analog signals, in 236 \ 236 pixels in
a square centimetre. The analog signals are then converted into digital signals for each pixel
and transmitted to an electron image grabber to produce an electron image. As the image
starts deviating from the neutral position, the photo multiple layer output tends to drive back
by means of a deflection coil. Thus, any main object can be brought to the aperture
continuously. The application of still and motion picture photography often allows qualitative
and quantitative analyses of complex motion. The photoelastic method is convenient to
determine the stress distribution in a machine element. The basic phenomenon of double
refraction under load is used in photoelasticity. Double refraction takes place when light
travels at a different speed in a transparent material depending on the direction of travel
relative to the direction of the principle stress and also depending on the magnitude of the
difference between principle stresses for two-dimensional fields. Due to double refraction,
light waves form an interference pattern of fringes on a photograph. The photograph is then
used to determine the principal stresses. By the use of the frozen stress technique, the method
can be extended to threedimensional problems. The cathode ray tube provides display devices
for computers and other entertainment devices such as the television, projector, etc. Electron
guns with basic columns can be obtained in a pixel. Cathode ray tubes for picture displays
usually have 256 \ 256 pixels/cm2. As the number of pixels increases per square centimetre,
the clarity of the picture becomes better. Systems are available which permit each pixel in
grey levels (256 levels) in a black-and-white display. Grey levels (light intensity levels) are
called grey scaling. With the basic three colours 2563 colour combinations can be obtained
with grey scaling. In the ordinary film, only the magnitude of intensity is recorded, which in
turn gives two-dimensional images. By recording the amplitude and phase of the reflected
light from an object, a hologram can be obtained. A hologram gives three-dimensional ghost
images of three-dimensional objects. An optical computer with a hologram will give faster
computation in future. Coding and decoding is not required as in conventional computer
operation. A ghost image from the hologram gives a grey-scaled image on each voxel. 2563
voxels can be accommodated in a cubic centimetre of laser hologram. Sintering in each voxel
can be obtained by packing the metal particles in the ghost image. Thus in future any
complicated article can be manufactured in seconds using the laser hologram technique.

Introduction to autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their applications

Autotronics: Autotronics can be defined as the combination of automobile and electronics
or we can say that the use of electronics science in automobile vehicles is called autotronics.
A lot of research and implementation had been done in this context to make the design of
automobiles easier. The use of electronics in the automobile field makes the system safe,
improved and efficient. In a vehicle almost all significant parts are featured with electronic
items. New developments are coming very frequently in this field because there no
limitations in the development of new autotronics. It helps to improve overall automobile
system. At present, in the new generation automobiles almost 75%-85% of automobile parts
are embedded with electronics system. The main areas of automobiles using autotronics are
engine controlling system, airbags, antilock braking system, lightening interiors, GPS, music
systems etc. The application area of autotronics is very vast, brakes, steering system, engine
controlling unit, transmission and suspension in the vehicles are the main phases where
autotronics are used.The use of these technologies has given a phenomenal revolution in the
automobile industry from past few decades. The gradual improvements in systems causes the
new features in reduced cost.In the autotronic systems the use of control units like sensors,
motors and digital equipment establishes a communication between the various essential
system and components of the vehicle.The various systems are given below 1. Autotronic
braking system/Electronic braking system The braking system in such a system is denoted s
EBS (electronic braking system). A braking system is defined by its stopping distance. The
system with shortest stopping distance is considered the best braking system. So the
development phase in the braking system is to minimize the stopping distance of vehicle but
without compromising the safety. The ECB solve these purposes with an advance control
system. The anti -lock braking system and traction control system are the essential
components of ECB.
ABS is responsible for maneuver control by deciding the braking pressure and wheel
rotation control.
Traction means providing movement or acceleration to a vehicle. So, to control the
acceleration the control on traction system should be applied. This system controls the
movement of wheel and its steadiness.
2. Control of steering system
In the vehicle the power steering system is used. Which maintains the communication
between pressure applied by steering system on the hydraulic pump and the speed of the
automobile. The EPS (electric power steering) uses sensors and motors, which controls the
maneuver. Motor controls the steering motions and sensors gives signal to the wheels by
analyzing the speed and torque.
3. Suspension system
Suspension system makes the ride on vehicle shock free, comfortable and safe. There are
three types of suspension system 1. Passive, 2. Semi active, and 3. Active suspension system.
The important task of the system is to dissipate the heat produced in the system due to
friction. The conventional method of suspension is called passive suspension and when we
add electronic sensors and hydraulic system then its performance increases and it is called
active suspension system.
4. Transmission control
The transmission of gearing system controls the shifting of gears. Using the electronic gear
transmission improves the shifting operation and increases the fuel efficiency by reducing the
losses.
5. Electronic control of fuel intake in engine
The electronic system used to analyze the amount of fuel to supply to the cylinder of engine
so that the maximum efficiency can be achieved with minimum loss of energy.
6. Air Bag Deployment System
A sensor and an actuator embedded in a microsystem are used to operate the air bag
deployment
system in an automobile. The impact of the car in a serious collision is felt by a micro-inertia
sensor built on the principle of micro-accelerometer. The sensor generates an appropriate
signal to actuate the deployment of an air bag to protect the driver and passengers from
serious injuries due to the impact of collision. Figure shows a micro-inertia sensor employed
for rapid deployment of an air bag. The sensor contains two micro-accelerometers mounted
onto the chassis of the car. The accelerometer on the left measures the deceleration in the
horizontal direction and the accelerometer on the right measures the deceleration in the
transverse direction. Both these accelerometers are mounted on the same integrated circuit
chip along with a signal transducer and processing unit.

