University of Yangon

Department of English

Naga Tribes in Myanmar

By

Roll No. Name Roll No. Name

Eng-I-17 Win Thiri Aung
Eng-I-4 Aye Aye Phyo
Eng-I-38 Hnin Htet Aung
Eng-I-5 Thadar Lynn
Eng-I-48 Hsu Myat Noe
Eng-I-6 Sein Si Tun
Eng-I
Eng-I-9 Hsu Myat Snow
Eng-I-
Eng-I-11 Yoon Po Po Aung
Eng-I-
Eng-I-15 Aung Myo Hset
 CONTENTS

Page

Abstract 1

Introduction 2

History 3

Culture
4

Religion and beliefs 5

Languages and Dialects 6

Geography 7

Economy 8

Living standard 9

Conclusion 11
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this assignment is to get mutual regarding its diverse indigenous
tribes, vibrant culture, isolating thoughts and assumptions, and multicultural society
comprehending that Naga clans are also one of Myanmar ethnic groups. In this
assignment, you will be fed with seven contents: Naga tribes’ history, Geography of
Naga Region, Naga people and Religion, Naga tribes and culture, Living standard of
Naga People, Ecology of Naga, and Global Recognition. Nagas is various ethnic
groups native to northeastern India and northwestern Myanmar. The groups have
similar cultures and tradition, and form the majority of population in the Indian state
of Nagaland and Naga Self-Administered Zone of Myanmar [Burma]; with significant
populations in Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in India; Sagaing Region and
Kachin State in Myanmar. The Naga territory in Myanmar is marked by Kabaw valley
in the south bordering to the Chin State, the Kachin on the north and the Burmese on
the east. The major Naga ethnic groups in Myanmar are Konyak [Chin]. Although
there are many ethnic groups in Myanmar, Naga is special because people of Naga
face challenges related to modernization, development and preserving their cultural
heritage. It is essential to approach discussion about Naga ethnics with cultural
sensitivity and an understanding of diversity within Naga communities. Nagas speak
dozens of languages. Naga ethnics in Myanmar stand as a testament to the resilience
of a community deeply connected to oral traditions, spirituality, community centric
values, and adaptability to change a unique ethical demonstration of Naga. Many
authorities on Naga wrote that Naga are amicable, hospitable and humorous. In
addition, Nagas loves democracy, equality, and freedom in their life.

Introduction

Myanmar is home to a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, each with its own unique
customs, languages, and traditions. The diversity of cultures, including those of the
Bamar, Shan, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and others, adds to the country's cultural richness.
Among them Naga ethnics have many unique features. The term "Naga" typically
refers to a group of Tibeto-Burman-speaking peoples who inhabit the mountainous
regions of Northeast India and Northwestern Myanmar. The Naga people are known
for their distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. In Myanmar, the Naga people
have their own set of ethics and lifestyles, shaped by their historical, cultural, and
social context.

History

The origin of Naga is not known exactly. Some believe that they must be from China
that migrated south of the Himalayas. The first record of China people in India is from
around the 10th century BC. Based on Linguistic evidence, it is believed that the
Nagas and other Indians of Chinese descent originated in a region between the Yellow
and Yangtze rivers in Northwestern China and arrived in India in several waves of
migrations that took place over several centuries. Their original settlements were
around Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers in Burma. There were contacts between Aryan
tribes and tribes of Chinese descent. The Chinese tribes were not homogeneous. They
spoke a number of languages and had a number of different customs and social
structures. Many years later, they migrated out from their early settlements in Burma
into Assam, the Kachan Hills and what is now Nagaland. From 1228 to the British
annexation of the region, when Assam was ruled by Ahom, the Nagas were pretty
much on their own but they did have contacts with the Ahom and this contact took
many different forms. Nagas that lived on plains near the Ahom paid an annual tribute
to the Ahom which gave them free access to land and fisheries in return for retaining
from staying raids in Ahom territory. The Ahom occasionally staged raids into Naga
territory but they weren’t able to bring the region under their control. Inn 1820, the
British added Assam to the East India Company’s territories. The Nagas have never
considered themselves part of India. On august 14, 1947, one day before India and
Pakistan gained independence, Naga leaders in Naga National Council (NNC)
declared their independence over a church of land in far northeast India that became
known as Nagaland.

