Distance Protection

6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Distance protection is a widely used protective scheme for the protection of high
and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission and sub-transmission lines. This scheme
employs a number of distance relays which measure the impedance or some com-
ponents of the line impedance at the relay location. The measured quantity is pro-
portional to the line-length between the location of the relay and the point where the
fault has occurred. As the measured quantity is proportional to the distance along
the line, the measuring relay is called a distance relay. Overcurrent relays have been
found unsuitable for the protection of transmission lines because of their inherent
drawbacks of variable reach and variable operating time due to changes in source
impedance and fault type. Distance relays have been developed to overcome the
problems associated with the use of overcurrent relays for the protection of transmis-
sion lines.
Modern distance relays provide high speed fault clearance. They are used where
overcurrent relays become slow, and there is difficulty in grading time-overcurrent
relays for complicated networks. They are used for the protection of transmission
and subtransmission lines at 220 kV, 132 kV, 66 kV, and 33 kV. Sometimes, they are
also used at 11 kV. For 132 kV and 220 kV systems, the recent trend is to use carrier
current protection. The relaying units used in carrier current protection are distance
relays. They operate under the control of carrier signals. In case of the failure of car-
rier signal, they act as back-up protection.
A distance protection scheme is a non-unit system of protection. A single scheme
provides both primary and back-up protection.
The most important and versatile family of relays is the distance-relay group. It
includes the following types:
(i) Impedance relays
(ii) Reactance relays
(iii) MHO relays
(iv) Angle impedance relays
(v) Quadrilateral relays
(vi) Elliptical and other conic section relays
250 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.2 IMPEDANCE RELAY

An impedance relay measures the importance of the line at the relay location. When a
fault occurs on the protected line section, the measured impedance is the impedance
of the line section between the relay location and the point of fault. It is proportional
to the length of the line and hence, to the distance along the line. In general, the term
impedance can be applied to a resistance alone, a reactance alone or a combination
of the two. But in distance relaying terminology the term impedance includes both
resistance as well as reactance.

6.2.1 Operating Principle of an Impedance Relay

To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared with volt-
age at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque)
and the voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque). The equation for the
operating torque of an electromagnetic relay can be written as
T = K1I2 – K2V2 – K3
where K1, K2 and K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to the control-spring
effect.
Neglecting the effect of the spring used, which is very small, the torque equation
can be written as
T = K1I2 – K2V2
For the operation of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
K1I2 > K2V2 or K2 V2 < K1I2
V2 ___
___ K1
or <
I 2 K2
V
__
or < K where K is a constant
I
or Z<K
For static and microprocessor-based relays, I is compared with V. For the opera-
tion of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
K1I > K2V or K2V < K1I
V ___
__ K1
or < or Z<K
I K2
The above expression explains that the relay is on the verge of operation when the
ratio of V to I, i.e. the measured value of line impedance is equal to a given constant.
The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given constant.

6.2.2 Impedance Relay Characteristic

Figure 6.1 shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of volt-
age and current. In case of an electromagnetic relay, the characteristic is slightly bent
near the origin due to the effect of the control spring. In case of microprocessor-
based or static relay, the characteristic will be a straight line.
 Distance Protection 251

+ve Torque
X
region Operating
characteristic
Z
I Block
– ve Torque f
region Trip R
F

V
Fig. 6.1 Operating characteristic of an Fig. 6.2 Operating characteristic of an
impedance relay impedance relay on the R-X diagram

A more useful way is to draw a distance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram.
Figure 6.2 shows an impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram, where Z =
K represents a circle and Z < K indicates the area within the circle. Thus, it is seen
that the zone within the circle is the operating zone of the relay. Its radius is Z = K,
which is the setting of the relay. K is equal to the impedance of the line which is to be
protected. f is the phase angle between V and I. As the operating characteristic is a
circle, the relay operation is independent of the phase angle f. The operation depends
on the magnitude of Z. If a fault point is on the protected section of the line, it will
lie within the circle. For this condition, the relay will operate and send a tripping
signal to the circuit breaker. The region
outside the circle is the blocking zone. If a
fault point lies in this zone, i.e. it is beyond
Operating time

the protected section of the line, the relay

will not respond. In such a situation, the
fault point may lie in the protection zone
of some other relay.
The operating time of the relay is con-
Distance
stant, irrespective of the fault location
within the protected section, as shown in Fig. 6.3 Operating time characteristic
Fig. 6.3. of an impedance relay

6.2.3 Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays

It is evident from the impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram that an
impedance relay is a non-directional relay. As its characteristic is a circle, the relay
will trip for a fault point lying within the circle, irrespective of the fact that the fault
point lies either in the forward direction or in the reverse direction. For example,
the relay will trip for a fault point F which is behind the relay location, i.e. in the
reverse direction as shown in Fig. 6.2. It is always desired that a relay should operate
for faults lying only in the forward direction. It should never operate for fault points
lying in the reverse direction. To restrict the tripping zone in the forward direction
only, a directional unit is included in the protective scheme. At any location, three
252 Power System Protection and Switchgear

impedance relays and a directional unit are employed. Their characteristics are shown
in Fig. 6.4. The directional unit is connected in series with the impedance relays as
shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Figure 6.5(b) shows connections if only one measuring unit is
employed. In such a scheme zone II and zone III are set by adjusting ohmic reach of
the relay after appropriate delay.

