11/24/2023

ANATOMY OF THE
SPECIAL SENSES
By: DR. James GN, Ph.D.
For: BSc. Nursing

Learning Objectives
1. Classify the sense organs as general or special and
explain the basic differences between the two groups.
2. Discuss how a stimulus is converted into a sensation.
3. Discuss the general sense organs and their functions.
4. Describe the structure of the eye and the functions of
its components.
5. Discuss the anatomy of the ear and its sensory
function in hearing and equilibrium.
6. Describe the anatomy of the tongue and its sensory
function in taste.
7. Describe the anatomy of the nasal cavity and its
sensory function in smell.
8. Discuss how senses are integrated.

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The Senses
 General senses of touch (tactile)
 Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat)
 Pressure- mechanoreceptors (movement)
 Pain- mechanoreceptors
 Special senses
 Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)
 Taste- chemoreceptors
 Sight- photoreceptors (light)
 Hearing- mechanoreceptors
 Equilibrium- (balance) mechanoreceptors

Special Senses
• Receptors for the special senses of smell, taste,
vision, hearing, and equilibrium are anatomically
distinct from one another and are concentrated in
specific locations in the head
• In addition to the stimuli and the receptors, there are
specific afferent pathways and translation sites in the brain
for information assembled from these special senses

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Special Senses
 Comparing the general senses and the special senses
General Senses Special Senses
– Include somatic sensations –Include smell, taste, vision,
(tactile, thermal, pain, and hearing and equilibrium
proprioceptive) and –Are concentrated in specific
visceral sensations locations in the head
– Are scattered throughout –Are anatomically distinct
the body structures
– Are relatively simple –Form complex neural
structures pathways

Olfaction and Taste

• Olfaction is the process of perceiving smells. Smell and

taste are brought about through the interpretation of

chemicals present in the environment
• Olfactory and gustatory (taste) impulses travel not only to the

cerebral cortex, but also to the limbic system

• We can have emotional responses and strong memories to certain smells
and tastes
• gustation and olfaction work together. Olfaction is much stronger/more
sensitive (when someone has a cold it is difficult to taste food)

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 Smell not as good as animals; however, some people

are wine tasters, perfumers
 If you smell a particular odor all day, you won’t
recognize its presence, you become accustomed, ex.
garbage men
 During old age, people lose sense of smell- lots of
perfume
 Humans can distinguish 10,000 or so chemicals
 What we really smell is pain: ex. chili, ammonia,
menthol (cold)
 Specific chemicals cause specific patterns of neurons
to fire

Olfaction
• The olfactory epithelium

is located in the superior

part of the nasal cavity
covering the surface of the
cribriform plate and
extending along the
superior nasal concha

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Olfaction
• The olfactory apparatus can detect about 10,000 different
odors, often in concentrations as low as 1/25 billionth of a
milligram per milliliter of air
• When an odorant binds to the

receptor of an olfactory hair it

initiates a cascade of intracellular
events

Olfaction sense
• Because olfaction is much more sensitive than
taste, a given concentration of a food substance
may stimulate the olfactory system thousands of
times more strongly than it stimulates the
gustatory system.
• When you have a cold or are suffering from
allergies and cannot taste your food, it is actually
olfaction that is blocked, not taste.
• A smell can be detected in a concentration as low
as 1/25 billionth of a milligram per milliliter of air
(the concentration of the methyl mercaptan
additive to natural gas).

