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Lecture notes:

Connectivity
Edge e in a graph G is a bridge if G − e has more connected components than G.
Graph G is connected if there exists u − v-walk for any two vertices of G.
How far is G from begin disconnected (how much connected?)?
A graph is k-vertex connected if G is Kk+1 or for any X ⊂ V (G) with |X| = k − 1 the graph G − X is
connected. (one needs to remove at least k vertices to disconnect G)
When is graph 1-connected?
Vertex v in a graph G is a cut-vertex if G − v has more connected components than G.
1: Find graph that has more cut-vertices than bridges and graph that has more bridges than cut-vertices.
Solution: A star has more bridges than cut-vertices, or any tree. Two triangles sharing a vertex have one
cut-vertex but bridges.
2: Let v be a vertex incident with a bridge in a connected graph G. Then v is a cut-vertex of G if and only
if deg v ≥ 2.
Solution: In the textbook. Let uv be the bridge and x 6= u be another neighbor of v. Existence of x − u path
contradicts that uv is a bridge.
3: A vertex v of a connected graph G is a cut-vertex of G if and only if there exist vertices u and w distinct
from v such that v lies on every u − w path of G.
Solution: In the textbook. ⇒ Let u and w be vertices in different connected components of G − v. Consider
any u − w path P in G. Since P does not exist in G − v, we conclude v ∈ V (P ).
⇐ Since v is in every u − w path in G, there is no u − w path in G − v, hence G − v is disconnected. Therefore
v is a cut-vertex.
4: Show that every connected graph has at least 2 vertices that are not cut-vertices. (Consider u and v where
dist(u, v) = diam(G), distance of u and v is the diameter - the maximum possible one.)
Solution: If u is a cut-vertex, then there is x such that any x − v path goes though u, hence d(x, v) > d(u, v)
which contradicts d(u, v) = diam(G).
Connected graph with no cut-vertices is called non-separable.
Theorem 5.7 A graph of order at least 3 is non-separable if and only if every two vertices lie on a common
cycle.
5: Show any two vertices on common a cycle ⇒ no cut-vertex.
Solution: Suppose for contradiction v is a cut vertex in G. Then exists u and w in different components of
G − v. But G contains two vertex disjoint u − w paths, hence there is still a u − w path in G − v.

6: Show if G is non-separable of order at least 3 ⇒ any two adjacent vertices are on a common cycle.
Solution: Let u, v be adjacent vertices. Take any neighbor of neighbor w of u. (Why w exists?) Since G − u
is connected, there is w-v path P . Now P + u is the desired cycle.
7: Show if G is non-separable of order at least 3 ⇒ any two vertices are on a common cycle.
Solution: Let u, v be nearest vertices that are not on a common cycle. Let P be a u − v path and let w be a
neighbor of v on P . By minimality, there is a cycle C containing u and w. Take a v − u path Q in G − w. Let
Q0 be a v − x subpath of Q where x the first vertex on C. Such path must exists since v ∈ Q ∩ C. Now C ∪ Q0
contain cycle containing both u and v. See textbook for illustration.
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A maximal nonseparable subgraph of a graph G is called a block of G.

Theorem 5.8 Let R be the relation defined on the edge set of a nontrivial connected graph G by e R f , where
e, f ∈ E(G), if e = f or e and f lie on a common cycle of G. Then R is an equivalence relation.
9: Prove Theorem 5.8. Symmetry and reflexivity is easy. Transitivity is the thing to prove.
Solution: Consider distinct e, f, g ∈ E(G) where e R f and f R g. The relation gives two cycles C and C 0
where e, f ∈ E(C) and f, g ∈ E(C 0 ). If g ∈ C then C implies e R g. Hence g 6∈ C. Let the vertices of g are uv.
Consider paths from u and v along C 0 to f and when they first meet C. The result contains a cycle containing
e and g. See all details of the proof in the textbook.
10: Let B1 and B2 be distinct blocks in a nontrivial graph G. Show that B1 and B2 are edge-disjoint.
Solution: In textbook.

11: Let B1 and B2 be distinct blocks in a nontrivial graph G. Show that B1 and B2 have at most one vertex
in common.
Solution: In textbook.

12: Let B1 and B2 be distinct blocks in a nontrivial graph G. Show that B1 and B2 have a vertex v in
common, then v is a cut-vertex of G
Solution: In textbook.

13: 5.7 Prove that if T is a tree of order at least 3, then T contains a cut-vertex v such that every vertex
adjacent to v, with at most one exception, is an end-vertex.

14: 5.11 Prove that if G is a graph of order n ≥ 3 such that deg v ≥ n/2 for every vertex v of G, then G is
nonseparable.
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15: Let G be a graph. Let T be a graph whose vertices correspond to blocks in G and two vertices in T are
adjacent if the corresponding blocks share a vertex. Show that T is a tree.

16: A cactus is a connected graph in which every block is an edge or a cycle. Prove that the maximum
number of edges in a simple n-vertex cactus is b3(n − 1)/2c. (Hint: bxc + byc.)

17: 5.13 Prove or disprove: If G is a connected graph with cut-vertices and u and v are vertices of G such
that d(u, v) = diam(G), then no block of G contains both u and v.

For a graph G denote by κ(G) the cardinality of minimum X ⊂ V (G) such that G − X is disconnected. Define
κ(Kn ) = n − 1. It is called connectivity.
18: What is κ(G), where G is the Petersen’s graph?

19: Show that for every graph G holds κ(G) ≤ δ(G). Recall δ(G) is the minimum degree of G.

Paths are internally disjoint if they do not share any vertices of degree 2. They may share vertices of degree
one (the end-vertices).
20: Tougher Prove Menger’s theorem. Let G be a graph with κ(G) ≥ k. Let u, v be any two distinct vertices
in G. Show that there exist internally disjoint paths P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk where u and v are the endpoints. (Can you
do at least k = 2?)

21: Tougher Find a graph that is maximizing the number of induced copies of C5 and have no triangles.