Z3
e
Zon
+ve Torque III Z2
one t3
IIZ e Z1 t t2
Z on 1
I a

–ve Torque

Directional
relay

Fig. 6.4 Characteristics of three-zone impedance relays with directional unit

+
Directional unit Directional unit Zone 2
ohmic
Seal-in Z2 Seal-in reach
relay Z1 T2 relay Z1 T2
Z3 Zone 3
ohmic
reach
Seal-in T3 Seal-in T3
relay coil relay coil
Flags Timing Flags
Timing
Trip coil unit Trip coil unit

Circuit breaker Circuit breaker

auxiliary switch auxiliary switch
– –
(a)

Fig. 6.5 (a) Connections of impedance relays (b) Connections of one measuring unit

The directional unit has a straight line characteristic as shown in the figure. It
allows impedance relays to see only in the forward direction. The torque equation of
the directional unit is given by T = KVI cos (f – a), neglecting spring-effect. Here, f
is the angle between V and I, and a is the angle of maximum torque. For the opera-
tion of the relay, T should be positive and hence,
KVI cos (f – a) > 0
or cos (f – a) > 0 or (f – a) < ± 90°
 Distance Protection 253

The directional relay employs two pairs of contacts, one pair is placed in series
with the contacts of the impedance relay. The other pair is connected to energise an
auxiliary relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay, when deenergised, short circuit
the current coil of the impedance relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay are opened
when a fault occurs in the forward direction. This type of a control is essential to
avoid a contact race between the impedance relay and the directional relay in inter-
connected or double circuit lines. See details in Ref. 5.

6.2.4 Protective Scheme Using Impedance Relays

Three units of impedance relays are required at a particular location for three zones of
protection. It is normal practice to adjust the first unit to protect only up to 80%-90%
of the protected line. The protected zone of the first unit is called the first zone of pro-
tection. It is a high speed unit and is used for the primary protection of the protected
line. Its operation is instantaneous; about 1 to 2 cycles. This unit is not set to protect
the entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach. If the relay operates for a
fault beyond the protected line, this phenomenon is called overreach. Overreach may
occur due to transients during the fault condition.
The main purpose of the second unit is to protect the rest of the protected line,
which is beyond the reach of the first unit. The setting of the second unit is so adjusted
that it operates the relay even for arcing faults at the end of the line. To achieve this,
the unit must reach beyond the end of the line. In other words, its setting must take
care of underreach caused by arc resistance. Underreach is also caused by intermedi-
ate current sources, errors in data available for initial setting of the relay and errors
in CT, VT and measurements performed by the relay. To take into account the under-
reaching tendency caused by these factors, the normal practice is to set the second
zone reach up to 50% of the shortest adjoining line section. The protective zone of
the second unit is known as the second zone of protection. The second zone unit
operates after a certain time delay. Its operating time is usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s.
The third zone of protection is provided for back-up protection of the adjoining
line. Its reach should extend beyond the end of the adjoining line under the maximum
underreach which may be caused by arcs, intermediate current sources and errors in
CT, VT and measuring units. The protective zone of the third stage is known as the
third zone of protection. The setting of the third zone covers the first line, i.e. the
protected line plus the longest second line plus 25% of the third line. The time-delay
for the third unit is usually 0.4 s
to 1 s. Figure 6.6 shows the oper-
ating time of impedance relays A3
and is known as the stepped time-
Operating time

distance characteristic. A1, A2 and A2 B2

A3 are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays (placed at A) A1 B1
respectively. Similarly, B1, B2, B3 A B C
are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays, placed at B, Distance
respectively. Because of the cost Fig. 6.6 Stepped time-distance characteristics
factor and the panel space, it is not of impedance relays
254 Power System Protection and Switchgear

possible to use three measuring units for the 3 zones of protection. In a modern dis-
tance protective system, only one measuring unit is employed for all the three zones
of protection. The ohmic reach is progressively increased by the timing unit to obtain
the distance settings for the II and III zones. Sometimes two units can be employed,
one unit for the I and II zone and a separate unit for the III zone. The distance setting
for the II zone is done by the timing unit.

