CONTENT

l.ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic structure 2
Periodic table 5
Electronic configuration 7
Isotopes 9
Transition metals 11
2.BONDING
Ionic bond 14
Simple covalent bond 18
Giant covalent structures 21
Metallic bond 23
3.ACID AND BASE
Acids 26
Bases 28
pH scales 29
Indicators 30
Types of oxides 31
4.REDOX
Concept of Redox 34
Oxidizing agents 36
Reducing agents 37
Ionic equation 37
5.STATES OF MATTER
States of matter 40
Heating curve 42
Cooling curve 44
The kinetic theory 46
Diffusion 46
Brownian movement 48
6.SEPARATION TECHNIQUE
Solubility 50
Separation of solid from solution 51
Separation of liquid from solution 53
Separation of gases 53
Separation of immiscible liquids 53
Chromatography 53
Preparation of salts 56
7.ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis of molten compounds 64
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 65
Applications of electrolysis 69
Extraction of Aluminum 70
Simple cell 72
8.METALS .

Physical properties of metals 77

Reactivity series 78
Group ( I ) metals 80
Group ( II ) metals 82
Thermal decomposition 83
Rusting 84
Extraction of Iron 86
Extraction of zinc 90
Extraction of copper 91
9.AIR AND WATER
Water 93
Air 95
Acid rain 97
Catalytic converter 98
Fuel cell 99
Types of fuels 100
10.IDENTIFICATION OF IONS .

Classification of gases 102

Test of gases 103
Test of anions 104
Test of cations 105
Flame test 106
11.RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION _
Measuring rate of reaction 108
Factors affecting the rate of reaction 111
12.ENERGY OF REACTION .

Examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions 121

Activation energy Ea 124
13.REVERSIBLE REACTION .

Examples of reversible reaction 126

Shifting equilibrium 127
14.Non -metals
Halogens group ( VII ) 131
Noble gases group ( VIII ) 133
Carbonates 134
Nitrogen 135
Sulfur 138

15.MOLES
Mole 143
Avogadro constant 144
Moles of solids 147
Moles of liquids 150
Moles gases 152
16.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Alkanes 157
Alkenes 161
Alcohols 165
Carboxylic acids 169
Fossil fuel 172
Cracking 174
Polymerization 175
17. Definitions & equations & colors and uses
Definitions 185
Equations 193
Colours 208
Uses 211
1- Atomic Structure

1
! - ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 1
Atomic structure
The Atomic Structure:

• An element is a substance that contains only one kind of atom.

• Atoms are the smallest particles. Each atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of particles called
electrons that whizz around the nucleus.

• It was discovered that an atom is made up of three types of sub-atomic particles; these are
protons, neutrons and electrons.

S Protons, Neutrons and electrons are said to be subatomic particles

S In the centre of an atom, there is a Nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons and that
is why protons and neutrons are defined as Nucleons
S Around the nucleus there are energy shells in which there are electrons are always orbiting
around the nucleus in the energy shells

energy levels
- electrons move nucleus of atom
around nucleus - contain protons
in definite and neutrons,
energy levels or collectively known
electron shells as nucleons

Particle Symbol Relative mass Charge

Proton P 1 +1

Neutron n 1 nil

Electron e- 1/1840 -1

2
 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

These physical properties tell us several facts:

• The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus; this is because the mass of an electron is
negligible,

• An atom is also neutral; this is because it always contains as much positive protons as negative
electrons.

• The mass of the sub-atomic particles is in atomic mass unit (AMU). This is because they are so
light that they can’t be measured in grams.

• There are two numbers given to each type of atoms:

Atomic /Proton Number: it is the number of protons in one atom of an element.

Since an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, it is the number of electrons in the
atom too.

Mass/Nucleon Number: it is the number of protons + number of neutrons in the nucleus of one atom
of an element. It is called mass number because its value is also mass of the atom.

If the atomic number is the number of protons, and the mass number is the number of protons and
neutrons, then subtracting the proton number from the mass number will give you the number of
neutrons in the atom.

Mass number p+n

Atomic number P

Mass number - Atomic number = n

• We represent the atom of an element; we give it a symbol of one or two letters where the first
letter is always in capitals and the second one is in lowercase.

• The mass number and the atomic number go above and below the symbol.

Example:

4
He
2
This represents the Helium Atom,
Its atomic number is 2,
Its symbol is He,
Its mass number (nucleon number) is 4,
It has 2 protons, 2 electrons and 2 neutrons (4 - 2 = 2)

3
1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

24
Mg
12
^ This represents the Magnesium Atom,
S Its symbol is Mg,
S Its mass number is 24,
S Its atomic number is 12,
S It has 12 protons,12 electrons and12 neutrons (24 - 12 = 12)

> Charged particles in atom is proton (positive) & electrons (negative) so

number of charged particles is the sum of positive protons and negative electrons

Element Atomic n Mass n Number of Number of Number of Number of

protons electrons neutrons charged
(proton n) (nucleon n) particles
(n of nucleons)

39
K 19 39 19 19 20 38
19

88
Sr 38 88 38 38 50 76
38

65
Zn 30 65 30 30 35 60
30

31
P 15 31 15 15 16 30
15

40
Ar
18 18 40 18 18 22 36

19
F 9 19 9 9 10 18
9

4
! - ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY : PR / PETER POUVES

Periodic table:
Alkali Noble
Metals gas

dt i
Alkali earth
Metals
7 semimetals Non metals
Halogens
I ^
( VIII )

(N ) (Metalloids) (III) ( IV) (V) (VI ) (VII )