7. Antilock or Antiskid Device

A vehicle stops more quickly when the brakes are applied just hard enough to get maximum
static friction between the tyres and the road. If the brakes are applied harder than this, the
tyres will skid or slide on the road and lesser kinetic friction will result. In this situation,
applying brakes is less effective. Several devices have been developed to prevent a vehicle
from skidding and thus provide maximum effective braking. Skid control is employed
generally for the rear wheel only. As long as the wheels are turning/rotating, the antiskid
device permits normal application of the brakes. But if the brakes are applied so hard that
wheels stop turning, skid starts to develop. At this point, the antiskid device starts operating
and partially releases the brakes so that the wheels continue to turn/rotate. However,
intermittent braking continues, but it is held to just below the point where a skid would start.
The result is maximum braking effect. The distance in which a vehicle can be brought to rest
from a steady speed depends upon the 1.following factors:
2. Braking efficiency
3.Condition and inflation pressure of tyres
4.Nature of road surface
Air resistance encountered by the vehicle Braking causes a retarding force on the vehicle,
which in turn gives rise to deceleration. Braking efficiency is measured in terms of the rate at
which it will bring the vehicle to a stationary position from a given speed. It is expressed in
terms of the ratio of the deceleration rate to the acceleration rate due to gravity.
9. Car Park Barrier
Consider the cam-operated barrier for a car park. The barrier opens and allows a car in when
the correct money is inserted into the collection box. The barrier opens again to allow the car
out on its detection on the park side of the barrier. Figure shows the type of the wall system
that can be used to lift and lower the pivoted barrier. When a current flows through the
solenoid of valve A, the piston in the cylinder moves upwards and causes the barrier to rotate
about its pivot and raise to let a car through. When the current through the solenoid of valve
A ceases, the return spring of the valve results in the valve position changing back to its
original position. When the current flows through the solenoid of valve B, pressure is applied
to the lower barrier. Limit switches are used to detect whether the barrier is in down or up
position.

10. Engine Temperature Measurement

Consider the requirement for a temperature measurement system for measuring temperature
in the range 0–100oC, which is the case of the body temperature of the engine of an
automobile. The system gives an 8-bit binary output with a change in 1 bit corresponding to
the temperature change of 1oC. The output is intended for inputting to a microprocessor as
part of a temperature indicating system. Thermistor LM35 can be used since a linear
temperature sensor is required. LM35 gives an output of 10 mV/oC when fed with a supply
voltage of 5 V. If one supplies from LM35 with an 8-bit analog to digital converter (ADC),
then a digital output can be obtained. The resolution of the ADC should be 10 mV so that
each strip of 10 mV can generate a change in the output of 1 bit. If one uses a successive
approximation ADC, ADC0801, then it requires an input of the response voltage, which
when subdivided into 256 bits gives 10 mV per bit. This reference voltage input to the
ADC0801 has to be Vref /2 and so an accurate input voltage of 1.28 V is required. Such a
voltage can be obtained by using a potentiometer circuit across the 5-V supply with a voltage
follower to avoid loading problems. Because the voltage has to be steady at 1.25 V even if
the 5-V supply voltage fluctuates, a voltage regulator is likely to be used for a 2.54-V supply,
ZN458/B.
BIONICS