6.2.5 Connections of Impedance Relays

The circuit connections for circuit breaker trip coil, the contacts of directional and
impedance relays, flags, timer, etc. are shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Z1, Z2 and Z3 represent
impedance relays. T2 and T3 are contacts of the timer for the second and the third
unit, respectively. Figure 6.4 shows the characteristics of directional and impedance
relays, where t1, t2 and t3 are the-operating time of the impedance relays. The char-
acteristic circle for Z1 is the smallest, the circle for Z3 is the largest and the circle for
Z2 is intermediate. If any fault point lies within the circle Z1 and it is in the forward
direction, the directional relay and all the three impedance relays operate. Due to
the operation of the first unit and the directional unit, the circuit breaker trips in a
very short time period of t1. A timer is energised whenever the directional unit and
Z3 operate. After a definite time-delay, the timer closes the contact T2 first and then
after some more delay, the contact T3 also closes. The delay times for T2 and T3 are
independently adjustable. Therefore, if a fault point lies in the characteristic circle
Z2 but outside the circle Z1, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact
T2, in time t2. If a fault point lies within the characteristic circle Z3 but outside the
circles Z1 and Z2, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact T3, in time t3.
Whenever a relay operates, its flag indicates its operation. A seal-in relay is used
to bypass the contacts of the main relays to save their costly and delicate contacts.
Once the contacts of the main relay are closed and the current passes through the trip
coil, the coil of the seal-in relay is energised and its contacts are closed. The circuit
breaker auxiliary switch is a normally closed switch. When the circuit breaker trips,
the auxiliary switch is opened to prevent unnecessary drainage of the battery. If only
one measuring unit is employed, the circuit connection can be modified, as shown
in Fig. 6.5(b).
6.2.6 Special Cases of Zone II and Zone III Settings
With the II zone relaying units, transient overreach need not be considered if the
relays have a high ratio of reset to pick-up because any transients causing overreach
die out before the II zone tripping time elapses. If relays with a low ratio of reset to
pick-up are used, the II zone relay must be set to have a reach short enough so that its
overreach does not go beyond the reach of the I zone relaying unit of the adjoining
line section. In other words, the II zone reach must be short enough to be selective
with the II zone relaying unit of the adjoining line section under maximum over-
reach conditions as shown in Fig. 6.6. In the case of short adjoining line sections,
the setting of the II zone unit, based on this principle becomes difficult. To tackle the
problem, the II zone delay-time is made long enough to be selective with the II zone
time of the adjoining line section, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
 Distance Protection 255

The third zone unit is pro-

vided for the back-up protection
of the adjoining line section. It
A2

Operating time
should be set to reach beyond
the end of the longest adjoining B2
line section under the conditions
of maximum underreach which A1 B1
may arise due to arcs, interme- A B C
diate current sources and errors
Distance
in CT, VT and measuring units.
This is achieved with addi- Fig. 6.7 Second zone adjustment with additional
tional time delay, as shown in time for selectivity with relay of a very
Fig. 6.8. Compare Fig. 6.8 with short adjoining line
Fig. 6.6 which is for normal
selectivity of the III zone unit.
The reach of any unit should not A3
be so long as to cause the relay
Operating time

to operate under any load con- B3

dition or fail to reset if operated A2
previously due to any reason. B2

A1 B1
6.2.7 Electromechanical
A B
Impedance Relay
Induction cup type construc-
tion is used to realise an imped- Distance
ance relay characteristic. This Fig. 6.8 Third zone adjustment with additional
construction is compact and time to provide back-up protection for
robust. It produces nonvibrat- adjoining line
ing torque. It is less affected
by dc transients and possesses high speed and sensitivity. It gives a perfect circular
V
characteristic. For such an impedance relay, __ £ K. IZr is to be compared with V if
I
an amplitude comparator is used. But the induction
cup construction is a phase comparator and hence, Zr
(I + V) and (I – V) are used as the actuating quanti-
ties, as shown in Fig. 6.9. With the introduction of (I – V )
V
Zr in the voltage circuit, the current flowing in this
circuit is VZr.
S

( ) V
Therefore, I + __ is the polarising quantity and
Zr
(I + V )
I
(I – V/Zr) is the operating quantity. The polarising
quantity produces one of the fluxes. In case of Fig. 6.9 Induction cup type
phase comparators it provides reference for phase impedence relay
angle measurement.
256 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.2.8 Static Impedance Relay I0 Ir

Using an Amplitude
Comparator R

Rectifier bridge comparator is used to

realise an impedance relay characteristic.
I0 Ir
Since it is an amplitude comparator, I is
compared with V. I is an operating quan-
tity and V the restraining quantity. As the
rectifier bridge arrangement is a current I
V
comparator, it is supplied with the operat-
ing current I0 and restraining current Ir, as Fig. 6.10 Static impedance relay unit
shown in Fig. 6.10. I0 is proportional to the using amplitude comparator
load current I, and Ir is proportional to the system voltage V.

6.2.9 Static Impedance Relays Using a Phase Comparator

An impedance relay characteristic can also be realised using a phase comparator. The
radius of the circle is Zr. Figure 6.11(a) shows a phasor diagram showing V, I, IRr,
IXr and IZr. In this diagram, I has been taken as the reference. The IR drop will be in
phase with I. The IX drop will be at 90° to I. If we divide all phasors by I, the result-
ing phasor diagram will be as shown in Fig. 6.11(b).

IX X
Zr
IXr IZr (IZr – V )
(Zr – Z)

V Z

IRr I IR R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.11 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drops (b) Impedance diagram

Now, a circle with radius Zr is drawn, as shown in Fig. 6.12. Since NM is the
diameter of the circle, NO = Zr and phasor NP = Zr + Z. The angle between (Zr + Z)
(Zr – Z) is q. If the point P lies within the circle, q is less than 90°. If P falls outside
the circle, q is greater than 90°. Thus, to realise an impedance characteristic, the
phase angle between (Zr + Z) and (Zr – Z) is to be compared with ± 90°. If we multi-
ply these impedance phasors by I the resulting phasors are
I(Zr + Z) and I(Zr – Z)
or (IZr + IZ) and (IZr – IZ)
or (IZr + V) and (IZr – V)
Therefore, to realise an impedance relay characteristic using a phase comparator,
the phase angle q between (IZr + V) and (IZr – V) is compared with ± 90°. If q is less than
± 90°, the point lies within the characteristic circle. (IZr + V) is the polarising input and
(IZr – V) is the operating input.
 Distance Protection 257
X