Transition metals

Lanthanides Basic metals

Actinides

t 18
11A
11A Periodic Table of the Elements VIIIA
8A
1 2
2
H IIA He
1 0071 2A 4 0O2M

3 4 10
Li
UMlM
Be Ne
• Ml » 1717
11 12 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Na Mg NIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB Ar
22 8«/88 "ssr 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B f 8 ) 1B 2B
Argon
IB 041

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3C 36

PM
K Ca
Calcium
Sc Ti V
VanaOum
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Ca ar
Zn BIN
Kr
Ml 40 071 «4
*8881 47 aa 80 418
* 81 Nil 84 1
** 18047 MKU2 88 9814 **
81.141 MM 83 0
*
37 38 39 4 ;) 41 42 43 44 46 4b 47 48 64
Rb Sr mrfcrf
Y Zr Nb Mo T
Tc Ru
Ru anl
Rh Pd
Patodkin
Ag Cd Xe
Xaaan

•14878 17 2 * 01 2 4 MM M0C72 *
( 01 17 102.1 10 42 107 0082 111411 111.20
* 18 058 5
* * *
55 56 57 71- 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 8C 86
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Rn
Main him
1714»
Tantalum
1808478 109 8
* 1M 207 100 29 1
* 22
2 iMoa -
M
Ml Man m
At SW »4 3831
. * -1
/c > /
B
*mutr
8«a:i7 |201 M24|
A » *aBr #
M0 4.1
*
Radon
222 0171

104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn (Jut Uuq Uup Uuh (Jus Uuo
|M »I 12121 (2M| (2M1 (272
|

57 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Lanthanide
Series La Ce
. Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb
Lara C fe
• 34 * 140 1 1 « 140 80 786 144 24

89 90 91 92
Actinide
Series Ac Th Pa U

5
 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

The periodic table is obtained by arranging elements in order of increasing atomic number (proton number)

It is 7 Horizontal rows known as periods and the period number shows how many shells there are.

It is 8 vertical columns known as groups and the group number is the same number of outer shell
electrons.

All the elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shells, called
Valency electrons. That is why all elements of the same group have the same chemical
properties.

Metals are on the left of the periodic table; Nonmetals are on the right and separated by zigzag
line. There are 7 elements lie beside zigzag line known as semimetals or metalloids (B, Si, Ge,
As, Sb, Te and Po)

Metalloids are solid and shiny like metals but brittle as nonmetals
Metalloids are semiconductors with average transmission of heat

As we move in the periodic table from left to right, (across period) the metallic properties of
elements decrease, and number of outermost shell electrons increase

The top metallic properties are found on left - bottom part of the table.

If an element possesses a full outer shell, the element become unreactive (Ex: Noble gas)

Most elements have more neutrons than protons

Some elements like Ca, Mg and Ne have equal number of protons and neutrons.
Hydrogen is the only element has NO neutrons in its nucleus.

Group 4 elements is C (non-metal), Si and Ge (metalloids), Sn and Pb (metals)

'Q An element with proton number 15. Is it metal or non-metal and why?

A electrons distribution of element is 2,8,5. Element is in group V containing 5 electrons in outer

shell and need to receive 3 electrons to complete its outer energy level.

Q Calcium, on the left of Period 4 of the Periodic Table, is more metallic than bromine on the right
of this period. Why is this?

A Fewer outer shell electrons.

6
 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY : PR / PETER POULES

The Electronic Configuration of Atoms:

• Electronic configurationjneans the arrangement of electrons in an atom .

• The electrons in an atom circle fast around the nucleus, at different levelsfrom it.
• These energy levels are caller electron shells.
• The further the shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy level.

• Each shell can hold a limited number of electrons.

1st energy shell holds up to 2e,

2nd energy shell holds up to 8e,
3rd energy shell holds up to 18e, but stable with only 8e.

first level (2 electrons )

nucleus second level ( 8 electrons)
third level ( 8 electrons)

Increasing energy
If an atom has its 3 energy shell holding 8e, if it receives 2 more they go to the 4th energy shell.
rd

If further 10e are received, they go to the 3rd energy shell jriaking it saturated with 18e.
1
HYDROGEN Period
0 number

0 2
HELIUM

H
1
o 1

He
Group I III IV V VI VII 2
number t 5 2 I0
LITHIUM BERYLLIUM BORON CARBON NITROGEN OXYGEN FLUORINE NE '.'N

Proton
Li
21
Bv
22
E
23
C
24
r
2.5
. O
26
F
27
Nt-
28
number 11 12 •4 16 12 18
Name of —* SODIUM MAGNESIUM SILICON SULFUR CHLORINE ARGON
element
Full
electronic
structure
— 3

Symbol of
element —
Electronic
configuration
—* I 20

7
1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

• Examples of electronic configuration

S Argon has the electronic configuration: 2,8,8

S Magnesium has the electronic configuration: 2,8,2
S Chlorine has the electronic configuration: 2, 8, 7

• Metals when react they lose electrons from outermost shell, so number of positive protons is
greater than number of negative electrons forming positive ions

sodium atom sodium ion, Na+

+

loses
The charge on a sodium ion
charge on 11 protons 11+
0
or [2,8 ] + or [ 2.8 ] +
1 electron charge on 10 electrons 1(H
total charge 1+

2 +8 + 1 [ 2 +8 ] +
this shell disappears stable ion

• Non-metals when react they gain electrons from outermost shell, so number of positive protons
is less than number of negative electrons forming negative ions

The charge on a chloride Ion

charge on 17 protons 17+
9
or [ 2 ,8,8]- or [2.8 .8]- charge on 18 electrons _1 ®I.
total charge 1-

2 +8+ 7 [ 2+8+ 8] "

stable ion

The relation between number of valency electrons and valency

Group II III IV V VI VII

number

symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
valency
electrons

valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1

8
 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

• The number of e- gained or lost = numerical value of oxidation state

• Valency of metals is the number of electrons lost

• Valency of non-metals is the number of electrons gained

Q Explain why some elements have positive oxidation states but others have negative ones.

