FLOW MEASUREMENTS

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 Flow Measurement

The main measurements that can be made with process flows:

- Velocity
- Volumetric flow
- Mass flow

Velocity
Velocity is the speed at which the fluid moves. This by itself does not give any information
about the quantity of fluid.

The volumetric flow rate

Q=v.A

where: v is the velocity

A is the cross sectional area
Q is the volumetric flow rate

The mass flow rate

W=Q.ρ

where: Q is the volumetric flow rate

ρ is the density of the fluid
W is the mass flow rate

THE FLOW ELEMENTS:

1- Orifice meter
2- Flow nozzle meter
3- Venturi tube
4- Variable area flow meter
5- Magnetic flow tube
6- Turbine meter
7-PD meter
8- Ultrasonic flow meter
9- Coriolis meter
10- Vortex meter
11- Insertion-type turbine meter

1- ORIFICE METER

Orifice Plate

A standard orifice plate is simply a smooth disc with a round, sharp-edged inflow aperture
and mounting rings.

In the case of viscous liquids, the upstream edge of the bore can be rounded.

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Orifice Type
There are two main types of orifices for various applications:
- Concentric, square edged
- Concentric, quadrant edged
- Eccentric or segmental square edged

Concentric, square edged

This is the most common and basic type of orifice meter.
The thickness of the orifice plate depends on the following:
- Pipe size
- Flow temperature
- Differential pressure

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Concentric, quadrant edged
This type of orifice plate is used to give increased stability in flow, and is about 10 times
that for conventional plates.

Eccentric or segmental square edged

These are generally used when the process material contains foreign matter that may block
the orifice in the case of a concentric configuration.

Orifice Meter Advantages

- Simple construction.
- Inexpensive.
- Easily fitted between flanges.
- No moving parts.
- Large range of sizes and opening ratios.
- Suitable for most gases and liquids.
- Well understood and proven.
- Price does not increase dramatically with size.

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Orifice Meter Disadvantages
- Inaccuracy, typically 1%.
- Low Rangeability, typically 4:1.
- Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity fluctuations.
- Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects measurement accuracy.
- Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Viscosity limits measuring range.
- Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is maintained.
- Pipeline must be full (typically for liquids).

2.0 NOZZLE FLOW METER

Flow Nozzles
The Flow Nozzle has a shape of an ellipse. They have a higher flow capacity than orifice
plates. Another main difference between the flow nozzle and the venturi is that although
they have similar inlet nozzles, the flow nozzle has no exit section.

Advantages
- High velocity applications.
- Operate in higher turbulence.
- Used with fluids containing suspended solids.
- More cost effective than venturis.
- Physically smaller than the venturi.

Disadvantages
- More expensive than orifice plates.
- Higher unrecoverable pressure loss.
3.0 VENTURI TUBE FLOW METER

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In a, the fluid is accelerated through a nozzle shaped inflow piece (converging cone) which
induces a local pressure drop. After passing through the cylindrical restriction, it is released
through an expanding section (diffuser) where it returns the flow to near its original
pressure.

Advantages
- Less significant pressure drop across restriction.
- Less unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Requires less straight pipe up and downstream.

Disadvantages
- More expensive.
- Bulky - requires large section for installation.

4.0 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METER

Principles of Operation

Variable Area flowmeters work with low

viscous liquids at high velocities.

The principle of operation is that the flow

stream displaces a float placed in the stream.

The rate of flow is related to the area produced

by forcing the float up or down, and varying
the area.

The rotameter

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The rotameter consists of a tapered measuring tube and a float.

The float positions itself vertically within the measuring tube such
that the resistance value is balanced.

The inside of the measuring tube is conical and has guide strips
for the float.

For physical indication, there is a scale on the outside to indicate

the flow rate.

A number of various floats are available. The rotating float is used for direct control.

5.0 MAGNETIC FLOW TUBE METER

Basis of Operation
Electromagnetic flowmeters, also known as magmeters, use Faradays’ law of
electromagnetic induction to sense the velocity of fluid flow.

Faradays law states that moving a conductive material at right angles through a magnetic
field induces a voltage proportional to the velocity of the conductive material.

The conductive material in the case of a magmeter is the conductive fluid.