Cultures

The Naga people love colour, as is evident in the shawls designed and woven by
women, and in the headgear that both sexes design. Clothing patterns are traditional to
each group, and the clothes are woven by the women. They use beads in variety,
profusion and complexity in their jewellery, along with a wide range of materials
including glass, shell, stone, teeth or tusk, claws, horns, metal, bone, wood, seeds,
hair, and fibre. According to Dr. Verrier Elwin, these groups made all the goods they
used, as was once common in many traditional societies: they have made their own
clothes, their own hats and rain-coats; they have prepared their own medicines, their
own cooking-vessels, their own substitutes for crockery. Craftwork includes the
making of baskets, weaving of cloth, wood carving, pottery, metalwork, jewellery-
making and bead-work.

Weaving of colourful woollen and cotton shawls is a central activity for

women of all Nagas. One of the common features of Naga shawls is that three pieces
are woven separately and stitched together. Weaving is an intricate and time-
consuming work and each shawl takes at least a few days to complete. Designs for
shawls and wraparound garments (commonly called Mekhala) are different for men
and women.

Among many groups the design of the shawl denotes the social status of the
wearer. Some of the more known shawls include Tsüngkotepsü and Rongsü of the
Aos; Sütam, Ethasü, Longpensü of the Lothas; Süpong of the Sangtams, Rongkhim
and Tsüngrem Khim of the Yimkhiungs; and the Angami Lohe shawls with thick
embroidered animal motifs.

Naga jewellery is an equally important part of identity, with the entire

community wearing similar bead jewelry, specifically the neck

Folk songs and dances are essential ingredients of the traditional Naga culture.
The oral tradition is kept alive through the media of folk tales and songs. Naga folk
songs are both romantic and historical, with songs narrating entire stories of famous
ancestors and incidents. Seasonal songs describe activities done in a particular
agricultural cycle. The early Western missionaries opposed the use of folk songs by
Naga Christians as they were perceived to be associated with spirit worship, war, and
immorality. As a result, translated versions of Western hymns were introduced,
leading to the slow disappearance of indigenous music from the Naga hills.

Folk dances of the Nagas are mostly performed in groups in synchronized

fashion, by both men and women, depending on the type of dance. Dances are usually
performed at festivals and religious occasions. War dances are performed mostly by
men and are athletic and martial in style. All dances are accompanied by songs and
war cries by the dancers. Indigenous musical instruments made and used by the
people are Tati, bamboo mouth organs, bamboo flutes, trumpets, drums made of cattle
skin and log drums.

Traditional Costumes

The traditional costumes worn in Nagaland are a lot different from the other states of
India. The inhabitants of the state give a lot of weight age to their culture, traditions,
and costumes and feel that costumes are what identifies them and separate them from
the rest of the crowd. The dresses that people wear here are colourful and vibrant. An
important item which the people of Nagaland adorn is a shawl. The beautiful shawls
are amongst the most popular traditional dresses of the place. These shawls are
separately designed for every tribe to be able to differentiate between them easily.
These categories are further divided into categories and sub-categories narrowing
down the designs for each one of them. The shawl is also different as per the role of
the person. For example, a person who has carried out any work which is merit
worthy will have a separate shawl as compared to an ordinary man residing in the
village.

It is an Ao warrior shawl which has a variety of figures including those of

Tiger, Mithun, elephant, cock, a human head, and spear on top of it. The shawl is
beautiful and attractive. The figures present on top of the shawl represent some
symbol such as Mithun stands for the wealth of the person wearing it, elephant and
tiger represent the ability of the person to hunt, and the human head stands for the
success of the wearer in taking the number of heads.

Kaksi nei is the dress worn by unmarried boys as well as girls. A newly
married couple wears the Silang nei. Another shawl called Rongkhim which is a kind
of Yimchunger shawl is worn by a person who has killed and taken heads during
wars. Earlier, by just taking a look at the shawl of the one wearing it, a person could
identify his tribe, social status, the village of residence and the number of gennas
performed by him. However, in today's scenario, it is not really possible. Alungstu is
also a traditional costume of Nagaland which is worn by the rich men of the place.
These costumes depict prosperity and success.
Traditional Food