Bionics is a common term for bio-inspired information technology, typically including three
types of systems, namely:
• Bio-morphic (eg neuromorphic) and bio-inspired electronic/optical devices,
• Autonomous artificial sensor-processor-activator prostheses and various devices built into
the
human body, and
• Living-artificial interactive symbioses, e.g. brain-controlled devices or robot
Bionics is poised to have significant stake in mechatronic sensors market in the near future.
Biomedical sensors are mainly used for diagnostic analyses. Because of its miniature size, a
biomedical sensor requires less amount of sample and can produce results significantly faster.
These sensors can be produced in batches, thus resulting low unit cost of the sensor. Another
cost cutting factor is that most of these sensors are disposable, thus manual labour involving
cleaning and proper treatment for reuse is saved. Biosensors are extensively used in analytical
chemistry and biomedical care as well as genetic engineering. These sensors usually involve
biological molecules such as antibodies or enzymes, which interact with analytes that are to
be detected.
Major advantages of the use of mechatronic systems in biomedicine are as follows:
1. Functionality for biomedical operators
2. Adaptability to existing instruments and equipment
3. Compatibility with biological systems
4. Controllability, mobility, and easy navigation facilities for operators
5. Possibility of the fabrication of mechatronic structures with a high aspect ratio
(The ratio of the depth dimension to the surface dimension of the structure)
Application
Glucose Detection and DNA Sensing
Detection of glucose levels in human body is a classic case of bio sensing. Diabetic patients
cannot control their insulin level if the level of blood glucose fluctuates tremendously. If the
level gets either too high or too low, their condition can be life threatening. Currently such
patients must actually draw blood on a daily basis or even more often to monitor the blood
glucose level. Sensing the blood glucose level can be done in many ways, using optical,
conduction, or molecular recognition methods. None of these have yet been shown to be
compatible with an implantable simple device that could automatically show or continuously
sense the glucose level in the blood. This remains one of the major challenges in chemical
sensing and Nano scale structures. The DNA sensing is potentially an enormous area in
which the application of Nano science can prove to be path breaking. One can sense the
structure with the sequence GEGEAAG by using a strand GCGCAAG. This means that a
single strand of, say, six bases can contain 4096 different combinations. Consequently, a
particular biological target such as botulism or strap or scarlet always has a unique DNA
sequence. It is possible to target a short sector of the DNA sequence, say, a section of 10–15
bases. It can be uniquely sensed without any error. The most important application of DNA
sensing will probably come in the generalization of a laboratory on a chip concept. By using
the powerful analytic capability of such dense micro-laboratories, it will be possible to
include several screening sensors on a chip. This chip can be used to recognize a viral or
bacterial DNA associated with several different diseases found in the body. This chip could
also be used to sense the presence of toxic species, either natural or artificial. Since the entire
human genome is known, a biochip can be used to sense either a particular DNA signature or
a particular protein signature known to be characteristic of a disease. It is also possible to
create a sensor that takes advantage of the DNA recognition technique. The simplest DNA
recognition sensor works by introducing a strand of DNA complimentary to the analyte into a
solution to be tested. If the analyte is present, it will hybridize with the test DNA and form a
double strand. Hybridization confirms that the analyte is present, or finding out that
hybridization has occurred is trivial. One cannot see the double strands without very
sophisticated instruments. Therefore, one of the great challenges in DNA sensing is to
amplify the effect of hybridization so that it is easy for measurement. One way to provide
amplification is to change the optical properties of gold or silver nanodots that are attached to
the DNA. The change in the colour of gold upon changing the size of the gold cluster and the
molecular recognition is called quantum optical effect. The colour change is measured by a
device called calorimetric sensor, which can be read by simply looking at it. Nanosphere
lithography is used to prepare the tiny gold dots on a surface. A sensor is designed to
recognize a particular portion of the analyte appearing in the solution. If one wants to
construct an explosive detection sensor, the problem is much more complex. Nitrates, which
are common to most explosives, are common in household items including fertilizers. If one
detects them to an accuracy of a single molecule, then even fertilizers are carrying a bomb. A
great deal of research is underway in this direction.
Drug Delivery
The size of the human body is very large compared to the size of a molecule. It is important
for the thermofusion effectiveness that drug molecules find/reach the place in the body where
they are needed/effective. Bio-availability refers to the presence of drug molecules where
they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. The issue of drug delivery
aims at maximizing bio-availability both over a period of time and at the specific place in the
body. Increasing the bioavailability is seldom as simple as increasing the amount of drug
used. The drugs used in chemotherapy are actually somewhat toxic and need to be target-
specific to avoid damage to the normal/healthy tissue. It is necessary to keep the drug doses
to a minimum, otherwise the amount used can adversely affect or even kill a patient. Taking
these issues into account, drug delivery assumes a lot of significance. Nanotechnology and
Nano science are very useful in developing entirely new ways for increasing bio-availability
and improving the drug delivery. Magnetic nanoparticles used for computer memory can be
used for drug delivery also. For drug delivery, the molecular recognition method is used to
bind a Nano magnet to the drug to be delivered. External control is exercised over the
magnetic field created by magnetic nanoparticles to improve local bio-availability of the
drug. Effectively, a doctor can drag drug molecules through the body in the same way as you
drag an iron filing across a table with a hand magnet. One interesting combination of smart
materials and drug delivery is the triggered response. This consists of placing drug molecules
within the body in an inactive form that works upon encountering a particular signal. A
simple example is antacid implored in a coating of a polymer that dissolves in a highly acidic
spot. The antacid is released only when the outer polymer coat encounters a highly acidic
spot in the digestive track.
Photodynamic Therapy
In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within the patient’s body. This particle is
illuminated with a light source from outside of the body. The light may come from outside
from a laser or light bulb. The light is absorbed by the particle, after which several things
might happen. If the particle is simply a metal nanodot, the energy from the light will heat the
dot, which, in turn, will heat any tissue within its neighborhood. With the same particular
molecular dot, light can also be used to produce highly energetic oxygen molecules. Such
oxygen molecules are very reactive and will chemically react with (and, therefore, destroy)
many organic molecules that are next to them. The photodynamic therapy is attractive for
many reasons. One reason is that, unlike the traditional chemotherapy, it is directed at the
damaged/diseased cell. The chemically reactive excited oxygen or quantum data is released
only where such cells are present and where the light is illuminated. This ensures that, unlike
the traditional chemotherapy, the photodynamic therapy does not leave a fixed trail of highly
aggressive and reactive molecules throughout the body.
Neuro-electronic Interface
The neuro-electronic interface involves the idea of constructing nano devices that can permit
computers to be joined and linked to the neuro system. The construction of a neuro-electronic
interface system requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and
detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. The real challenge is to combine
computational technology and bio-nanotechnology. The nerves in the human body convey
messages by permitting electrical current to flow between the brain and nerve centre
throughout
the body. The most important ions for signals are sodium and potassium ions. These ions
move
along sheets and channels that have evolved specially to permit special, controllable, rapid
ion
motion. This is the mechanism that allows you to feel sensation. For example, when you put
your foot in hot water, a signal is transmitted by the local nerve through the nervous system
to the brain. The brain interprets the transmitted signal and processes it for a suitable reaction.
Often this process results in a response being filtered into the muscular system. The aim of
the neuroelectronic interface technology is to permit the registration and interpretation of
these signals as well as response to them to be handled by a computer. The sensor must be
able to sense ionic currents and cause current to flow backward so that the muscular system