A Atoms with small number of outer electrons, lose electrons forming positive ions
Atoms with large number of outer electrons, gain electrons forming negative ions

The Isotope:

ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons ( atomic N.) but
different number of neutrons. Therefore, their nucleon number ( mass N.) is different .

Ex: Lithium atoms has 3 isotopes, Ex: Carbon atoms has 3 isotopes

Isotopes Different mass numbers

12
6 C 13
6 C 14
6 c
Same atomic number

6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons

Ex: Oxygen has 2 isotopes

Oxygen Isotopes

s> 42y)

leO Isotope lsO Isotope

9
1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

Radioisotopes ( Radioactive Isotope ) :

• Some isotopes are radioactive That means its nucleus is unstable giving out radiation in the form
of rays and particles, plus a large amount of energy so they are defined as radioactive isotopes

• Isotopes have the same chemical properties as they have the same electron distribution ( same
number of electrons in the outer shell); but they have different physical properties.
Medical uses of radioactive isotopes :
1- Treatment of cancer ( COso) 2- Sterilisina equipment (Gamma rays)

a
3- X ray scanning

Industrial use of radioactive isotopes:

1-Detection of leaks 2- Nuclear fuel for generating electricity ( U 235)

3-Nuclear weapons 4- Detection of thickness of paper

10
 1- ATOMIC STRUCTURE BY: PR / PETER POULES

Transition metals
21 23 24 - r'
27 21 29 30
Sc Ti V Cr
Chramiur
Mn
« n«
Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
* Mang tt Inn CotMft HKkl Confer Zinc
47 M
• 04410 I1M1 MNI MM? MNK MUM 09 044

39 41) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Y Zr Nb Mo MoljfMMiua
Tc Ru
Ruannliun
Rh
Rhodium
Pd
Pritedkm
Ag
S4v«
Cd
Codrafc*
tt-MMS IIDI UtOUi KM »
4 072 101 07 102.MM 14042 107.0042 112.411
*
-
57 71 72 74 75 75 77 78 79 80
Hf
ttetelvm
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungatea
Re
R bantu*
Os
Oaafam
Ir
kitten
Pt
PtaOnnm
Au Gold
Hg
Mtfcary
174 « 1404470 103 « 1M 247 1M 23 1MB 140 « 1009446 24464

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

Db
OuOaten
Sg
SMboigium
Bh
KoMua
Hs
NRMIII
Mt
Mahnarium
Ds Rg
DOTMOMOUIR Roa^flanaai
Cn
Cagaailfcte*
*

Metal Density (g/cm3)

Aluminum 2.70
Copper 8.94
• Physical properties
S Hard Gold 193
S High density Iron 7.86
S High melting point
Lead 11.34
Magnesium 1.74
Silver 10.5
Tin 5.75
• Chemical properties Zinc 7 T4
S Act as catalyst (metals & salts) (Fe metal is catalyst & V2O5 is catalyst)
S Form coloured compound
S Form complex ion
S Less active than group (I)
S Has more than one oxidation number

• Important Notes about elements

S All metals are silvery grey except copper (reddish brown) and gold (golden yellow)

S All salts of group (I), group (II) and group (III) are white (Ex: NaCI, KBr, CaO, AIF)

s All metals are solid at room temperature except mercury is liquid

S Non-metals at room temperature are solid (like Carbon) or gas like (chlorine) and the only liquid
non-metal is bromine
S The only non-metal conducting electricity is carbon (graphite)

S The only element that has non neutrons inside its nucleus is hydrogen

11
7.- Bonding

12
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 2
Bonding
• Atom it is the smallest part entering the reaction, it is formed from neutrons, protons and electrons.
• Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical nor
physical methods. (Ca, C, Mg)
• Compound is substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together. (NaCI, CH4 )

• Mixture contains 2 or more substances not chemically joined together. (Air & sea water and
petroleum)

Compound Mixture
Fixed composition NO fixed composition
Its components cannot be separated by physical Its components can be separated by physical
means means
Compound has different properties from its Mixture has similar properties as its
components components
Components chemically joined Components not chemically joined

• Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell electrons, like the
atoms of Group 0.

• In other words, they bond in order to gain 8 electrons in their outer shell (or 2, if they have only
one shell).

Ex: A sodium atom has just 1 electron in its outer shell. To obtain a stable outer shell of 8 electrons, it
loses this electron to another atom. It becomes a sodium ion which is positive ion.

The electronic configuration of sodium ion is similar to that of neon atom

sodium atom sodium ion, Na+
+

loses
1 electron
or [2,8 ] + or [ 2.8 ] +
The charge on a sodium ion
charge on 11 protons 11+
0
charge on 10 electrons 10-
total charge 1+
2 +8+ 1 ( 2 +8 ] +
this shell disappears stable ion

13
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES
Ex: A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. It can reach 8 electrons by accepting 1 electron
from another atom. It becomes a chloride ion which is negative ion.