Naga cuisine is an essential part of daily life, with meals typically comprising locally
sourced ingredients. Naga cuisines are devoid of spices and are largely based on the
foodstuffs they find in their surroundings. The Nagas eats varieties of boiled food
without frying in oil. Obviously, maximum proteins and vitamins are retained in their
foods. Most of the Naga dishes are at best flavoured with sprinkles of ginger, a
traditional ‘local chilli (Bhoot Jalukia)’ and a little pork fat to draw out the natural
flavours of the meat. The food plate is always accompanied by a bowl full of seasonal
green vegetables and leaves. It is true that the Nagas up to this era have a good
knowledge of what is edible and nutritious. It ought to be noted that even vegetables
or agricultural produce from the fields are generally organic. But modern culture has
brought in some changes. While emphasis on ‘meat eating’ has remained inherent part
of a Naga dish, somewhere vegetable consumption has reduced. There is also growing
liking for some junk food – burger, noodles and so on. Therefore, Naga food has also
resulted in certain health issues. “Nagas have given up eating vegetables and keeping
the balance on the table. Moreover, the meat consumed by Nagas these days is ‘not
organic’ or found locally. Most of these pigs and chickens are supplied from
commercial units,” says a seasoned state politician and former state Information
Minister Thomas Ngullie. As a result, many diseases have cropped in. A few years
back it was reported that fish supplied from states such as Andhra Pradesh are
sometimes packed with formalin and apparently this has led to growing number of
cancers. Bamboo shoot is a special ingredient given into almost all Naga dishes. But
among all the tribes, ‘Bashtenga (local name for Bamboo shoot) and Pork dishes by
Lotha Nagas – inhabitant of Wokha district- is most popular. It is not without good
reason that the Lotha dishes are very popular in Nagaland and therefore mushrooming
of ‘Lotha Hotels’ along highways within Nagaland is an emerging trend. Lotha Foods
are popular outside Nagaland as well and not without reasons! Naga meals ideally
comprise of boiled vegetable and hot chilli used to make ‘Naga chutney’ (laced with
sprinkles of dry fish). Rice is the staple food for Nagas and in the absence of a culture
of breakfast and snacks eating, often guests would be offered a plate of rice and meat
and rice beer even as early as 0800 hours. Naga food 1 Wheat was ‘foreign’ to Nagas
or rather too much of an ‘Indian phenomenon’ but lately Nagas is taking Rotis in large
numbers, locals say. The Konyak Naga tribesmen of Mon district have folktales to
believe that the rice as a crop was given to them by traditional animist deities. It was
also believed that among Konyaks for long, Taro (collacassia) and locally called
Galhet (in Konyak) were original stable food of the community. But a closer look at
the crops grown by Nagas in general shows a pattern that was similar to the
agricultural practices of the Old World. Anthropological studies from time to time
have revealed that Naga crops or agricultural practices were different from the main
crops in mainland India. For instance, in Naga hills, there is a general practice of
growing of ‘wet rice’ and some of it has similarities in China. The major crops Nagas
produced traditionally were – however – millet, rice and yam. Love for meat eating
among Nagas is so much that in urban areas, one finds hardly birds flying in the open
sky. Even sparrows and crows are rare sites as young Naga boys would be too keen to
bring them down with catapult. Rice is a staple, accompanied by a variety of side
dishes. The cuisine is known for its spicy flavours, often attributed to the use of the
famous Naga chili peppers. Common ingredients include bamboo shoots, fermented
soybeans (akhuni), and dried fish. Meat, including pork, chicken, and occasionally
beef, plays a prominent role in Naga meals. Local herbs and greens are used for
flavouring, creating a distinctive and aromatic cuisine. Food items in Nagaland-
Nagaland’s cuisine is as diverse and vibrant as its culture, with each Naga tribe
offering a unique culinary experience. Here are descriptions of seven traditional
dishes from Nagaland:

1. Smoked Pork with Bamboo Shoot (Sekrenyi Smoked Pork): This iconic Naga dish
combines tender smoked pork with fermented bamboo shoot. The pork is traditionally
smoked over an open fire, imparting a delightful smoky flavour. The addition of
bamboo shoot adds a tangy and earthy note, creating a mouthwatering fusion of
flavours. It’s often enjoyed during festivals like Sekrenyi.

2. Naga Curry (Nakupi Alu): Naga curry is a staple in Naga households. It typically
features pork, chicken, or beef simmered in a spicy and aromatic chili-based curry.
The use of the fiery Naga chili peppers gives the dish its signature heat. It’s often
served with rice or traditional Naga bread called “Kosu.”
3. Bamboo Steamed Fish (Bamboo Fish Curry): Fresh fish is marinated with herbs
and spices, then placed in bamboo tubes and steamed to perfection. This method
imparts a unique smoky flavour and keeps the fish incredibly tender. Various herbs
and spices are used to create a fragrant and flavourful curry, making it a favourite
among the locals.