Block M
Zr (Zr – Z )

q
Z P
Trip

Z)
+
R

r
(Z
0

Fig. 6.12 Impedance relay

6.2.10 Microprocessor-based Impedance Relay

The microprocessor computes line impedance at relay locations using Irms and Vrms.
There are a number of techniques which can be used for this type of computation.
One of the techniques uses Idc and Vdc for computation as these are proportional to
Irms and Vrms. Vac and Iac are rectified using rectifiers to obtain Vdc and Idc. These recti-
fiers employ ICs and diodes. Now line impedance is computed and the microproces-
sor issues a trip signal to the circuit breaker if the fault point lies within its protected
section.
In another method, the microprocessor takes samples of the voltage and current
signals over half a cycle or one full cycle to compute Vrms and Irms. Then the line
impedance is computed from these quantities. If the fault point lies within the pro-
tected section, a trip signal is issued.
After taking samples, the microprocessor may use digital filter techniques to com-
pute R and X at the relay location and take a decision to trip the circuit breaker if the
fault point lies within the protected section. See details of microprocessor impedance
relay in Chap. 12.
X Modified
Impedance impedance
6.2.11 Modi ied Impedance relay ZL
relay
Relay
Figure 6.13 shows the characteris- RA
tics of a modified impedance relay. Its
characteristic is a circle on the R-X dia- R
gram. It is similar to that of an imped-
ance relay but has a shifted character-
istic. To realise a modified impedance
characteristic, the standard impedance
characteristic is shifted outwards along
the R-axis by a current bias. This is Fig. 6.13 Modi ied impedance relay
258 Power System Protection and Switchgear

achieved by introducing an additional voltage into the voltage supply circuit of the
relay. The torque equation of a modified impedance relay is as follows.
T = K1I2 – K2 (V + IR)2
where R is a resistance.
The modified impedance relay has a greater tolerance for fault resistance as com-
pared to the impedance relay, as shown in Fig. 6.13. Such a characteristic is not as
effective or accurate as the reactance relay characteristic explained in the next sec-
tion. Moreover, they are more affected by power surges.

6.3 REACTANCE RELAY

A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
affected by variations in resistance. Hence, its performance remains unaffected by
arc resistance during the occurrence of fault. In case of a fault on the protected line,
the measured reactance is the reactance of the line between the relay location and the
fault point. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a straight line, parallel to R-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.14(a).
X MHO starter
25%
X
Zone III
Block
Xr C
X2
50%
Trip Zone II
Operating B X1 P2
characteristic 80%
–R R Line Zone I
–X P1
R

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.14 (a) Operating characteristic of a reactance relay

(b) Reactance relay with starting unit

6.3.1 Electromechanical Reactance Relay

An induction cup structure, as shown in
I
Fig. 6.15, is used to realise a reactance
relay characteristic. The torque equa-
tion of the relay is given by
T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (90 – f) – K3
V
= K1I2 – K2VI sin f – K3
The current produces polarising flux
in the upper and lower poles. Also, cur- Phase-angle Phase-shifting
adjustment circuit
rent is the operating quantity which
produces flux in the right-hand side Fig. 6.15 Induction cup type reactance relay
 Distance Protection 259

pole. The flux in the right-hand side pole is out of phase with that in the upper and
lower poles because of the secondary winding which is closed through a phase shift-
ing circuit and is placed on the right-hand side pole. The interaction of the polarising
flux and the flux in the right-hand side pole produces an operating torque K1I2. The
winding placed on the left-hand side pole produces a flux which interacts with the
polarising flux to produce a restraining torque. There is a phase-angle adjustment
circuit connected in series with the voltage coil. The restraining torque is propor-
tional to VI cos (90 – f). The angle between the actuating quantities which are pro-
portional to V and I can be changed to realise the desired characteristic. In this case,
the angle between the actuating quantities is kept (90 – f). The relay operates when
K1I2 > K2VI sin f, neglecting K3 which is a constant for the spring’s torque. Thus, we
have
V
__ K1
sin f < ___
I K2
or Z sin f < K or X < K
The characteristic of the reactance relay on the R-X diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.14(a). It will operate when the measured value of the reactance is less than
the predetermined value K. It is a non directional relay as it will also operate for the
negative values of X. The negative value of X means that the fault is behind the relay
location, i.e. in the reverse direction. A directional unit, having a circular character-
istic is used in conjunction with reactance relays. The directional unit also acts as
the III unit of the distance scheme. The I and II units are reactance units as shown in
Fig. 6.14(b). The I unit is a high speed unit to protect 80% to 90% of the protected
line. The II unit protects up to 50% of the adjacent line. The III unit is a back-up unit
to protect the whole of the adjacent line. The time-distance characteristic is a stepped
characteristic, as shown in Fig 6.6
Why the directional unit used with reactance relays should have a circular char-
acteristic needs further explanation. Under normal conditions, with a load of high
power factor, the reactance measured by the reactance relay may be less than its
setting. Such points have been shown in Fig. 6.14(b) by P1 lying in the I zone of
protection and P2 in the II zone of protection. To prevent false trippings under such
conditions, the reactance relay should be +
supervised by a fault-detecting unit (start- M Starting unit
ing unit) which limits its area on the R-X Seal-in X2
relay X1 T2
diagram. Hence, its characteristic should
be a circular one. A directional unit with
a straight line characteristic, as used with Seal-in T3
an impedance relay cannot be used in this relay coil
case. With this type of a directional unit, Flags Timing
Trip coil unit
the reactance relay will not trip under con-
ditions of a high power factor load. CB Auxiliary
switch
The starting unit detects faults and also –
serves the function of the III zone unit. Its Fig. 6.16 Connections of reactance relay
connection is shown in Fig. 6.16.
260 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.3.2 Static Reactance Relay Using an Amplitude Comparator