The electronic configuration of sodium ion is similar to that of argon atom

chlorine atom chloride ion. Cl

gains
1 electron
or (2.8.8)- or [ 2.8 .8] "
Thacharg on a chlorideIon
*
charge on 17 protons 17+
0
charge on 18 electrons 18-
2 +8+ 7 (2 +8+ 8) "
total charge -
1
stable ion

Ions :
• An atom becomes an ion when it loses or gains electrons.
• An ion is a charged particle. It is charged because it has an unegual number of protons and
electrons.
• Ion and atom of element are physically and chemically different, also number of electrons is
different.
• Ion and atom of element have the same number of protons and neutrons.

The ionic bond:

• A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound.
• The metal atoms lose electrons. The non-metal atoms gain them.
• The ions form a lattice (regular pattern )
• The lattice is called ‘giant’ because it contains a very large number of ions
• The compound has no overall charge (net charge is zero)

The ionic lattice: Regular pattern of alternating positive and negative ions.
The ionic bond: The electrostatic attraction force between alternating positive and negative ions.

Magnesium oxide:

magnesium atom oxygen atom magnesium ion, Mg 2+ oxide ion, 02

two electrons transfer giving

2 +8+ 2
14
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

Magnesium chloride :
2 chlorine atoms
magnesium atom

each 2 + 8+ 7 each [2 +8+8]"

Polyatomic ion : They are like molecules but with a charge on them.

Oxidation state Name Symbol

+1 Ammonium ion NH4 +

-1 Hydroxide ion OH
Nitrate ion NOa
Nitrite ion NO2
Hydrogen carbonate ion HCOa
(Bicarbonate)
Chlorate CI03
-2 Carbonate ion CO32
Sulfate ion SO42
Sulphite ion SO32-
-3 Phosohate ion PO43
Phosohite ion PO33-

• ate is rich in oxygen

• ite is poor in oxygen
• ide is of no oxygen (except oxide) (Sulfide S2 / Phosphide P3 )
'

• Non-metals form negative ions, with names ending in -ide. (Chloride Cl , Bromide Br ) ' "

Formulae of Ionic Compounds:

a
• xf
MgBr 2 ^ AI2O3

15
 2- BONDING
Properties of Ionic compounds:

• Solid and hard as ions are arranged in straight rows in strong ionic bonds.

• Solid ionic compounds don ’t conduct electricity, but they do when they are aqueous or molten. This
is because in liquid/aqueous state the ions which conduct electricity are free to move. While in n
solids, these ions are fixed in place.

• Soluble in water (because the water molecules are able to separate the ions from each other.
The ions then move apart, surrounded by water molecules).

• Very high melting points and boiling points, this is because the ionic bonds are very strong. It
takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice.

Q In term of charge, explain why the ratio of calcium to nitrogen in calcium nitride is 3:2
Draw the structure showing electrons in outer most shell of non- metal

3[ Ca p 2[<N>]3-

A Net positive charge in the compound = 3 X 2+ = 6+

Net negative charge in the compound = 2 X 3- = 6-
So Net charge of the compound is zero (neutral)

Q In term of electrons, explain why the ratio of calcium to nitrogen in calcium nitride is 3:2

A
• Ca is in group (II), has 2 electrons in outermost shell, each Ca atoms will lose 2 electrons
so 3 Ca atoms lose 6 electrons
• N is in group (V), has 5 electrons in outermost shell, each N atoms will receive 3 electrons,
so, 2 N atoms receive 6 electrons

> Draw the structure of lithium chloride showing electrons in outer most shell of non- metal

[ Li r [@>]
16
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

> Draw the structure of strontium oxide showing electrons in outer most shell of non- metal

@
[ Sr ] * [ ]2- 2

> Draw the structure of aluminium oxide showing electrons in all shells of metal and non- metal

3+

2 3

> Draw the structure of magnesium sulfide showing electrons in all shells of metal and non- metal

2+ 2-

17
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

The simple covalent bond :

• When two non-metal atoms react together, both need to gain electrons to achieve stable outer
shells. They manage this by sharing electrons.

• Each pair of electrons shared forms one covalent bond

Hydrogen

a shared pair of electrons

A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons.

Chlorine
two chlorine atoms a chlorine molecule, Cl]

A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons.

Oxygen
two oxygen atoms an oxygen molecule, 0]

> 0 8 0

two shared pairs of electrons

A double covalent bond is formed when atoms share four electrons.

Nitrogen
two nitrogen atoms a nitrogen molecule, N 2

three shared pairs of electrons

A triple covalent bond is formed when atoms share six electrons

18
 Z- BONDING 8Y: PR / PETER POULES

Hydrogen chloride, HCI Water, H20 Methane. CH 4

Ammonia NH3 Carbon dioxide CO2 Methanol CHsOH

• Carbon, Hydrogen usually use all the electrons of outer shell in bonding

Carbon dioxide
ammonia

In NH3 In CO2
Number of electrons shared : 6 Number of electrons shared : 8
Number of electrons in molecule: 10 Number of electrons in molecule: 22

19
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

Properties of Simple Covalent compounds:

• Made up of molecules not ions (simple molecular structure)

Molecule Two or atoms bonded together by sharing electrons by covalent bonds
Diatomic Two atoms per molecule

• Of low melting and boiling points as attraction forces between the molecules (Intermolecular
forces/ Van der Waal’s forces) are weak and need small amount of energy to break the bond.

This explains why many molecular compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature.

• Less soluble in water than ionic compounds (Covalent compounds tend to be insoluble in water ).

• Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as there are no charged particles (free moving
ions or free moving electrons), so they cannot conduct.

Q Why one atom of carbon can form four covalent bonds?

A It has four outermost or valency electrons, need to share four to complete energy level

Q Sulphur is not malleable and not good conductor of electricity .... Why?
A It has no layers that can slide over each other and the electrons are localised (can’t move through
the structure.

Strong covalent bond

5" 8
'

5* S
'

- \
'

H CI 5* S
H — Cl
H- Cl
Weak intermolecular force
J
5
a
A
Strong covalent bond
o
/ \ weak intermolecular force
H H
6" 6"

20
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

Giant covalent structures ( Macromolecules )

Diamond Graphite

strong
[c
v
covalent
the centre atom
forms four bonds

C
£ tetrahedral
C C in shape

• Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 carbon

atoms by strong covalent bonds in a
tetrahedral arrangement of a giant covalent • Layers of hexagons bonded by weak
forces, so layers can slide over each
structure.
other.
• C atoms contains four electrons in outer
shell and each carbon atom is bonded
• Does not conduct electricity as there is no to 3 carbon atoms only , So the fourth
charged particles (moving ions or free
electron is free to move through the
electrons).
graphite, carrying charge)

• Conduct electricity due to presence of

free moving electrons

Appearance:
• Dark grey
• Colourless
• Opaque solid
• Transparent crystal
• Shiny
• Sparkle in light

Diamond is denser than graphite

Uses: Uses:
• Jewellery & Cutting & Drilling • Lubricant & Pencils & Electrodes

Similar properties in Diamond and graphite

They have high melting point and boiling point.

They are insoluble in water and other organic solvents.

21
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

• Diamond and graphite are allotropes. (Several physical forms of the same element state).

• Complete combustion of equal masses of diamond and graphite will produce

equal masses of CO2 as the only product and this ensures that both are allotropes of C
• Germanium and silicon are also giant covalent structure

Silicon (IV ) oxide (Silicon dioxide / Silica / Sand / SiO ? ):

• It is a Diamond like structure (tetrahedral structure)

• Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon
atoms by strong covalent bond in a tetrahedral structure.

r* VTf
n !

Physical properties of silica

It has a high melting point (very strong silicon-oxygen covalent bonds have to be broken
throughout the structure before melting occurs)
It is hard. This is due to the need to break the very strong covalent bonds
It doesn't conduct electricity. There aren't any delocalised electrons
It is insoluble in water and organic solvents
Used for making glass and lenses
Like diamond, they sparkle in light and colourless

> Giant covalent exists in elements like Diamond, graphite and in compound like Si02

> Simple covalent exists in elements like O2, N2 and in compound like CO2

Q CO2 and Si02 are two covalent compounds. Predict two differences in the physical properties of
these two oxides.

A
• Si02 is a solid, CO2 is a gas (at rtp)
• (When both are solids) then Si02 is harder
• Si02 has higher MP or Bp
• has higher density
• Si02 insoluble in water, CO2 soluble in water

22
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

Metallic bond:
• Metal is a giant lattice of layers of positive ions in a ‘sea’ of electrons that are free to move
• The metallic bond is the attraction force between metal ions and free (delocalised) electrons.
+ + +

§-o:<§ e?<3© ewewe

Properties of Metals:

•
^
c
Metals are Malleable and ductile
Malleable means they can be bent and pressed into shape, (formed into a sheet by hammering).
Ductile means they can be drawn out into wires.

As layers of positive ions are able to slide over each other (slip / move past each other), the shape
changes without breaking.

• Conducts electricity: Sea of delocalized (free moving / mobile) electrons is present to move freely
around the structure and carry the charge.

• High melting and boiling points: forces of attraction between the ions and free electrons are very
strong, lots of energy is needed to break them.

Malleable Ductile

•
•
force

applied

mu mtt layer
slides

When an electric current is passed through an element, electrons are replaced by new electrons.

When heat or electric current is passed through an element, electrons move in one direction while
positive ions remain unchanged (don’t move) .

23
 2- BONDING BY: PR / PETER POULES

General properties of ionic & covalent and Metallic structure:

Property Ionic Simple covalent Giant covalent Metallic

Boiling point & High Low High High

Melting point

Solubility in water Generally good Generally poor Insoluble Insoluble

Conductivity Poor Poor Poor Good

when solid
Except graphite

Conductivity Good Poor Poor Good

when molten
Except graphite

General Solid Mostly gases and Solid Solid

description liquids
Except Hg

24
25
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Chapter 3
Acids & Bases
Acids:
• Acids are substances made of a hydrogen ion and non-metal ions.
• They dissolve in water producing a hydrogen ion H+ (proton donor)
• Acids have sour taste; strong ones are corrosive.

Classification of Acids
1- According to basicity (n. of H atoms) :

Type Name Formula

Monobasic Hydrochloric acid (HCI) HCI(aq) f^ H+(aq) + Cl (aq)

'
HCI(aq)+ H20(|) H30+(aq)+ Cl (aq)

Nitric acid (HN03) HN03(aq) H+(aq)+ N03 (aq) HN03(aq) + H20(|) H30+(aq)+NC>3 (aq)"

Dibasic Sulfuric acid (H2S04) H2S04(aq) f^ 2H+(aq) + S042 (aq)

‘
H2S04(aq) + 2H20(|) f^ 2H30+(aq) + S042 (aq)~

Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

^ 2H (aq) + C032 (aq) 2H30+(aq) + C032 (aq)
+
H2C03(aq) ’
H2C03(aq) + 2H20(|) ‘

Tribasic Phosphoric acid H3P04(aq) 3H (aq)+ P04^(aq) ^ 3H30 (aq) + P043 (aq)
+ +
H3P04(aq) + 3H20(|)
^
‘

(H3PO4)

2- According to Strength (Ionization): the amount of H+ ions the acid can give when dissolved in
water determines its strength.