The fluid therefore must be electrically conductive, but not magnetic.

The fluid passes through a magnetic field induced by coils that are positioned around a
section of pipe.

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The process fluid is electrically insulated from the pipe with a suitable lining, in the case of
a metal pipe, so that the generated voltage is not dissipated through the pipeline. The
electrodes are located in the pipe and a voltage is generated across these electrodes that
is directly proportional to the average velocity
of the liquid passing through the magnetic field.

The coils are energised with ac power or pulsed

dc voltage, so consequently the magnetic field
and resultant induced voltage responds accordingly. The generated voltage
is protected from interference, amplified and
converted into a dc current signal by the
transmitter. Line voltage variations are
accounted for by the sensing circuits.
The lining of the meter piping must also be lined with an insulating material to prevent
short-circuiting of the electric field.

Advantages
- No restrictions to flow.
- No pressure loss.
- No moving parts.
- Good resistance to erosion.
- Independent of viscosity, density, pressure and turbulence.
- Good accuracy.
- Bi-directional.
- Large range of flow rates and diameters.

Disadvantages
- Expensive.
- Most require a full pipeline.
- Limited to conductive liquids.

6.0 TURBIN FLOW METER

Turbine meters have

rotor-mounted Blades
that rotate when a fluid
Pushes against them.

They work on the

reverse concept
to a propeller system.

Whereas in a propeller
system, the propeller
drives the flow, in this
case the flow drives and rotates the propeller. Since it is no longer propelling the fluid, it is
now called a turbine.

The rotational speed of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

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Turbine meters require a good laminar flow. In fact 10 pipe diameters of straight line
upstream and no less than 5 pipe diameters downstream from the meter are required.
They are not recommended for use with high viscosity fluids due to the high friction of the
fluid which causes excessive losses as the turbine becomes too much of an obstruction.

Advantages
- High accuracy, repeatability and Rangeability for a defined viscosity and measuring
range.
- Temperature range of fluid measurement: -220oC to +350oC.
- Very high-pressure capability: 9300psi.
- Measurement of non-conductive liquids.
- Capability of heating measuring device..
- Suitable for very low flow rates.

Disadvantages
- Not suitable for high viscous fluids.
- Viscosity must be known.
- 10 diameter upstream and 5 diameter downstream of straight pipe is required.
- Not effective with swirling fluids.
- Only suitable for clean liquids and gases.
- Pipe system must not vibrate.
- Specifications critical for measuring range and viscosity.

7.0 PD METER

Positive displacement meters measure flow rate by repeatedly passing a known quantity of
fluid from the high to low pressure side of the device in a pipe.

The number of times the known quantity is passed gives information about the totalised
flow.

The rate at which it is passed is the volumetric flow rate. Because they pass a known
quantity, they are ideal for certain fluid batch, blending and custody transfer applications.

They give very accurate information and are generally used for production and accounting
purposes.

7.1 Rotary vane

Spring loaded vanes slide in and out of a channel in a rotor so that they make constant
contact with the eccentric cylinder wall. When the rotor turns, a known volume of fluid is
trapped between the two vanes and the outer wall. The flow rate is based on volume per
revolution.

The piston type is suitable for accurately measuring small volumes and is not affected by
viscosity. Limitations with this device are due to leakage and pressure loss.

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7.2 Lobed impeller

This type of meter uses two lobed impellers, which are geared and meshed to rotate at
opposite directions within the enclosure. A known volume of fluid is transferred for each
revolution.

The lobed impeller meter is often used with gases.

Advantages
- High operating pressures, up to 8Mpa.
- High temperatures, up to 200oC.

Disadvantages
- Poor accuracy at low flow rates.
- Bulky and heavy.
- Expensive.

7.3 Oval gear meters

Two oval gears are intermeshed and trap fluid between themselves and the outer walls of
the device. The oval gears rotate due to the pressure from the fluid and a count of
revolutions determines the volume of fluid moving through the device.

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Positive displacement meters measure volumetric flow rate directly by dividing a stream
into distinct segments of known volume, counting segments and multiplying by the volume
of each segment.