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Olfaction
• Once generated, nerve impulses travel through the two

olfactory nerves  olfactory bulbs  olfactory tract 

primary olfactory area in the temporal lobe of the cortex
• Olfaction is the only sensory

system that doesn’t go through the

relay stations in the thalamus

Olfaction
• Olfactory sensory pathways (centrally) are rapidly

adapting, decreasing activity by 50% in the first second, and

completely accommodating in 1–2 minutes

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Olfactory Nerve Pathways

1. Odorant molecules enter as gases and
dissolve in liquid
2. Bind olfactory receptor cells
3. Nerve Impulse travels on fibers through
cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
4. Fibers Synapse with neurons of olfactory
bulbs (CNI)
5. Travel along olfactory tracts to limbic
system (amygdala) and cerebral cortex

Gustation
• Gustation, or taste, detects five primary tastes : sour,
sweet, bitter, salty, and umami (“meaty” or “savory”)

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Sense of Taste
• Taste Buds are organs of taste
• Humans have 10,000 of these located on papillae of
tongue, roof of mouth, cheek linings, walls of pharynx
• Taste Receptors are chemoreceptors, called taste cells that
are located on taste buds
• Taste cells have receptive microvilli (taste hair) that project
through a taste pore
• Taste hair is sensitive portion
that detects chemicals
dissolved in saliva
• Undergo rapid
sensory adaptation

Taste Buds

Filiform
papilla

Fungiform
papilla

Connective tissue Tongue epithelium

Circumvallate Papilla

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Gustation
• In addition, the entire surface of the tongue has filiform

papillae that contain tactile

receptors but no
taste buds
•They increase
friction between the
tongue and food,
making it easier to
move food in the oral cavity

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Gustation
• Three cranial nerves contain axons gustatory neurons that

innervate the taste buds

• The facial (VII) nerve serves taste buds in the anterior 2/3 of the

tongue
• The glossopharyngeal (IX)

nerve serves taste buds in the

posterior 1/3 of the tongue
• The vagus (X) nerve serves taste

buds in the throat and epiglottis

Gustation
• Nerve impulses propagate along these cranial nerves to the
gustatory nucleus in the medulla oblongata. From there,
axons carrying taste signals project
to the hypothalamus, limbic
system, and thalamus
• Taste is perceived consciously as
signals from the thalamus arrive
at the primary gustatory area at
the base of the somatosensory
cortex in the parietal lobe

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Taste Pathways
• Taste signals enter the brain at the medulla from 3 cranial
nerves
• Facial Nerve, VII, carries impulses from anterior 2/3 of
tongue
• Glossopharyngeal Nerve, IX, carries impulses from
posterior 1/3 of tongue
• Vagus Nerve, X, carries impulses from base of tongue &
pharynx
• Impulses then travel to the Thalamus and to the cerebral
cortex
• Taste impulse then travels to the limbic system for an
emotional tag

Loss of Taste & Smell

• Beginning in 60’s ability to taste and smell diminishes
• Decrease in # of receptors

• About 50% over 80 cannot smell

• Sense of taste is poor

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Loss of Taste & Smell

• Various other factors also can contribute to loss

of taste and smell, however, including:
• Nasal and sinus problems, such as allergies, sinusitis or nasal
polyps
• Certain medications, including beta blockers and
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
• Tooth decay or poor dental hygiene
• Cigarette smoking
• Head or facial injury
• Alzheimer's disease
• Parkinson's disease

Impact of LOSS
• Quality of life, often leading to decreased appetite and poor
nutrition

• Contributes to depression

• Might tempt you to use excess salt or sugar on your food to

enhance the taste — which could be a problem if you have
high blood pressure or diabetes

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Vision
• Our visual perception is dependent on the eye, its

accessory structures, the optic tracts, and the 1 o visual

cortex and it’s association areas
• Vision is possible because of

photoreceptors that
detect light

The Eye and Vision

 70 percent of all sensory receptors are
in the eyes
 Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
 Protection for the eye
 Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
made up of the lacrimal (medial), ethmoid
(posterior), sphenoid (lateral), frontal
(superior), and zygomatic and maxilla
(inferior)
 A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye

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Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Eyelids-
brush
particles
out of eye
or cover
eye
 Eyelashes-
trap
particles
and keep
them out of
the eye

Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Ciliary glands –
modified
sweat glands
between the
eyelashes-
secrete acidic
sweat to kill
bacteria,
lubricate
eyelashes