Strong Weak

They are fully ionised They are Partially ionized

(Ions are more than Molecules) (Molecules are more than ions)

Containing high concenration of Containing low concenration of

protons (H+) protons (H+)
Examples Examples

• Hydrochloric acid • Ethanoic acid ( vinegar)

• Nitric acid • Citric acid
• Sulfuric acid

26
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULES

3- According to concentration :

Concentration is the amount of solute per unit volume of solvent

• Dilue acid is the acid that has a greater concentration of water than acid itself
• Concentrated acid is the acid that has a lower concentration of water than acid itself

Reactivity Series of Metals

Reaction of acids : - Potassium K ( Most reactive metal)
Sodium Na
1 - Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
These metals arc
Mg<s) + 2HCI(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) more reactive Aluminium Al
than hydrogen Zinc Zn
Zn(s) + H2SC>4(aq) -v ZnS04(aq) + H2(g) Decreasing
Iron Fe chemical
2AI(s) + 6HN03(aq) 2AI(N03)3(aq) + 3H2(g) Tin Sn reactivity
Lead Pb
|Hydrogen| |H|
Na & K reacts with explosion.
Cu, Ag, Au and Pt don’t react.
- Copper Cu
These metals are Mercury Hg
This reaction is Displacement
& Redox and exothermic reaction less reactive than - Silver Ag
hydrogen Gold Au ( Least reactive metal)

Metal like (Mg or Zn) can be used to differentiate strong acid from weak acid as the rate of
formation of hydrogen gas is higher in strong acid

-o

2- Acid + Base Salt + Water

• This reaction is Neutralization & exothermic reaction

Acid + Metal Hydroxide Salt + Water

HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) —> NaCI(aq) + H2O0)

Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + Water

CuO(s) + H2S04(aq )—* CuS04(aq) + HfeOfl)

27
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULBS

3- Acid + Carbonate —> Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Acid + Metal Carbonate —> Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

CuC03(s) + H2S04(aq) — CllS04(aq) + H20(l) + 002(g)

Acid + Metal bicarbonate —» Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

NaHC03(s) + HCI(aq) —» NaCI(aq) + H2O0 ) + 002(g)

Metal
Bases:
Oxide larbonate'
• Bases are proton (H +) acceptor 'Hydroxide
• Bases can be made of: Base
1- Metal hydroxide Ex: NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH)2
2- Metal oxides Ex: CUO.U2O
3- Metal carbonates Ex: K2CO3
4- Metal hydrogen carbonate (Bicarbonate) Ex: NaHCOs
5- Ammonium hydroxide Ex: NH40H
6- Ammonium carbonate Ex: (NH4)2C03

• Bases have bitter taste, Soapy feel and strong ones are corrosive.

• Like acids, alkalis' that are:

> Completely ionized alkalis are the strongest (higher concentration of hydroxide ions)
> Partially ionized alkalis are the weakest (lower concentration of hydroxide ions)
So, in terms of proton acceptance, strong alkalis are more able to accept protons (H+) weak alkalis
are less able to accept protons (H+).

• Water soluble bases are also called alkalis

> Group (I) hydroxides (Ex: NaOH / LiOH / KOH)and ammonium hydroxides are soluble

• Some metal hydroxides are insoluble in water Zn(OH)2 , Fe(OH)2 ,Cu(0H)2 and Pb(OH)2

28
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Reaction of bases:
1- Bases react with acids, as you saw above, giving only a salt and water.

2- Base + ammonium salt Salt + Water + Ammonia

Ca(OH )2(aq) + 2NH4CI(aq) — CaCl2(aq) + 2H20(I) + 2NH3(g)

NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) — NaCI(aq) + H2O0) + NH3(g)

2LiOH(aq) + (NH4 )2S04(aq) — Li2S04(aq) + 2H20(I) + 2NH3(g)

• Observation of this reaction is effervescence, pungent smell that turns red litmus paper blue
• Ammonia is alkaline gas that is soluble in water forming aqueous ammonia ( NH 4OH)

NH3(g) + H20(l)
—
We have NH4OH (Ammonium hydroxide / aqueous ammonia) / (NH4)2C03 (Ammonium
carbonate) which are alkali.
NH40H(aq)

When ammonium (NH 4+) is bonded to non-metal that isn’t oxide or hydroxide or carbonate, it will form
a salt that is neutral Ex: NH4CI, (NH4)2S04 , NH4NO3 , ( NH4)3P04

The pH scales :
• This is a scale that runs from 0 to 14.
> Substances with a pH below 7 are acidic .
> Substances with pH above 7 are basic .
> Those with pH 7 are neutral.
neutral
« pH numbers for addic solutions , pH numbers for alkaline solutions _
I
r
0 1
1
2
1
3
r
4 5 6 1
1
H
1j
10
T~
11 12 13 14
'

the smaller the number, the more addic the solution the larger the number, the more alkaline the solution

Ta - rras- T“ T T®Tiq '

^III III
ACID
III NEUTRAL BASE

29
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULES

Acidic Neutral Basic

0-3 4-6 7 8-11 12-14

Strong acid Weak acid Weak base Strong base

- Sulfuric acid - Carbonic acid - Water - Ammonia - Potassium hydroxide

- Citric acid - Alcohol - Urea - Sodium hydroxide
- Nitric acid
- Vinegar - Some salts - Ammonium
- Hydrochloric acid - Organic acids hydroxide

Indicators:
• Indicators are substances that identify acidity or alkalinity of substances.
• They cannot be used in solid form.