4. Fermented Soybean (Akhuni): Akhuni is a popular Naga condiment made from

fermented soybeans. It has a pungent aroma and a complex umami taste. Akhuni is
used to enhance the flavour of various dishes, such as stews, chutneys, and even
traditional Naga rice cakes known as “Khao Suey.”

5. Sticky Rice (Zutho and Bamboo Steamed Rice): Sticky rice is a staple in Naga
cuisine, often served with different accompaniments. Zutho is a traditional rice beer
made from fermented sticky rice, and it’s commonly consumed during festivals and
celebrations. Bamboo steamed rice is another variation, where rice is cooked inside
bamboo tubes for a unique flavour.

6. Fermented Bamboo Shoot Salad (Kekhie/Khorisa): This traditional Naga salad

features fermented bamboo shoots mixed with herbs, green chilies, and sometimes
dried fish. The pungent and sour taste of the bamboo shoot is balanced by the heat
from the chilies, resulting in a flavourful and spicy salad.

7. Beef with Bamboo Shoot and Potatoes (Bamboo Beef Curry): This hearty dish
combines tender chunks of beef with bamboo shoots and potatoes in a spicy curry.
The bamboo shoots add a delightful crunch and a unique taste to the dish, while the
spices infuse it with a rich flavour. These are just a few examples of the diverse and
flavourful cuisine that Nagaland has to offer. Naga cuisine is known for its use of
locally sourced ingredients, bold flavours, and a balance of spice and aroma that
makes it a culinary adventure for those willing to explore it.

Religion and Beliefs

The traditional Naga religion is often called “animism”. Animism is the belief in the
existence of spiritual beings inhabiting the natural world. Traditional Naga religion is
however somewhat different from other forms of religion called “animistic” in that
they also believe in gods. All Naga groups know of three types of gods and spirits: a
high, creator God (sometimes there are several), the spirits living in the sky, and the
earth spirits. But gods and spirits usually interfere only indirectly in human affairs,
through influencing positively or negatively the natural cyclical glow of “fertility”.
Sacrifices to gods or spirits are therefor done to ask for their positive intervention in
order to maximise fertility: good harvests, many and healthy children.

The Religious Life

Today, 90% of the Nagas are Christian, most of them Baptists. But although the
missionaries were deliberately trying to replace key institutions and beliefs which
they thought to be incompatible with Christianity, many elements of the traditional
religion and worldview are found also among the Christian Nagas. They have merged
with the new belief to create something new. Therefore, there is no clear-cut division
between them and the so-called “animists”. And the important traditional festivals,
especially those connected to the agricultural cycle, are celebrated by both Christian
and “animist” Nagas. Even though the spiritual meaning may be different, as a social
event they are of the same importance to both. In some villages, Christians also
observe genna, everywhere they consult traditional healers, and the belief in spirits is
very common among all Nagas.

Languages and Dialects

The Origin of Naga Language

Nagamese primarily developed as a lingua franca because of the

contact in the barter trade centres in the plains of Assam between members of
different Naga linguistic group communicating with Assamese traders and one
another. Naga people speak languages and dialects that are part of Tibeto-Burma
family. Most of the Naga languages belong to the Kuki-Chin Subgroup of the Kuki-
Naga Group of the Tibeto-Burman family of languages.

Different Dialects

According to Ethnologic database, there are approximately 20 languages

spoken in Nagaland. The Naga languages are a geographic and ethnic grouping of
Kuki-Chin-Naga languages, spoken mostly by Naga peoples.
Nagas are various ethnic groups native to northeastern India and northwestern
Myanmar. They are divided into various minor ethnic groups whose numbers and
populations are unclear. They each speak distinct Naga languages often unintelligible
to the others, but all are loosely connected to each other.

Geography of Naga Region

The Naga people are an ethnic group primarily residing in the northeastern regions of
India and northwestern Myanmar. In Myanmar, they are mainly found in the Naga
Self-Administered Zone, which is part of the Sagaing Region. The Naga Self-
Administered Zone was established in 2010 as part of Myanmar's efforts to address
the ethnic diversity and demands for self-administration within the country.

Geographically, the Naga Self-Administered Zone is situated in the mountainous

region near the border between India and Myanmar. It is characterized by rugged
terrain, dense forests, and a predominantly hilly landscape. The region is part of the
larger Naga Hills, which extend across the border into the Indian states of Nagaland,
Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.

The Naga Hills are known for their rich biodiversity, with a variety of flora and fauna
adapted to the diverse ecosystems of the region. The terrain includes deep valleys,
high mountain ranges, and numerous rivers and streams.