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Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Conjunctiva
 Membrane that lines the eyelids
 Connects to the surface of the eye- forms a seal
 Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye

http://neuromedia.neurobio.ucla.edu/campbell/eyeandear/wp_images/175_conjunctiva.gif

CONJUNCTIVITIS
- Inflammation of the conjunctiva
- Caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Highly contagious

http://www.healthseva.com/images/eye/conjunctivitis.jpg

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Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Lacrimal
apparatus
 Lacrimal gland –
produces lacrimal
fluid
 Lacrimal canals –
drains lacrimal
fluid from eyes

Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Lacrimal sac –
provides
passage of
lacrimal fluid
towards nasal
cavity

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Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Nasolacrimal
duct – empties
lacrimal fluid into
the nasal cavity

Function of the Lacrimal Apparatus

 Properties of lacrimal fluid

 Dilute salt solution (tears)
 Contains antibodies (fight antigens- foreign
substance) and lysozyme (enzyme that
destroys bacteria)
 Protects, moistens, and lubricates the
eye
 Empties into the nasal cavity

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Extrinsic Eye Muscles

 Muscles attach to the outer surface of
the eye
 Produce eye movements

When Extrinsic Eye Muscles Contract

 Superior oblique- eyes look out and down
 Superior rectus- eyes looks up
 Lateral rectus- eyes look outward
 Medial rectus- eyes look inward
 Inferior rectus- eyes looks down
 Inferior oblique- eyes look in and up

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http://www.esg.montana.edu/esg/kla/ta/eyemusc.jpg

Structure of the Eye

 The wall is composed of three tunics
 Fibrous tunic –
outside layer
 Choroid –
middle
layer
 Sensory
tunic –
inside
layer

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The Fibrous Tunic

 Sclera
 White connective tissue layer
 Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
 Semi-transparent

The Fibrous Tunic

 Cornea
 Transparent, central anterior portion
 Allows for light to pass through (refracts, or
bends, light slightly)
 Repairs itself easily
 The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of rejection

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http://www.phys.ufl.edu/~avery/course/3400/vision/eye_photo.jpg

Choroid Layer
 Blood-rich nutritive tunic
 Pigment prevents light from scattering
(opaque- blocks light from getting in,
has melanin)

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Choroid Layer
 Modified interiorly into two structures
 Cilliary body – smooth muscle (contracts to
adjust the shape of the lens)
 Iris- pigmented layer that gives eye color
(contracts to adjust the size of the pupil-
regulates entry of light into the eye)
 Pupil – rounded opening in the iris

Sensory Tunic (Retina)

 Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
 Rods
 Cones

 Signals leave the retina toward the brain

through the optic nerve

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Sensory Tunic (Retina)

 Signals pass from photoreceptors via a
two-neuron chain
 Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells

http://www.uams.edu/jei/patients/retina_services/images/retina.jpg

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Accessory Eye Structures

• The upper and lower palpebrae are the eyelids

• CN III (Oculomotor) supplies 4 of the 6 extraocular

muscles, plus the muscles that raise the upper eyelid
• The conjunctiva is a clear

mucous membrane that

covers the white (avascular)
part of the eye

Accessory Eye Structures

• The lacrimal glands are each about the size an almond,
situated superolateral to the eyeball. Leading from the
lacrimal glands are 6 to 12 excretory lacrimal ducts
• Tears (lacrimal fluid) run from the lacrimal glands, into the excretory
lacrimal ducts, onto the surface of the conjunctiva, over the surface
of the eyeball

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Accessory Eye Structures

• Tears drain into the lacrimal puncta, which are two openings

on the nasal side of the extreme edge of the eyeball.