Figure 6.17 shows a rectifier bridge
type amplitude comparator to realise a
reactance relay. The actuating quanti- VT CT
ties to be compared are (I – V/2Xr) and V I
V/2Xr. The relay operates when 2Xr
V

| || |V V
I – ___ > ___
2Xr 2Xr
Multiplying both sides by 2Xr, we
2Xr

+
get,
+
|2IXr – V| > |V| R
Dividing both sides by I, we get

| V
||| V
2Xr – __ > __ or |2Xr – Z| > |Z|
I I +

where Xr is the reactance of the line to Fig. 6.17 Static reactance relay
be protected.
When the above condition is satisfied, the characteristic realised is a reactance
relay characteristic. Proof of this will be given later on while discussing the angle
impedance relay as the reactance relay is a special case of an angle impedance
relay.

6.3.3 Static Reactance Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.18(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide all vectors by I, the vectors of Fig. 6.18(b) are obtained. A perpendicular
line MK is drawn from the point M. A horizontal line LN is drawn through the point
M. As MK is parallel to IXr the phase angle between IXr and (IZr – V) is equal to the
angle between MK and (IZr – V), i.e. q. If the point P is below the horizontal line LN,
q is less than ± 90°. If P is above LN, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, a reactance
relay characteristic can be realised by comparing the phase angle between IXr and
(IZr – V) with ± 90°.

M
IXr L N
(IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z)
r
IZ

q q
V P
Z

IRr I IR K R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.18 (a) Phasor diagrams showing V, I and voltage drop

(b) Phasor diagram for reactance relay
 Distance Protection 261

The reactance relay char- IX X

acteristic can also be realised
IXr (IXr – V ) Xr (Xr – Z)
if the phase angle between IXr
and (IXr – V) is compared with q q
± 90°. The vector diagram for V Z
this condition has been shown
in Fig 6.19
I R
6.3.4 Microprocessor-
(a) (b)
based Reactance
Relay Fig. 6.19 Realisation of reactance relay by
A reactance relay can be rea- comparing IXr and (IXr Ð V)
lised using a microprocessor by
comparing Idc with V sin f. Alternatively, X can be measured at the relay location
using differential equations, Fast Fourier transforms, walsh functions or any other
digital technique and it may be compared with the preset value of X. More details are
given in Chap. 12.

6.4 MHO (ADMITTANCE OR ANGLE ADMITTANCE)

RELAY
A MHO relay measures a component of admit- X
tance |Y| –q. But its characteristic, when plotted t3
on the impedance diagram (R-X diagram) is a
circle, passing through the origin. It is inherently t2
a directional relays as it detects the fault only
M3
in the forward direction. This is obvious from M2
M1
its circular characteristic passing through the
origin, as shown in Fig. 6.20. It is also called t1
an admittance or angle admittance relay. It is a
called a MHO relay because its characteristic R
is a straight line when plotted on an admittance Fig. 6.20 Characteristics of
diagram (G-B axes). MHO relay
6.4.1 Electromechanical MHO Relay
An induction cup structure, as shown in Fig. 6.21
is used to realise a MHO characteristic. The torque
equation is given by
T = K1VI cos (f – a) – K2V2 – K3

The upper and lower poles are energised by a volt-

I
age V to produce a polarising flux. The series capaci-
tor provides memory action which will be explained
later on. The left pole is energised by a current which V
is the operating quantity. The flux produced by I Fig. 6.21 Induction cup type
interacts with the polarising flux to give an operating MHO relay
262 Power System Protection and Switchgear

torque K1VI cos (f – a). The angle a can be adjusted by varying resistance in the
phase shifting circuit placed on the left pole (not shown in the figure). The right-hand
side pole is energised by voltage. The flux produced by the right side pole interacts
with the polarising flux to produce a restraining torque K2V2.
The relay will operate when
1 K2
K1VI cos (f – a) > K2 V2 or __ cos (f – a) > ___
V K1
K2 1
or Y cos (f – a) > ___ or ___________ <K
K1 Y cos (f – a)
Z
_________
or <K or M<K
cos (f – a)

Three units of MHO relays are used +

for the protection of a section of the line. M1 M2
The I unit is a high speed unit to protect
Seal-in
80%–90% of the line section. The II unit relay T2 M3
protects the rest of the line section, and its
reach extends up to 50% of the adjacent line
section. The III unit is meant for back-up
Seal-in T3
protection of the adjacent line section. Relay coil
The II and III units operate after a preset Flags Timing
delay, usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s and 0.4 s to Trip coil unit
1 s respectively. The time-distance char-
acteristic is a stepped characteristic, as CB auxiliary
switch
shown in Fig. 6.6. Figure 6.22 shows –
the connection diagram for MHO units
Fig. 6.22 Connections of MHO relays
placed at one location.