The Naga people have a distinct cultural identity, with various tribes within the larger
Naga ethnic group, each having its own traditions, languages, and customs.
Agriculture is a significant part of their livelihood, and they cultivate crops such as
rice, maize, millet, and vegetables in the hillside terraces.

Weather

The weather in the area where the Naga people live, especially in the Naga Hills, is
influenced by the landscape and height. The climate in this area is generally described
as subtropical or temperate, with changes in temperature and rainfall throughout the
year. Here are some basic features of the weather in the Naga Hills region:

Seasonal Changes:
  Warm Season (March to June): The weather is generally warm during these
months, with higher daytime temperatures and relatively dry conditions.

 Monsoon Season (June to September): This season brings heavy rain to the
region. The hills and valleys receive a lot of rainfall during this time, leading
to green landscapes. The rain is essential for farming, but it can also cause
landslides in hilly areas.

 Autumn (October to November): After the monsoon, the weather starts getting
cooler. Autumn is characterized by milder temperatures and less rainfall. It's a
good time for outdoor activities and festivals.

 Cool Season (December to February): Winters in the Naga Hills are cool to
cold, especially at higher elevations. However, it's not extremely cold
compared to some other areas. The weather is generally dry during the winter
months.

Effect of Height:

 The Naga Hills have different elevations, and this affects the local climate.
Higher areas tend to be cooler than lower regions, and temperature differences
can be seen across the hills.

Diversity of Plant and Animal Life:

 The varied climate and landscape contribute to the rich variety of plants and
animals in the region. The Naga Hills are home to different plant and animal
species adapted to various environments.

Economy

About 120,000 people live in the Naga Self-Administered Zone in Sagaing

Division, where they survive mainly by subsistence farming and hunting. The
Naga grows cops on terraces and “jhum” (land slashed, cleared and burned from
the forest). Jhum land is generally cleared and burned and used for two years and
allowed to return to jungle. The Angami use jhum farming and terracing on steep
hillsides. The terraces are used to grow rice and are irrigated using channels and
bamboo pipes to direct water from a stream into the terrace. The main staple crops
are rice and millet. Job’s ear maize, great millet, beans, oil seeds, gourds,
cucumbers, chilies, spinach, mustard “kachu” (a kind of taro) are also commonly
grown. Cotton and jute are raised for clothing. Wood and bamboo are used for
housing, fires and tools. Grass is exploited for thatching. The primary agricultural
tools are axes, spades, hoes, mattocks, rakes, sickles and a marking sticks.

Naga tribes are historically known as warriors who kept the heads of enemies
they killed. Hunters in the village will display the skulls of animals they have
killed during hunting expeditions outside their homes, but some cultural practices
are changing – younger men, for example, now wear trousers rather than
traditional loincloths.

The Naga traditionally fish with nets, or by crushing up poisonous leaves to kill
fish that float near the surface. But these days, some throw homemade explosives
in the river and collect fish with their teeth. Naga fishermen are noted for the use
of intoxicants to kill or incapacitate fish.

Other practices have remained, such as harvesting opium.

The opium is gathered from nearby poppy fields and is mostly kept for local
consumption, although some is traded for goods such as clothing or household
items.

While the women do not smoke opium, most men in the area do. During hunting
trips in an opium field, the Naga men will cook raw opium by spreading it on a
cloth to dry and then heating it with water to create a paste

Living Standard

The living standard of Naga people is influenced by unique cultural traditions,

geographical location and other historical contexts.

Housing: Traditional Naga houses are often built using locally available materials
such as bamboo and thatch. These houses are designed to withstand the regional
weather conditions.

Relationship between elders and youths: Respect for elders is a significant aspect
of Naga ethnic. Elders are main roles in social communities of Naga. Their
guidelines and advices are highly value. Naga communities have traditional
leadership structures which based on age, experience, and contribution to the
community. Elders often serves as village Chiefs or members of councils.

Education: There are two kinds of aspect in education of Naga: formal learning
and informal learning. In formal learning, Local elders or teachers may provide
basic education subjects which are prescribed by the government. In informal
learning, Elders are instrumentals in teaching younger members of their
communities about their cultural values, traditions and ethical segments through
storytelling or oral traditions.

It is important to recognize that in Naga, there are numerous subgroups with

unique costumes, languages and ways of life. Additionally, the political and social
impact of Myanmar can effect of life styles of Naga people. So, their living
standard may be changed in future.