can be instructed to perform a desired motion. The most obvious structure will be a molecular
conductor or molecule whose own conduction process, ions, or electrons can link with the
ionic motion in a nerve fibre.
Biotechnology
Mechatronics plays an important role in biotechnology even though it is a small subdomain
of
biotechnology. Biotechnology includes all techniques that use living organisms or substances
obtained from them to make or modify a product. It involves improvement of microbe, plant,
and animal species. Genes and gene products are the basic tools in biotechnology.
Biotechnology aims at harnessing the genetic diversity in the living organisms for the benefit
of the humankind. Understanding of genes and the possibility to manipulate them are the very
bases of modern biotechnology. Classical genes and manipulation of the genes at cellular
level have played a major role in enhancing the productivity of crops, plants, and animals.
Molecular manipulation of genes to obtain better products requires input from specialists in
many different areas of biology, besides from specialist in other branches of science,
especially mechatronics. The splendors of biotechnology are so much that it almost seems to
be the science of wish fulfillment. Bigger fruits, bright flowers, higher yields, super cattle,
exotic colours and flavours, cheaper medicines, and more efficient vaccines are the products
of biotechnology.
Avionics
Considerable effort and progress have been made in recent years in the development of
mechatronic systems in the aerospace industry. Numerous and complex mechatronic systems
are used in advanced commercial and military aircrafts. With the ever-increasing emphasis on
robustness and safety, there is a trend towards using more mechatronic systems in aerospace
industry. This has given rise to a new area of mechatronics in the form of avionics. The major
applications of mechatronic systems in aerospace industry can be classified as follows:
Cockpit instrumentation
Safety devices
Wind tunnel instrumentation
Sensors for fuel efficiency and safety
Microgyroscope for navigation and stability
Microsatellites
Cockpit Instrumentation
Air-data systems vary in complexity from a light airplane to advanced commercial or military
aircrafts. However, all air-data computations are based upon four sensed parameters, namely,
static pressure, total pressure, temperature, and the angle of attack. Pressure and temperature
of the atmosphere are functions of the altitude above the sea level, latitude, season, and time
of day. Static pressure can be easily and accurately measured because the actual altitude for a
given pressure varies only slowly with respect to time and distance. A Pitot tube is a pressure
measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity and, more specifically, to
determine the airspeed of an aircraft The opening on the smooth side of the Pitot-static tube
provides a source of the atmospheric pressure, termed static pressure. The open end of the
Pitot-static tube is headed into the stream and provides a source of the total pressure resulting
from the impact of a body travelling through the atmosphere. The difference between the
total pressure and the static pressure gives the dynamic force, which contains the velocity
term. The speed of the aircraft can thus be determined. Most of the Pitot-static tubes are
electrically heated to melt off any ice that might form. Otherwise, ice might partly or
completely seal off the opening and the instrument will give erroneous results. Air-speed
indicators work on the principle that the difference between the total pressure and the static
pressure is the measure of the indicated air speed. The indicated air speed at which a given
aircraft with a given load stalls is a constant over a wide range of pressure and temperature
The angle of attack transducer measures the acute angle between the velocity vector of the
aircraft through the surrounding air and some reference such as the force-opt axis of the
aircraft or the chord of an aircraft. The lift developed by an aircraft wing increases as a
function of the angle of attack and the airplane velocity. The air-data computers centralize the
computation of air data from a number of inputs, e.g., static pressure, total pressure, air
stagnation temperature, and angle of attack. This information is used to ascertain the true air
speed, temperature, Mach number, air density, and rate of climb. The information is then
transmitted to indicators and displays and is used by various aircraft subsystems such as the
flight control system, fire control system, andnavigation system.
Alarms and Safety Devices
An alarm is a protective device for maintaining critical points in a system under constant
surveillance. In basic principles, alarm differs little from other forms of indication and control
instruments. Strong emphasis is placed on reliable performance of alarms. Such devices must
remain operable over long periods of inactivity and need periodic, scheduled check, because
the equipment does not function except in case of emergency. Most alarm installations are of
audiovisual type, with illuminated name plates or bull-eye lights. There is a means to silence
the alarm and switch the light to steady state. Another push button usually is provided for
testing other components of the system. Micro-accelerometers or micro-inertial sensors are
used to eject the pilot seat from the aircraft, especially in military airplanes. The use of the
seat eject system protects the pilot in the event of an emergency. The sensor opens the latch
where the seat is loaded with a spring, which throws the seat along with the pilot a distance
away from the aircraft. When it is detached from the aircraft, a parachute automatically opens
to ensure safe landing of the pilot.
Aircraft Guidance and Control
To guide and control an aerospace vehicle successfully is a matter of measuring position,
determining path errors, and controlling to correct the path. These three functions usually are
called navigation, guidance, steering, and control. Navigation determines the position,
guidance determines the error from the indicated path, steering is used to select a proper
series of changes in the path, and control changes the forces on the vehicle to adjust them
with the direct path changes. Initial guidance predicts the ballistic path. The aircraft guiding
system measures accelerator and recalls the reference angle, computes velocity and position,
predicts the destination, determines a preferred path to correct the error and controls the
forces to change the path from steering instructions, all can be automated. Aerospace vehicle
systems have many
degrees of automation. Almost all aerospace vehicle systems use combinations of all or many
of automatic, manual, remote, self-contained, and preprogrammed corrections. Aerospace
vehicles may be piloted by a human being or an automatic flight control system. Gyroscope
instruments are among the most important elements of the flight instrumentation and control
systems whether for assisting a human pilot or for providing input to a fully automatic flight
control system. A wide variety of gyroscope instruments are used in aircrafts. The rate
gyroscope is a device designed to measure the instantaneous angular velocity component of a
body with respect to the inertial space. Its typical applications include autopilot damping, rate
of turn indicator, limiting antenna stabilization, and telemetry instrumentation. The rate
integrating gyroscope or floated gyroscope can be designed as either a single- or two-axis
device. It is designed so that the fluid damping between gimbals and housing is the
predominant torque, which balances the input rate precessional
torque.
Air Traffic Control
Position reporting by the pilot to the air traffic controller over a voice radio link is the basic
source of air traffic control position data. The ground controller can ascertain the aircraft
location independently using the following methods.
Method 1 It can use the primary radar, which operates on the reflection by the aircraft of the
pulse signals that the radar transmits.
Method 2 It can use the secondary radar, which operates on replies from pulsed radio and is
verified by the secondary radar pulses. Some airports are equipped for precision approach
radius. There are primary radars that use two very narrow beams to scan a relatively narrow
section aligned with the approach course to a particular runway. One beam is broad in the
vertical dimension and narrow in the horizontal dimension. It scans at a relatively high rate in
the horizontal dimension. The controller watching the cathoderay- tube display is able to tell
the pilot whether the pilot is to the right or left of the true approach course.
Aircraft Engine Control
The extent and sophistication of engine instrumentation vary widely with the type of the
aircraft and intended use. In a small-engine plane, most instruments are simple and a
mechanically connected throttle suffices. It is highly desirable to keep fuel and oil under
pressure out of the
cockpit. Thus most engine parameters are remotely indicated in the cockpit from a transmitter
mounted near or on the engine. Instrumentation for a typical jet engine will provide for
controlling and monitoring of the following:
1. Low-pressure rotor speed
2. High-compressor rotor speed
3. Fuel flow
4. Exhaust gas temperature
5. Engine pressure
6. Engine inlet air pressure
7. Engine inlet air temperature
8. Fuel pump inlet temperature
9. Fuel decreasing air shut off valve position
10. Fuel pump inlet pressure
11. Fuel filter pressure difference warning
12. Engine oil pressure
13. Engine oil and inlet temperature
14. Engine radial vibration