6.4.2 Static MHO Relay Using

an Amplitude Comparator
Figure 6.23 shows a rectifier bridge
VT CT
type amplitude comparator to realise
I
a MHO characteristic. The actuat- Zr
ing quantities to be compared are I
and (V/Zr – I). The relay will operate,
when
+

| |
V
I > __ – I
Zr
R
+

Multiplying both sides by Zr, we

get

|IZr| > |V – IZr| +

Fig. 6.23 Schematic diagram of a static

Dividing both sides by I, we get
MHO relay
 Distance Protection 263

| | V
|Zr| > __ – Zr or |Zr| > |Z – Zr|
I
X

When the above condition is satisfied, the Z1

B
characteristic obtained will be a MHO charac- P
0.8 ZI
teristic, as shown in Fig. 6.24. Zr is the radius Z
of the MHO circle, which is equal to the imped-
ance of the voltage circuit. If a fault point Z
lies within the circle, |Zr| > |Z – Zr|. If a fault (Z – Z r )
point lies on the circumference of the circle, Zr
|Zr| = |Z – Zr|. If the fault point is outside the cir- f
cle, |Zr| < |Z – Zr|. The above conditions are also a R
true if the point P is anywhere on AB. When the A
fault point is very close to the relay location
Fig. 6.24 MHO characteristic
(close-up fault), the relay may fail to operate.
To overcome this difficulty, a voltage called the polarising voltage, which is obtained
from a pair of healthy phases is added to the actuating quantities. The operating
input of the modified actuating quantities corresponds to Vp/Zp – I + Vr/Zr and the
restraining input corresponds Vp/Zp + I – Vr/Zr, where Zr is equal to the impedance of
the relay restraining circuit and Zp is equal to the impedance of the relay polarising
circuit. Vp is the polarising voltage. A relay using polarising voltage is known as a
polarised MHO relay. But the word polarised is frequently omitted and the relay is
simply called a MHO relay. The details of a polarised MHO relay can be seen in Ref.
2, vol. I, page 385.

6.4.3 Static MHO Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.25(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide all phasors of this diagram by I, the resulting phasor diagram will be as
shown in Fig. 6.25(b). The phase angle between V and (IZr – V) is q. Now draw a cir-
cle with Zr as diameter, as shown in Fig. 6.25(c). If the point P lies within the circle,
q is less than ± 90°. If P lies outside the circle, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, to
realise a MHO characteristic, the phase angle q between (IZr – V) and V is compared
with ± 90°.
X
X
Zr
(IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z) (Z r – Z )
IXr
r
IZ

q q
P
V Z
Z
R
IRr I IR R

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.25 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drop

(b) Impedance diagram (c) MHO characteristic
264 Power System Protection and Switchgear

A rectifier bridge phase com-

parator, as shown in Fig. 6.26 can be
employed to realise a MHO charac- IZr

Output
teristic. The inputs to the phase com-
parator are (IZr – V) and V. A phase –V
comparator circuit using an opera-
tional amplifier has been shown in
Fig. 6.27. Its operating principle has
already been explained in the Section
2.3.5(c), Fig. 2.29. V
6.4.4 Polarising Quantity
Fig. 6.26 Recti ier bridge phase comparator
For MHO and reactance relays, three
inputs are used, though the comparator employed is a two-input comparator. These
are (i) operating input (current I), (ii) restraining input (voltage V) and (iii) polarising
input. The polarising input is current in the case of a reactance relay, and voltage in
the case of a MHO relay. The relay uses the first two quantities for impedance (or a
component of the impedance) measurement, which are derived from the current and
voltage associated with the fault. The third quantity, i.e. the polarising quantity is a
reference for determining the phase-sense of the operating current. If a terminal fault
occurs, the voltage at the relay location becomes zero. In case of a reactance relay,
the polarising input is current and hence, the relay operates even though the terminal
voltage is zero. The restraining quantity V is zero. This will not prevent the operation
of the relay. On the other hand, in case of a MHO relay, the polarising input is V. If
it is derived from the faulty phase, it will become zero in case of a terminal fault.
Therefore, the MHO relay will fail to operate for terminal faults. To overcome this
difficulty, the polarising input may be derived from the healthy phases, as discussed
in the next section.

op-amp
IZr – V

Sine to square
Coincidence op-amp Level
wave converter
circuit detector Trip

op-amp Integrator
V

Sine to square
wave converter

Fig. 6.27 Phase comparator circuit using op-amps

The essential requirements for the polarising input are:

(i) The polarising quantity should have a fixed phase angle relative to the restraint
voltage.
 Distance Protection 265

(ii) The magnitude of the polarising quantity is of no importance. But in no case

should it be zero. In case of terminal faults, when the restraint voltage is zero,
the polarising input should not be zero.
The polarising voltage Vp can be related to the restraint voltage Vr by an angle q,
such that
V
___p = C–q, where C can have any value
Vr
The polarising quantities are also used with directional relays. While discussing
the directional relays, methods to derive a polarising voltage have been discussed.