Superior and inferior lacrimal canals empty the tears into
the nasolacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct
• The right and left sided nasolacrimal ducts empty into each side of
the nose

Accessory Eye Structures

• Watery eyes occur when lacrimal fluid builds up, as when

something obstructs the nasolacrimal ducts

• Blocked nasolacrimal ducts can be caused by an inflammation of

the nasal mucosa, such as a cold

• Over production of lacrimal fluid occurs in response to

parasympathetic stimulation, caused by an emotional response

(crying), and tears spill over the edges of the eyelids and drain into the
nasal cavity (causing nasal stuffiness)

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Anatomy of the Eye

The wall of the eyeball consists of three layers or tunics:
1. The fibrous tunic is the outer layer and is composed of the
sclera (“white” of the eye) and the cornea (the transparent
epithelium the protects the front of the eye)
2. The vascular tunic is the middle layer and is composed of
the choroid, the ciliary body and the iris
3. The nervous tunic is the
inner retinal layer

Middle Tunic
• The choroid forms the major vascular portion that lines
the internal surface of the sclera
• The ciliary body consists of two parts:
• The ciliary processes that secrete aqueous humor
• The ciliary muscle that changes the shape of the lens to adapt to near
and far vision
• The iris is the colored portion of the eyeball consisting of circular and
radial smooth muscle fibers

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Middle Tunic
• Suspensory ligaments extend inward from the ciliary
processes and hold the lens of the eye in place
• Lens is a clear, membrane like structure that divides the
eyeball into an anterior and posterior chamber
• Lens is very elastic and can change shape due to changes in ciliary
muscles and suspensory ligaments = Accommodation

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Aqueous Humor
• fluid in anterior cavity of eye
• secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary body
• provides nutrients for cornea/lens
• maintains shape of anterior portion of eye
• Normally drains back to bloodstream
• What is glaucoma?

•Vitreous humor – thick gel of posterior cavity that holds

retina flat against choroid coat & maintains round
shape of eyeball

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Structure of Retina
• Retina contains visual receptors called photoreceptors (rods
and cones)

• 3 layers
• Outer
• Photoreceptors (rods & cones)
• Middle
• Bipolar neurons
• Inner
• Ganglion cells (axons join & form optic nerve)

• Light passes through ganglion and bipolar neurons before

reaching photoreceptors

Retinal Layers

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Anatomy of the Eye

• The retina consists of two
types of photoreceptor cells,
rods and cones
• Rods are abundant in the
periphery of the retina whereas
cones are found more frequently
in the central areas

Anatomy of the Eye

• Each eye contains ≈ 120 million rod-

shaped photoreceptors that are

adapted for a low light threshold
(high sensitivity) - they produce low
resolution, black and white images
• a loss of rods with age makes it difficult to

drive at night

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Anatomy of the Eye

• Cone-shaped photoreceptors function in bright light to

produce high resolution color images

• They exists in three varieties,

corresponding to the type of

pigment they contain: red, green or blue
• The photopigments are concentrated in

the outer segment of the receptor, while the

inner segment contains the
nucleus and organelles

Retina
• The exact center of the retina is called the macula lutea, and
in its center is a small depression called the central fovea (or
fovea centralis)
• There are no rods or nerve cells in the fovea, only a high
concentration of cones - this gives us the sharp central
vision
• Optic disc - back of retina, site where nerve fibers leave
retina
•Central retinal artery
enters and central
retinal vein exits
• BLIND SPOT
•CONTAINS NO
PHOTORECEPTORS

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The Pupillary Response

• The pupil is an opening in the center of the iris. It is

composed of a radial muscle that “radiates” away from the

center, and a circular muscle that is in the center
• Contraction of the inner circular muscle fibers (bright light) cause the

pupil to constrict
• Contraction of the radial

Fibers (dim light) causes

it to dilate

Accommodation
• Ability to adjust strength (shape) of lens in order to focus
both near and far sources on retina
• Controlled by ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments

• Normal image formation depends on refraction of light

waves, accommodation of the lens, constriction of the
pupil, and convergence of the two eyes