Indicator Colour in acids Colour in neutral Colour in alkalis

Litmus Blue to Red No change Red to Blue

Methyl orange Red Orange

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Universal indicator:
0-3 4- 6 7 8-11 12-14

Strong acid Weak acid Neutral Weak base Strong base

Red Orange Green Blue Violet

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Strongly Acidic Weakly Acidic Weakly Alkali Strongly Alkali

Testing with litmus paper.
PH Neutral

30
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULES

Types of oxides:

Basic oxide Acidic Oxide Neutral oxide Amphoteric

oxide
Metal oxide Non metal oxide Non metal oxide Metal oxide
( Ionic bond) (Covalent bond ) ( Covalent bond ) (Ionic bond )
Oxides of specific
metals like Aluminium
and Zinc

PH>7 PH<7 PH=7

Red LP Blue Blue LP Red Neutral to LP

React with acid —> React with base —> No reaction with acid or Shows both acidic and
salt + water salt+ water base basic properties.

React & dissolve with

acids and bases
forming a solution —
salt + water
Solids Liquids & Gases Liquids & Gases Solids and insoluble in
water
•Na20, K2O, LhO are Silicon oxide is the only • CO & NO are gases
solid and insoluble in
soluble
water
• H2O is liquid
• CuO, Fe203, MgO
are insoluble

EX: MgO, Li20 EX : S02, C02, N02, EX : CO, NO, H20 EX : AI2O3 & ZnO
Si02

31
 3- ACID & BASE BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Q How to differentiate Strong acid from Weak acid using 3 different ways?

A (Acids) have same concentration

Test: measure pH (pH meter) OR describe how to measure pH (such as use Universal Indicator)
Result: lower pH corresponds to the stronger acid

s Test: add calcium / magnesium / zinc / iron

Result: faster rate of forming bubbles corresponds to the stronger acid

s Test: rate of reaction with (metal) carbonate

Result: faster rate of forming bubbles corresponds to the stronger acid

s Test: rate of reaction with (named) metal oxide

Result: dissolves faster mean that reaction is with the stronger acid

s Test: electrical conductivity

Result: greater conductivity corresponds to stronger acid

s Test: add sodium hydroxide (or other named alkali)

S Result: greater temperature change corresponds to the stronger acid

Q Water is neutral, explain how it acts as a base in the following reaction

HCI(aq) + H2O0) — Cl'(aq) + HsO+(aq)

A Water in this reaction is proton (H+) acceptor so it acts as a base.

Q Water is neutral, explain how it acts as a base in the following reaction

NH3(g) + H2O0) — NH4+(aq) + OH (aq) "

A Water in this reaction is proton (H+) donner so it acts as an acid.

32
33
4- REPOX BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 4
Redox
• Oxidation and reduction can be defined according to many concepts as follow:

1- Oxvaen is gained / Lost

2Mg(S) + 02(g) —> 2MgO(s) CuO(s) + H2(g) —* CU(s) + H20(l)
Oxidation Reduction

Reduction

CuO(s) + H2(g) — CU(S) + H20(|)

Oxidation
• Oxidation is gain of oxygen Reduction is loss of oxygen

2- Hydrogen is gained / Lost

Oxidation

H2S(g) + Cl2(g) — 2HCI(g) + S(s)

Reduction

• Oxidation is loss of hydrogen

• Reduction is gain of hydrogen

3- Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer

OIL RIG
Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain

2Na(S) + Cl2(g) — 2NaCI(S)

+
Sodium: 2Na —* 2Na + 2e (oxidation) / Reducing agent
Chorine: CI2 — 2e + 2CI
'

(reduction) / Oxidising agent

*

34
4- REPOX BY : PR / PETER POULES

CuO(s) + Mg<S) —>• Cu(s) + MgO(s)

Magnesium: Mg —* Mg2+ + 2e (oxidation) / Reducing agent)

Copper: Cu2+ —> 2e + 2CI '
(reduction) / Oxidising agent)

• Oxidising agent: A substance that oxidises another substance during redox reaction.

• Reducing agent: A substance that reduces another substance during redox reaction.

Reduced

Fe203(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe<i) + 3002(g)

J
Oxidised

4- Oxidation and reduction in terms of change in oxidation state

A rise in oxidation number means oxidation has occurred.

A fall in oxidation number means reduction has occurred.

Fall (reduction)

2Na(s) Cl2(g) 2NaCI(S)

(0 ) (+1K ' ( i)
“-
Rise (oxidation)

Fall (reduction)

Fe(S) + S(s) FeS(s)

(0 ) (0 ) (+2) (-2)

Rise ( oxidation )

35
 4- REPOX BY : PR / PETER POULES

Fall (reduction )

2FeCI2(aq) + 6h aq( ) 2FeCb(aq)

(2+ ) ( 3+ ) (1-)

Rise (oxidation )

The reaction of ammonia with HCI isn’t a redox reaction as there is no change in oxidation
state
H3(g) HCI(g)

^
(-3) (Ti ) w r-i)
. So this is not a redox reaction.
Q Bromine water was added to aqueous sodium sulfide.