6.4.5 Polarised MHO Relay

In a polarised MHO relay, the inputs to the phase comparator are (IZr – V) and Vp,
where
V = voltage at the relay point. During a fault, it becomes the fault voltage.
I = Current at the relay point. During a fault, it is the fault current.
Zr = MHO relay setting
Vp = polarising voltage.
IZr is the operating quantity and V is the restraint voltage. Vp is the polarising input
which exists even if V is zero as in the case of terminal faults. Therefore, a polarised
MHO relay operates when terminal faults occur, as the phase comparison is made
between (IZr – V) and Vp, though V = 0 or is negligibly small. For a self-polarised
MHO relay in which memory has not been used, the input quantities are (IZr – V)
and V. For such a simple MHO relay, when V becomes zero, phase comparison is not
possible and the relay fails to operate.
If Vp and V, applied to the measuring unit are in phase, the diameter of the MHO
circle will be equal to Zr. If the polarising and restraint currents are displaced by an
angle b, the characteristic will remain a circle but Zr becomes a chord of the circle,
as shown in Fig. 6.28.
In case of an amplitude comparator, if the polarising voltage is to be used, the
inputs are (Vp/Zp – I + V/Zr) and (Vp/Zp – I – V/Zr).
The following methods are used in practice X
to obtain a polarising voltage for a polarised
MHO relay.
(i) Vp can be derived from the fault voltage (Z r – Z )
through a resonant circuit tuned to the 90 + b
Zr
system frequency (i.e. faulty phase volt-
age with memory).
90 – b
(ii) It may be derived from the healthy
phases through a suitable phase-shifting Z
circuit. R
(iii) It may be a combination of the faulty
phase voltage and the healthy phase volt- Fig. 6.28 General case of
age. polarised MHO relay
266 Power System Protection and Switchgear

In the last two methods, when Vp is derived either fully or partly from the healthy
phases, the relay fails to operate if a three-phase terminal fault occurs. In such a situ-
ation, the fault is cleared by an offset MHO relay which is used as a back-up relay.
An offset MHO relay, which has current bias in the voltage circuit, operates even in
case of three-phase terminal faults, (see Section 6.4.6). In a number of cases, high-
set overcurrent relays have been used to clear three-phase terminal faults at a high
speed.
If Vp is derived from the faulty phase, the relay is said to be a self-polarised relay.
If it is derived from the healthy phases, it is called a cross-polarised relay. Fully
cross-polarised means that Vp is fully derived from the healthy phases.
In the first method in which Vp is derived from the faulty phase, it is possible, by
using memory, to maintain the polarising input for a short time even after the occur-
rence of the fault. Therefore, when a terminal fault occurs, the polarising input is
maintained sufficiently long to cause the operation of the relay. In this method, the
polarising current does not maintain the constant phase relation with respect to the
faulty phase voltage. The phase angle of the faulty phase voltage changes when a
fault occurs but the phase angle of the current of the memory circuit is maintained
at the original value. The change in the phase-shift is negligible. The phase-angle
shift also occurs due to the variation in the supply frequency. The supply frequency
may vary from 47 c/s to 51 c/s but the resonant circuit resonates at a fixed frequency.
To minimise the error, the memory is restricted to about three cycles at the most.
Therefore, the relay must be very fast. The most serious drawback of this method
is that this method is not effective when the line is energised. This drawback can be
removed by the supply using voltage from the busbar instead of the line.
6.4.6 Offset MHO Relay
Figure 6.29 shows an offset MHO characteristic. A rectifier bridge type amplitude
comparator, as shown in Fig. 6.23 can be used to realise the offset MHO characteris-
tic. The actuating quantities to be compared are I and (V/Zr – nI). Only a fraction of
the CT output current is injected into the restraint circuit. Thus n is fraction, i.e. n <
1. The relay operates when

| |
V
|I| > __ – nI or |IZr| > |V – nIZr|
Zr
X

or
|V
|Zr| > __ – nZr
I | or |Zr| > |Z – nZr| Z

The offset MHO relay has more toler-

ance to arc resistance. It can also see a (Z – nZr )
close-up fault and a fault which lies behind
the busbar. Hence, it is able to clear bus- nZr
bar faults. A typical value of offset is 10%
of the protected line length. It will oper- R
ate for close-up faults resulting in V = 0.
When V = 0, the relay operates because
|I| > |0 – nI| condition is satisfied, n being Fig. 6.29 Offset MHO characteristic
less than 1.
 Distance Protection 267

In a distance protective scheme employ- X

ing MHO relays, the third unit may be an Line
offset MHO, as shown in Fig. 6.30. The 25%
III zone unit provides busbar zone back-up C
50%
protection in such a scheme. The main B
80%
applications of offset MHO relays are:
(i) busbar zone back-up M1 M2 M3
f
(ii) carrier starting unit in distance/carrier a
blocking schemes Offset R
A
(iii) power swing blocking. (1 – nZr )

The second and third applications will

Fig. 6.30 MHO relays scheme with
be discussed later. When a fault occurs, the
III unit an offset MHO
voltage, current and phase angle change
instantaneously, whereas in case of power swings, they change slowly. This property
is utilised for the out of step blocking relay. The III zone offset unit operates with
some time-delay. When a fault occurs in the zone of the II unit, it operates first and
its tripping is not blocked. In case of power swings, the III zone unit operates first
and blocks the tripping of the II zone unit. The offset characteristic gives a sufficient
time-delay for the III zone unit for this purpose.