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Refraction : Focusing Light

•Refraction is the bending of light rays in order for
them to be focused on the retina
•Refraction occurs when light reaches the cornea
and again when it reaches the lens
•This is the basis for corrective measures for vision

Refraction
• If the shape of the eye is normal, light waves are focused
sharply on the retina
• Image detected on retina is upside down & backward
because of bending of light rays
• Image is interpreted correctly in visual cortex

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Refraction Disorders
• Myopia
• Nearsightedness
• Light focused in front of
retina
• Corrected with concave
lens
• Hyperopia
• Farsightedness
• Light focused behind
retina
• Corrected with convex
lens

HOW DOES THE BRAIN

INTERPRET WHAT WE
SEE?

Light must reach photoreceptors in retina

and be transformed into electrical (neural)
signals in the CNS

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Visual Transduction
• The first step in visual transduction is absorption of light by
a photopigment, a colored protein that undergoes
structural changes when it
absorbs light in the outer
segment of a photoreceptor
•Light absorption initiates
a series of events that
lead to the production
of a receptor potential
(number 4 in the diagram)

Phototransduction
• Conversion of light stimuli into neural signals
• Mechanism same for all photoreceptors
• Occurs in bright light

1. Photopigment absorbs light & breaks down to 2

components
2. Hyperpolarizes rods/cones
3. Decrease in release of inhibitory neurotransmitter

• What is the effect in dim light?

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HOW DOES THE RETINA SIGNAL THE

BRAIN IF PHOTOTRANSDUCTION
INVOLVES AN INHIBITORY
NEUROTRANSMITTER?

• Prevent release of inhibitory neurotransmitter =

Excitation

• Light: remove inhibitory NT = Excite

• Dark: presence of inhibitory NT = Inhibition

Visual Pathway
• Fibers partially cross
over in optic chiasm
• Right half of brain
interprets image from left
eye and vice versa
• How does this affect
damage to a particular
area of optic pathway?

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Structure of Eye: Anterior to Posterior

• Cornea
• Aqueous Humor
• Iris
• Pupil
• Lens
• Vitreous Humor in Posterior Cavity
• Retina
• Choroid (continues anteriorly to form ciliary body)
• Sclera

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PATHWAY OF LIGHT
• OPTIC NERVE
• CORNEA • OPTIC CHIASM
• AQUEOUS HUMOR • OPTIC TRACT
• LENS • THALAMUS
• VITREOUS HUMOR • PRIMARY VISUAL
• PHOTORECEPTORS CORTEX OF
OF RETINA OCCIPITAL CORTEX

Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium

• The ear is the organ of hearing

•The ear also contains receptors for equilibrium

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The Ear
• The ear has 3 principle regions
• The external ear, which uses air to collect and channel sound waves

• The middle ear, which uses a

bony system to amplify

sound vibrations
• The internal ear, which

generates action potentials to transmit

sound and balance information to the brain

Auditory & Vestibular Sense

External Ear: auricle (pinna)
external auditory meatus
Middle Ear: tympanic membrane
ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
tympanic cavity
Eustachian tube
Inner Ear: oval window
cochlea
vestibule
semicircular canals

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Fig 12.9

Anatomy of Ear

HEARING
HEARING &
BALANCE
ONLY

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Anatomy of Ear
Why do we need earwax???
• Divided into 3 regions:
Earwax protects
• External, delicate
Middle, lining of meatus
Internal
(auditory canal) and helps prevent
• External Ear
microorganisms from entering the ear
• Auricle (pinna) and Auditory Canal
• Ceruminous Glands in canal secrete
earwax
• Tympanic membrane - eardrum