SENSORS
INTRODUCTION – SENSORS
Sensor: A sensor is defined as an element which when subjected to some physical change
experiences a relative change. A sensor in which the output energy is supplied entirely or
almost entirely by its input signals is called a passive element. An active element has an
uxiliary source of power that supplies a major part of the output power. There may or may
not be a conversion of energy from one form to another.
Sensors are used in mechatronics for the following purposes:
1. To provide position, velocity, and acceleration information of the measuring element in a
system
which provides feedback information
2. To act as protective mechanism for a system
3. To help eliminate mechanically complex and expensive feeding and sorting devices
4. To provide identification and indication of the presence of different components
5. To provide real time information concerning the nature of the task being performed.
A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.

Sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment

Input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, force, pressure, displacement, etc.
 It produces a proportional output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).

Human beings are equipped with 5 different types of sensors.

Eyes detect light energy, ears detect acoustic energy, a tongue and a nose detect certain
chemicals, and skin detects pressures and temperatures. The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin
receive these signals then send messages to the brain which outputs a response.

For example, when you touch a hot plate, it is your brain that tells you it is hot, not your
skin.

Sensors of human beings.

NEED FOR SENSORS

Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.

Sensors in industrial applications being used for process control, monitoring, and safety,
and in medicine being used for diagnostics, There monitoring, critical care, and public health.