6.5 ANGLE IMPEDANCE (OHM) RELAY

An angle impedance relay measures a component of the impedance of the line at the
relay location. It is also called an ohm relay. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a
straight line and it is inclined to the
X
R-axis at any angle, as shown in M
Fig. 6.31. The reactance relay is a Block
particular case of an angle imped-
ance relay. The angle impedance Trip B
relay is used in conjunction with ZI P (2Zr – Z )
other relays, for example it is Z
used to limit the area of the MHO C
90°
relay on the R-X diagram to make 2Zr
it less sensitive to power surges. Zr N
a
In this particular application, the R
angle impedance relay is called a A
blinder. This concept will be dis- Fig. 6.31 Characteristic of angle-impedance relay
cussed later on.

6.5.1 Electromechanical Angle Impedance Relay

For this kind of a relay, an induction cup construction, as shown in Fig. 6.15 is used.
The torque equation of the relay is given by

T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (f – a) – K3

268 Power System Protection and Switchgear

In case of a reactance relay, a = 90°. But in the case of an angle impedance relay,
it may have any value which governs the inclination of the characteristic with respect
to the R-axis (see Fig. 6.31).

6.5.2 Static Angle Impedance Relay Using an Amplitude Comparator

An angle impedance characteristic can be realised by comparing (I – V/2Zr) and
V/2Zr by an amplitude comparator as shown in Fig. 6.17, except that the restraint
impedance 2Xr is replaced by 2Zr. The relay operates when

| || |
V V
I – ___ > ___
2Zr 2Zr
or |2IZr – V| > |V|

or
| V V
2Zr – __ > __
I I||| or |2Zr – Z| > |Z|

Figure 6.31 shows the characteristic of an angle impedance relay. P represents

any point and the phasor AP = Z. The angle impedance characteristic is represented
by MN, which is the perpendicular bisector of 2Zr. If the point P is on the left hand
side of MN, then PC > AP, i.e. |2Zr – Z| > |Z|. If the point P lies on MN, PC = AP,
i.e. |2Zr – Z| = |Z|. If the point P lies on the right hand side of MN, PC < AP, i.e.
|2Zr – Z| < |Z|.

6.5.3 Static Angle Impedance Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.32(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide the phasors by I, the phasors of Fig. 6.32(b) are obtained. A line perpen-
dicular to phasor Zr is drawn. q is the angle between Zr and (Zr – Z). Tripping and
blocking zones are as shown in the figure. If the point P lies in the tripping zone, q
is less than ± 90°. If q lies in the blocking zone, it is greater than ± 90°. Therefore,
an angle impedance characteristic can be relaised by comparing the phase angle
between IZr and (IZr – V) with ± 90°.
X
IX
(IZr – V ) (Z r – Z )
IXr 90°
Zr
r
IZ

Block

V
P
Z
Trip
IRr I IR R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.32 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drops

(b) Angle-impedance characteristic using phase comparator

6.5.4 Microprocessor-based Angle Impedance Relay

A microprocessor can compare the amplitude of (2IZr – V) and V very conveniently
to realise an angle impedance relay.
 Distance Protection 269

6.6 INPUT QUANTITIES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF

DISTANCE RELAYS
Static relays employ either voltage comparator or current comparator. Table 6.1
shows voltage inputs for different types of distance relays. Table 6.2 shows current
inputs to realise various distance relay characteristics. The directional relay is not a
distance relay. It has been included in these tables as it is used in conjunction with
impedance relays. Its characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin.

Table 6.1 Voltage inputs for different types of distance relays

Types of Relays Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator (90°)
Operating Restraining Operation Polarising
quantity quantity quantity quantity
Impedance IZr V IZr – V IZr + V
Directional IZr + V V – IZr IZr V
Reactance 2IXr – V V (IZr – V) or IXr
(IXr – V)
MHO IZr 2V – IZr IZr – V V
Offset MHO I(Zr –Z0) 2V – I(Zr + Z0) IZr – V V – IZ0
Angle Impedance 2IZr – V V IZr – V IZr

Table 6.2 Current inputs for different types of distance relays

Types of Relays Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator (90°)
Operating Restraining Operating Polorising
quantity quantity quantity quantity

V
__ V V
Impedance I I – __ I + __
Zr Zr Zr
V V V
Directional I + __ __ –I I __
Zr Zr Zr
V V V
Reactance I – ___ ___ I I – __
2Xr 2Xr Xr
2V
___ V V
MHO I –I I – __ __
Zr Zr Zr

Offset MHO (
V
Zr Z0
V
2I – __ + __ ) V __
__ –
Zr Z0
V V
I – __
Zr
V
__
Zo
–I

V V V
Angle Impedance 2I – __ __ I I – __
Zr Zr Zr