Anatomy of Ear

• Middle Ear
• Tympanic Cavity – air filled, mucosa-
lined
• Eustachian Tube – connects to
throat
• Auditory ossicles (tiny bones) –
hammer, Pressure
anvil, build up
Swallowing stirrup Eustacian tube

yawning
“VALSALVA”
THROAT

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Otitis media
• Middle ear
inflammation
• Common with sore
throat in children
• Enlarge, inflamed
http://www.petearclinic.com/images_video.htm
eardrum
• Pus, fluid build up
requires incision and
tubes to relieve
pressure and drain

http://apps.uwhealth.org/health/hie/2/19596.htm

External Ear
• auricle (pinna)
• collects sounds waves

• external auditory meatus

• directs sound waves
toward tympanic
membrane
• lined with ceruminous
glands & hairs
• terminates with
tympanic
membrane
12-25

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Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity

• air-filled space in temporal bone
• tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• vibrates in response to sound
waves
• auditory ossicles
• vibrate in response to
tympanic membrane
• vibrations are concentrated
and amplified by ossicles
• malleus, incus, and stapes
• Vibration of ossicles causes
movement of fluid in inner ear

Eustachian (Auditory) Tube

• connects tympanic
cavity (middle ear
cavity) to nasopharynx
• helps maintain equal
pressure on both sides
of tympanic membrane
• usually closed by
valve-like flaps in
throat

12-27

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Eustachian Tubes: Air Pressure Changes

• Traveling from high altitude to low altitude causes an ↑

in air pressure outside tympanic membrane
• Pushes tympanic membrane inward
• Swallowing, yawning or chewing allow valves in throat to open,
air enters tube and equalizes pressure on inside of eardrum
• “popping sound”

Middle Ear Infections

• Mucous membranes lining eustachian tube are
continuous with lining of middle ear
• Passageway for bacteria from throat or nasal passages
to middle ear
• Children have shorter eustachian tubes, so
infection more frequent in children
• Insertion of ‘tubes’ through tympanic membrane
into eustachian tube allows ears to drain

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Inner Ear
• Complex system of intercommunicating chambers and
tubes called a labyrinth
•
• Osseous labyrinth
• bony canal in temporal bone filled with fluid perilymph

• Membranous labyrinth
• tube that lies within osseous labyrinth
• filled with fluid endolymph

Inner Ear:
Labyrinths

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Inner Ear

Oval window – entrance to

inner ear, covered by stapes

3 Parts of Labyrinths
• cochlea
• functions in hearing
• semicircular canals
• functions in
equilibrium
• vestibule
• functions in hearing
and equilibrium
12-29

Cochlea
• Coiled tubular system
• 3 fluid filled longitudinal
compartments
• Scala vestibuli
• Cochlear Duct
• Scala tympani
• Helicotrema – apex
where fluid in top and
bottom is continuous

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Sense of Hearing: Cochlea

Scala vestibuli
• upper bony compartment of labyrinth
• leads from oval window to apex of spiral
• filled with perilymph

Scala tympani
• lower bony compartment of labyrinth
• extends from apex of the cochlea to round window
• filled with perilymph

These are separated by cochlear duct filled with endolymph

Inner Ear: Cochlea

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Sense of Hearing: Cochlea

Cochlear duct
• portion of membranous
labyrinth within cochlea
• filled with endolymph
Vestibular membrane
• forms roof of cochlear
duct
Basilar membrane
• forms floor of cochlear
duct
• Sense organ for
hearing located here
12-31

Cochlear Anatomy

• Scala vestibuli
• Vestibular membrane
• Cochlear duct
• Basilar membrane
• Floor of cochlear duct
• Organ of Corti located
here
• Scala tympani

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Sense of Hearing: Organ of Corti

• Organ of Corti is located

on the upper surface of the
basilar membrane
• Hearing receptor cells are
located on the organ of
Corti
• Hair cells covered by a
tectorial membrane
• These receptors are
mechanoreceptors

Inner Ear or Bony Labryinth

 A maze of bony chambers within the
temporal bone
 Cochlea
 Upper chamber
is the scala
vestibuli
 Lower chamber
is the scala
tympani
 Vestibule
 Semicircular
canals

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Organ of Corti
 Located within the cochlea
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane

Scala vestibuli

Scala tympani

Organ of Corti
 Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells (endolymph in the
membranous labyrinth of the cochlear duct
flows over it and pushes on the membrane)
Scala vestibuli

Scala tympani

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Organs of Hearing
 Organ of Corti
 Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex
on temporal lobe
Scala vestibuli

Scala tympani

Mechanisms of Hearing
 Vibrations from
sound waves
move tectorial
membrane (pass
through the
endolymph fluid
filling the
membranous
labyrinth in the
cochlear duct)
 Hair cells are bent
by the membrane

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Mechanisms of Hearing
 An action potential
starts in the cochlear
nerve
 The signal is
transmitted to the
midbrain (for
auditory reflexes
and then directed to
the auditory cortex
of the temporal
lobe)

Mechanisms of Hearing

Continued stimulation can lead

to adaptation (over
stimulation to the brain
makes it stop interpreting
the sounds)

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Movement of Sound
• Vibrations of ossicles in middle ear cause movement of
fluid in inner ear
• Results in vibrations of basilar membrane, and bending of
hair cells on Organ of Corti
• Hair cells bend against tectorial membrane

• Nerve impulse initiated on cochlear branch of CN VIII

Auditory Pathway
• Vibrations to basilar membrane
• Hair receptor cells bend against tectorial membrane
• Ca++ enters receptor cells
• Neurotransmitter from hair cells released to outside
• Stimulates nearby sensory fibers
• NI carried along cochlear branch of Vestibulocochlear
nerve (CNVIII)
• Medulla Oblongata (fibers cross-over here)
• Thalamus
• Temporal Cortex
• Impulses from each ear interpreted on both sides of
brain

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The Sense of Hearing:

Auditory Nerve Pathways

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Sound Pathway
• Auricle, External Auditory Meatus
• Tympanic Membrane, Malleus, Incus, Stapes
(through oval window to)
• Perilymph of scala vestibuli, vestibular membrane
• Endolymph of cochlear duct
• Hair cells of Organ of Corti. NT released &
stimulates sensory neuron
• Travels along Cochlear branch of
vestibulocochlear nerve (CNVIII)
• Medulla to Thalamus to
• Primary auditory cortex of temporal lobe

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Hearing Loss
• Conductive
• Interference with transmission of vibrations to inner ear
• Physical blockage, eardrum rupture, middle ear
infections, restriction of ossicle movement
• Can be treated with hearing aids
• Sensorineural
• Sound waves transmitted, no neural processing
• Damage to Vestibulocochlear Nerve or cochlea
• Can sometimes be treated with cochlear implants

Sense of Equilibrium

• Feeling of equilibrium is derived from two senses

• Involves semicircular canals & vestibule
• Vestibule connects semicircular canals to cochlea

Static Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium

• senses • senses rotation and
movement of movement of head when
head when body they suddenly move or
is still rotate
• vestibule • Semicircular canals

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Sense of Static Equilibrium: Vestibule

• Receptor cells send

info along vestibular
branch of CN VIII

•Motor impulses are

then sent out to help
maintain balance

Vestibular Sense: How the body handles

movement
• Sensory receptors in inner ear give you information about
movement, gravity and vibration
• Keeps you upright when you bend or rotate the head (postural
adjustments)

• Quick start and stop movements give very intense

vestibular stimulation

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Vestibular Input
• Jumping up and down
• Running
• Swinging
• Spinning

• Vestibular system is the primary organizer of sensory

input

Hearing Loss
The following factors contribute to age-related
hearing loss:

• Family history (tends to run in families)

• Repeated exposure to loud noises
• Smoking (smokers are more likely to have such hearing
loss than nonsmokers)

Certain medical conditions and medications also

contribute to age-related hearing loss. About half of
all people over age 75 have some amount of age-
related hearing loss.

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AHSANTE SAANA
Success In Your Forthcoming Exams

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