Sensors can improve the world through diagnostics in medical applications; improved
performance of energy sources like fuel cells and batteries and solar power; improved health
and safety and security for people; sensors for exploring space and improved environmental
monitoring.
Types of Sensor:
Vision and Imaging Sensors
Vision and Imaging Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that detect the presence of
objects or colors within their fields of view and convert this information into a visual image
for display. Key specifications include sensor type and intended application, along with any
particular transducer features.
Temperature Sensors
Temperature Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that detect thermal
parameters and provide signals to the inputs of control and display devices. A temperature
sensor typically relies on an RTD or thermistor to measure temperature and convert it to an
output voltage. Key specifications include sensor/detector type, maximum and minimum
measurable temperatures, as well as the dimensions of diameter and length. Temperature
sensors are used to measure the thermal characteristics of gases, liquids, and solids in many
process industries and are configured for both general- and special-purpose uses.
Radiation Sensors
Radiation Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that sense the presence of alpha, beta, or
gamma particles and provide signals to counters and display devices. Key specifications
include sensor type and minimum and maximum detectable energies. Radiation detectors are
used for surveys and sample counting.
Proximity Sensors
Proximity Sensors are electronic devices used to detect the presence of nearby objects
through
non-contacting means. A proximity sensor can detect the presence of objects usually within a
range of up to several millimeters, and, doing so, produce a usually dc output signal to a
controller. Proximity sensors are used in countless manufacturing operations to detect the
presence of partsand machine components. Key specifications include sensor type, maximum
sensing distance, minimum & maximum operating temperatures, along with dimensions of
diameter and length. Proximity sensors are generally short-range devices but are available too
in designs that can detect objects up to several inches away. One commonly used type of
proximity sensor is known as a capacitive proximity sensor. This device uses the change in
capacitance resulting from a reduction in the separation distance between the plates of a
capacitor, one plate of which is attached to the object being observed, as a means of
determining motion and position of the object from the sensor.
Pressure Sensors
Pressure Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electro-mechanical devices that detect forces per
unit area in gases or liquids and provide signals to the inputs of control and display devices.
A pressure sensor/transducer typically uses a diaphragm and strain gage bridge to detect and
measure the force exerted against a unit area. Key specifications include sensor function,
minimum and maximum working pressures, full-scale accuracy, along with any features
particular to the device. Pressure sensors are used wherever information about the pressure of
a gas or liquid is needed for control or measurement. Position Sensors Position
Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices used to sense the positions of valves,
doors, throttles, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of control or display devices. Key
specifications include sensor type, sensor function, measurement range, and features that are
specific to the sensor type. Position sensors are used wherever positional information is
needed in a myriad of control applications. A common position transducer is a so-called
string-pot, or string potentiometer
Photoelectric Sensors
Photoelectric sensors are electrical devices that sense objects passing within their field of
detection, although they are also capable of detecting color, cleanliness, and location if
needed.
These sensors rely on measuring changes in the light they emit using an emitter and a
receiver.
They are common in manufacturing and material handling automation for purposes such as
counting, robotic picking, and automatic doors and gates.
Particle Sensors
Particle Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used to sense dust and other airborne
particulates and supply signals to the inputs of control or display devices. Particle sensors are
common in bin and baghouse monitoring. Key specifications include transducer type,
minimum detectable particle size, operating temperature range, sample volume, and response
time. Particle detectors used in nuclear engineering are referred to as radiation detectors
Motion Sensors
Motion Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that can sense the movement or
stoppage of parts, people, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of control or display devices.
Typical applications of motion detection are detecting the stalling of conveyors or the seizing
of bearings. Key specifications include the intended application, sensor type, sensor function,
and minimum and maximum speeds.
Metal Sensors
Metal Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used to sense the presence of
metal in a variety of situations ranging from packages to people. Metal detectors can be
permanent or portable and rely on a number of sensor technologies with electromagnetics
being popular. Key specifications include the intended application, maximum sensing
distance, and certain feature choices like handheld and fixed systems. Metal detectors can be
tailored to explicitly detect metal in specific manufacturing operations such as sawmilling or
injection molding..
Level Sensors
Level Sensors/Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used for determining
the
height of gases, liquids, or solids in tanks or bins and providing signals to the inputs of
control or display devices. Typical level sensors use ultrasonic, capacitance, vibratory, or
mechanical means to determine product height. Key specifications include sensor type,
sensor function, and maximum sensing distance. Level sensors/detectors can be of the
contacting or non-contacting type.
Leak Sensors
Leak Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used for identifying or monitoring the
unwanted
discharge of liquids or gases. Some leak detectors rely on ultrasonic means to detect air leaks,
for example. Other leak detectors rely on simple foaming agents to measure the soundness of
pipe joints. Still, other leak detectors are used to measure the effectiveness of the seals in
vacuum packages
Humidity Sensors
Humidity Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that measure the amount of
water in the air and convert these measurements into signals that can be used as inputs to
control or display devices. Key specifications include maximum response time and minimum
and maximum operating temperatures.
Gas and Chemical Sensors
Gas and Chemical Sensors/Detectors are fixed or portable electronic devices used to sense
the
presence and properties of various gases or chemicals and relay signals to the inputs of
controllers or visual displays. Key specifications include the intended application,
sensor/detector type, measurement range, and features. Gas and chemical sensors/detectors
are used for confined space monitoring, leak detection, analytical instrumentation, etc. and
are often designed with the capability of detecting multiple gases and chemicals.
Force Sensors
Force Sensors/Transducers are electronic devices that measure various parameters related to
forces such as weight, torque, load, etc. and provide signals to the inputs of control or display
devices. A force sensor typically relies on a load cell, a piezoelectric device whose resistance
changes under deforming loads. Other methods exist for measuring torque and strain. Key
specifications include sensor function, number of axes, minimum and maximum loads (or
torques), minimum and maximum operating temperature, as well as the dimensions of the
sensor itself. Force sensors are used in load measuring applications of all kinds, from truck
scales to bolt tensioning devices.
Flow Sensors
Flow Sensors/Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used to sense the
movement of gases, liquids, or solids and provide signals to the inputs of control or display
devices. A flow sensor can be all electronic—using ultrasonic detection from outside a
pipeline, say—or partially mechanical—a paddlewheel, for instance, that sits and spins
directly in the flow stream itself. Key specifications include sensor/detector type, sensor
function, maximum flowrate, maximum working pressure, and minimum and maximum
operating temperatures. Flow sensors are used extensively in the processing industries. Some
designs for panel mounting allow quick indication of flow conditions to process operators
Flaw Sensors
Flaw Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used in a variety of manufacturing processes to
uncover inconsistencies on surfaces or in underlying materials such as welds. Flaw detectors
use ultrasonic, acoustic, or other means to identify defects in materials and can be portable or
fixed installations. Key specifications include sensor type, detectable defect or thickness
range, and intended application.
Flame Sensors
Flame Detectors are optoelectronic devices used to sense the presence and quality of fire and
provide signals to the inputs of control devices. A flame detector typically relies on
ultraviolet or infrared detection of the presence of flame and finds use in many combustion
control applications such as burners. A key specification is detector type. Flame detectors
find applications in safety settings too, such as in under-the-hood fire suppression systems
Electrical Sensors
Electrical Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that sense current, voltage,
etc.
and provide signals to the inputs of control devices or visual displays. Electrical sensors often
rely on hall effect detection but other methods are used as well. Key specifications include
sensor type,sensor function, minimum and maximum measurement ranges, and operating
temperature range. Electrical sensors are used wherever information on the state of an
electrical system is needed and are employed in everything from railway systems to fan,
pump, and heater monitoring.
Contact Sensors
Contact sensors refer to any type of sensing device that functions to detect a condition by
relying on physical touch or contact between the sensor and the object being observed or
monitored. A simple type of contact sensor is used in alarm systems to monitor doors,
windows, and other access points. When the door or window is closed, a magnetic switch
provides an indication to the alarm control unit so that the status of that entry point is known.
Similarly, when a door or window is opened, the contact sensor alerts the alarm controller of
the state of that access point and may trigger an action such as engaging an audible siren.
There are many uses of contact sensors such as temperature monitoring and as proximity
sensors in robotics applications and automated machinery.
Non-Contact Sensors
In contrast to contact sensors, non-contact sensors are devices that do not require a physical
touch between the sensor and the object being monitored in order to function. A familiar
example of this type of sensor is the motion detector used in security lights. Detection of
objects within the range of a motion detector is accomplished using non-mechanical or non-
physical means, such as via detection of passive infrared energy, microwave energy,
ultrasonic waves, etc. Radar guns used by law enforcement to monitor the speed of vehicles
is another example of a form of non-contact sensor. Other types of devices that fall under the
category of non-contact sensors include Halleffect sensors, inductive sensors, LVDTs (linear
variable differential transformers), RVDTs (rotary variable differential transformers), and
Eddy current sensors, to name a few.