Advantages
- High accuracy of 0.25%
- High operating pressures, up to 10MPa
- High temperatures, up to 300oC
- Wide range of materials of construction

Disadvantages
- Pulsations caused by alternate drive action

8.0 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

There are two types of ultrasonic flow measurement:
- Transit time measurement
- Doppler effect

The fundamental difference is that the transit-time method should be used for clean fluids,
while the Doppler reflection type used for dirty, slurry type flows.

8.1 Transit time

The transit-time flowmeter device sends pulses of ultrasonic energy diagonally across the
pipe. The transit-time is measured from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the
receiver detects the pulse.

Each location contains a transmitter and receiver. The pulses are sent alternatively
upstream and downstream and the velocity of the flow is calculated from the time difference
between the two directions.

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8.2 Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect device relies on objects with varying density in the flow stream to return
the ultrasonic energy. With the Doppler effect meter, a beam of ultrasonic energy is
transmitted diagonally through the pipe. Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected
back from particles in the stream of varying density. Since the objects are moving, the
reflected ultrasonic energy has a different frequency. The amount of difference between the
original and returned signals is proportional to the flow velocity. It is quite common for only
one sensor to be used. This contains both the transmitter and receiver. These can also be
mounted outside of the pipe.

Summary - General

Most ultrasonic flowmeters are mounted on the outside of the pipe and thus operate without
coming in contact with the fluid. Apart from not obstructing the flow, they are not affected by
corrosion, erosion or viscosity. Most ultrasonic flowmeters are bi-directional, and sense flow
in either direction.

Advantages
- Suitable for large diameter pipes.
- No obstructions, no pressure loss.
- No moving parts, long operating life.
- Fast response.
- Installed on existing installations.
- Not affected by fluid properties.

Disadvantages
- Accuracy is dependent on flow profile.
- Fluid must be acoustically transparent.
- Errors cause by build up in pipe.
- Only possible in limited applications.
- Expensive.
- Pipeline must be full.

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9.0 CORIOLIS METER

The Coriolis Effect

The basis of the Coriolis meter is Newtons’ Second Law of Motion, where: Force = Mass x
Acceleration.
The conventional way to measure the mass of an object is to weigh it. In weighing, the
force is measured with a known acceleration (9.81m/sec2). This type of measuring principle
is not easy or possible with fluids in motion, particularly in a pipe.
However, it is possible to manipulate the above formula and apply a known force and
measure, instead, the acceleration to determine the mass.

The Coriolis effect causes a retarding force

on a rotating section of pipe when flow is
moving outward, conversely producing an
advance on the section of pipe for flow
moving towards the axis of rotation.

Advantages
- Direct, in-line mass flow measurement.
- Independent of temperature, pressure,
density, conductivity and viscosity.
- Sensor capable of transmitting mass flow, density and temperature information.
- High density capability.
- Conductivity independent.
- Suitable for hydrocarbon measurements.
- Suitable for density measurement.

Disadvantages
- Cost.
- Affected by vibration.
- Installation costs.
- Adjustment of zero point.

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10.0 VORTEX METER
Vortex flowmeters can measure liquid, gas or steam and use the principle of vortex
shedding. Vortex shedding occurs when an obstruction is placed in the flowing stream. The
obstruction is referred to as a bluff body and causes the formation of swirls, called vortices,
downstream from the body. Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed
and shed.

This pressure variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to
the vortex shedding. For continuous flow, a series of vortices generates electrical pulses
with a frequency that is also proportional to the flow velocity. The velocity can then be
converted to volumetric flow rate.

11.0 INSERTION-TYPE TURBINE METER

The Turbine Insertion Flow Meter bodies are

machined from solid rod for maximum precision.

For Insertion Turbine Flowmeters, the rotation of the

rotor is detected by a non-drag Hall-effect sensor.
The Insertion Turbine Flowmeter's output is a
pulse-type square wave, which can be sent long
distances (up to 2,000 feet) without a transmitter.
This signal can be connected directly to PLC's,
counters, and computer cards.

Turbine Insertion Flow Meters are ideal for chemical

proportioning applications. For rate and total display,
as well as pump pacing, the flow indicator
can be mounted directly on the Insertion Turbine
Flowmeter. The transmitter 4-20mA analog output
can be mounted directly onto the meter.

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The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an
electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current.

Flowmeter Selection

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