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Range
It is the difference between the maximum and minimum value of the sensed parameter.
Temperature range of a thermocouple is 25-225°C.
2. Resolution
The smallest change the sensor can differentiate. It is also frequently known as the least count
of the sensor. Resolution of an digital sensor is easily determined.
3. Sensitivity
It is the ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input. The sensitivity of digital
sensors is closely related to the resolution. The sensitivity of an analog sensor is the slope of
the output vs input line, or sensor exhibiting truly linear behaviour has a constant sensitivity
over the entire input range.
4. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. The classification of errors are as follows:
Bias errors (systematic errors)

Precision (Random errors)

Bias errors are present in all measurement made with a given sensor and cannot be detected
(or) removed by statically means.
5. Accuracy
It is the difference between measured value and true value. The accuracy defines the
closeness between the actual measured value and a true value.
6. Precision
Precision is the ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy.
7. Repeatability
The ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of same input value.
Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range 8
8. Impedance
It is the ratio of voltage and current flow for sensor. For a resistive sensor, the impedance Z is
same as the resistance R& its unit is ohms.
ZR = V/I = R
9. Response time
Response time is the amount of time required for a sensor to respond completely to a change
in input. It describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of the
measurand.
10. Linearity
Percentage of deviation from the best fit linear calibration curve
Non-Linearity
The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor
from the ideal curve.
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input
11. Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no
output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of an input
until the output begins to respond or change.
12. Backlash
In engineering, backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is a clearance or lost motion in a
mechanism caused by gaps between the parts.

APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS
Sensors are used in many industrial and home appliances :
Wireless Sensor Network

Water level Indicator

Laser Security Alarm

Firing Alarm sensor

Automatic braking & Speed Control Mechanism

Smart Phone Touch Screen

Railway Gate Control Mechanism

Fully Automation Control System, etc.,

 Transducer:

Transducer: A device that converts variations in a physical quantity, such as pressure or

brightness, into an electrical signal, or vice versa. Transducer is a device which converts one
form of energy into another form. It is also defined as a device that converts a non electrical
quantity into proportional electrical quantity.
For example –
1. An electric generator converts mechanical energy into equivalent electrical energy.
2. A solar cell used in calculators converts light energy into equivalent electrical energy.
3. A pencil cell converts chemical energy into equivalent electrical energy.
CLASSIFICATION – TRANSDUCERS

broadly the transducers are classified into two main types:

Active trans ducers and passive transducers. The active transducer generates its own
electrical
voltage during conversion. Thus it does not require any battery supply for conversion (e.g.
solar
cell, thermocouple etc.). In passive transducer, it requires externalbattery supply. It only
changes its parameter during conversion like change in resistance or capacitance etc. (e.g.
LDR, thermistor etc.)
Active transducers –
Definition – an active transducer is defined as a transducer which generates its own electrical
voltage during conversion. It does not require any external battery supply for its working.
Examples –
1. Solar cell – when it is exposed to strong sunlight or any other light, it converts light energy
into proportional DC voltage.
2. Piezo electric crystal – when it is subjected to changing pressure it produces proportional
AC voltage.
Passive transducers –
Definition – passive transducer is defined as the transducer which requires externalbattery
voltage to operate. Also it only changes its parameter like change in resistance or capacitance
during conversion.
Examples –
1. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) – when LDR is exposed to light, its resistance
decreases (less than 10W) proportionally & when it is dark its resistance is very high(several
MW).
2. Thermistor – when thermistor is exposed to heat its resistance decreases and when it is
cooled its resistance increases.
According to working principle of transducers they are classified into four main types –
1. Mechanical transducers – for example strain gauge, LVDT etc.
2. Thermal transducers – for example thermistor, thermocouple etc.
3. Magnetic transducers – for example search coil etc.
4. Radiation transducers – for example solar cell, photo diode etc.
Characteristics of Transducer
Following factors must be considered while selecting transducer for a particular work or
system 1. Physical quantity to be measured must be considered for –
2. The type of physical quantity whether it is electrical quantity (AC or DC) or nonelectrical
quantity (pressure, intensity, displacement, speed, heat etc.)
3. Range of quantity like pressure (0–10N), intensity (0–250L), temperature (–10°C to 200°
C) etc.
4. The principle of transducer must be considered for –
5. The system and transducer must be compatible i.e. the output characteristics of transducer
and input characteristics of the system and must match.
1. This means that principle of maximum power transfer theorem must be satisfied.
2. The measurement accuracy of the transducer must be considered which depends on
3. Type and range of quantity under measurement.
4. Physical conditions like mechanical and electrical connections, mounting style of
transducer.
5. Surrounding conditions like nonlinearity effect and frequency response etc.
6. Environmental conditions like temperature effects, shocks or vibrations etc.
7. Compatibility of some associated equipment’s like zero balancing provision, sensitivity
tolerance, impedance matching etc.
Types of transducers
· Temperature transducers – this transducer converts heat energy into its equivalent
electrical
energy. They are of two types –
Active temperature transducers – thermo-couple which converts heat energy into
equivalent
electrical voltage.
Passive temperature transducers – thermistor or resistance thermometer is a passive
transducer. It only changes its resistance due to change in temperature.
Pressure transducers – these are of two types: the stress and strain types. When either stress
or strain is applied, they produce a proportional electrical voltage.
Active pressure transducers – piezo electric crystal is a good example of active pressure
transducer. It produces proportional electrical voltage when pressure is applied on it.
Passive pressure transducers – strain gauge, capacitive transducer. When either stress or
strain is applied, their passive parameter like resistance or capacitance proportionally
changes.
Light transducers – it converts light energy into equivalent electrical energy. There are two
types of light transducers –
Active light transducers – in this photo–voltaic cell, photo multiplier tubes (made up within
vacuum tubes) and solar cells (made up of semiconductor material) are used. They convert
light into electrical energy.
Passive light transducer – this contains LDR – light dependent resistor. Its resistance
changes as light on it changes.
Sound transducers – it converts sound energy into equivalent electrical energy and vice
versa.
Active sound transducer – carbon microphone is good examples of active transducer. It
converts sound into proportional AC voltage. This happens because carbon granules in it
vibrate and produce proportional voltage across two dissimilar metal plates.
Passive sound transducers – capacitive microphone is passive transducer. Its capacity (C)
changes proportionally due to change in sound intensity.
Transducer Applications
The applications of transducers based on the electric parameter used and the principle
involved is given below.
1. Passive Type Transducers
a. Resistance Variation Type
Resistance Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to
elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature. Resistance Hygrometer – The
change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content is known
by the value of its corresponding humidity. Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a
heating element due to convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas
flow or pressure. Displacement transducer
Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in
light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of
resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
Potentiometer Type – The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the
movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding
pressure or displacement.
b. Capacitance Variation Type
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge – The change in capacitance due to the change of
distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its
corresponding
displacement or pressure. Dielectric Gauge – The change in capacitance due to a change in
the dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
Capacitor Microphone – The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure on
a
movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound.
c. Inductance Variation Type
Eddy Current Transducer – The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an
eddy current plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness.
Variable Reluctance Type – The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs
due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding
displacement or
pressure.
Proximity Inductance Type – The inductance change of an alternating current excited coil
due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or
displacement.
Differential Transformer – The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of a
transformer because of the change in position of the magnetic core is known by its
corresponding force, pressure or displacement.
Magnetostrictive Transducer – The change in magnetic properties due to change in
pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force.
d. Voltage and Current Type
Photo-emissive Cell – Electron emission due to light incidence on photo-emissive surface is
known by its corresponding light flux value. Hall Effect – The voltage generated due to
magnetic flux across a semi-conductor plate with a movement of current through it is known
by its corresponding value of magnetic flux or current. Ionisation Chamber – The electron
flow variation due to the ionisation of gas caused by radioactive radiation is known by its
corresponding radiation value.
2. Active Type
Photo-voltaic Cell – The voltage change that occurs across the p-n junction due to light
radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity.
Thermopile – The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is
known by its corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow.
Piezoelectric Type – When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a
change in the voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its
corresponding value of sound or vibration.
Moving Coil Type – The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field can be measured
using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.
Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation!
 We live in the World of Sensors.

In our day-to-day life we frequently use different types of sensors in several applications

We can find different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars etc. Working to make
our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room
temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee and open garage doors as soon as
our car is near the door and many other tasks.