Br2(aq) + S2 (aq) '

—
2 Br (aq) + S(s)'

Explain, in terms of electron transfer, why bromine is the oxidant (oxidising agent) in this reaction.

A Bromine atoms accept electrons (reduction) lost by sulphide ions.

Common oxidising and reducing agents in the lab:

1-Oxidizing agents:

• Acidified potassium manganate (VII )

Reducing agent
Mn^+(aq) Mn2+(aq)
Purple Colourless

• Fe(lll) salts 2FeCh(aq) + 2KBr(aq) — 2FeCl2(aq) + 2KCI(aq) + Br2(aq)

• Halogens 2FeCI2(aq) + Cl2(aq) —> 2FeCh(aq)

36
 4- REPOX BY : PR / PETER POULES

2-Reducinq agents :
• Potassium iodide
Kl(aq) + Bf2(aq) — l2(aq) + KBf(aq)

Kl (C I2 (dark red-brown)

• Carbon monoxide Fe203(s) + 3CO(g) —> 2Fe(i) + 3C02(g)

• Carbon ZnO(s) + C(S) —* • 2Zn(g> + C02(g)

• Hydrogen CuO(s) + H2(g) — CU(s) + H2O0)

• Sulfur dioxide 2S02(g) + 02(g) — 2S03(g)

• Fe( ll ) salts 2FeCI2(aq) + Cl2(aq) — 2FeCb(aq)

• Metals Mg(s) + CuS04(aq) —*• MgS04(aq) + CU(s)

Ionic equations :
1- Write balanced chemical equation
2- Show the ionised parts ( Insoluble substances and covalent are not ionized)
3- Remove spectators (Repeated ions on both sides)
4- Write net ionic equation

insoluble
Ex 1 2AgN03(aq) + BaCl2(aq) —> Ba(N03)2(aq) + 2AgCI(S) -

2Ag+(aq)
J^2(N03) (aq) + 2CI~ *JZa?%q ) + 2 0 \aq ) + 2AgCI (s)
(aq) -
^^
“

(aq)

2Ag +
(aq) + 2CI (aq)
'
—* 2AgCI(s)

Ex 2 Mg(s) + H2S04(aq) —* MgS04(aq)

• + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + ( SQ4f *\aq ) -» Mg2+(aq) + aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ->• Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

37
4- REPOX BY : PR / PETER POULES

Ex 3 NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) —i NaCI(aq) + H2O0 )

N T*(aq) + OH (aq) H+(aq) + H2 0(D

^^
OH (aq) + H+(aq)
'
—* H20(|)

Ex4 Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq) — MgCl2(aq)

* + Cu(s)
^
Mg(s) + Cll2+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + Chaqf + CU(s)

Mg(s) + Cll2+(aq)
—>

-* Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
•
^

Ex 5 CaC03 (s) + 2HCI (aq) —i CaCl2 (aq) + C02(g) + H20(l)

CaC03(s) + 2H+(aq) —* Ca2+(aq) + 002(g) + H20(l)

CaC03(s) + 2H+(aq) —* Ca2+(aq)

• + 002(g) + H20(l)

Ex 6 NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) —* NaCI(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O0)

aqj + OH (aq) + NH4+(aq) + C l > ^ ^CtogT^NH
Na a q T'' + H20(l)
'
3(g)

OH (aq) + NH4+(aq)
'

— NH3(g) + H2O0)

38
S- States of matter

39
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 5
States of matter
Substances are all made of very tiny pieces, far too small to see. these pieces are named
particles
The very smallest particles, that we cannot break down further by chemical means, called atoms
Substances are either:

The particles are just single atoms. (EX: Argon)

The particles consist of two or more atoms joined together.

These particles are called molecules. (EX: Water, bromine)

The particles consist of atoms or groups of atoms that carry a charge.

These particles are called ions. (EX: Potassium manganate(VII))

States of matter :
• There are 3 states of matter, solids, liquids and gases.
• The state is dependent on temperature and as temperature increases, volume increases.

f subliming
1
boiling,
liquefying,
melting
vaporising ,
evaporating
V0 o
o * o 0
condensing ,
freezing, liquefying
solidifying

Solid Liquid Gas

40
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Solid Liquid Gas

Distance Very close Close Far apart

(Separation of (touching each other) (touching each other)
particles)
Arrangement Regular arrangement Irregular arrangement Irregular arrangement
(Pattern) (lattice) (no pattern) (no pattern)

Movement Vibrating in its position Slowly slide over each other Move Fast, Freely and
randomly Randomly

(Very strong forces ( Weak intermolecular forces (Very weak forces

between particles in between particles in liquids between particles in
gases) but stronger than gases) gases)

Kinetic energy Small Medium Large

• General features of the 3 states:

Solid Liquid Gas

Shape definite indefinite indefinite

Volume definite definite indefinite

Compressibility not compressed not compressed compressed

Surface definite definite indefinite

Spreading don’t spread spread over surface spread everywhere

> Liquid has indefinite shape and take shape of container as particles slide over each other
randomly
> Liquid has definite volume as there is a strong force between particles so molecules can’t
move apart to fill entire
> Gas has indefinite shape as particles move fast, freely and randomly in all directions
randomly
> Gas has indefinite volume as there is very weak forces between particles in gases so
molecules can move apart to fill entire volume
> The gas particles are far apart so,
- piston —
it can be compressed while solid can’t be.

Melting ___ -B§iJtng — solid

41
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

(gaining Energy / Endothermic) (gaining Energy / Endothermic)

Solid Liquid Gas

Freezing Condensation
(release Energy / Exothermic) (release Energy / Exothermic)

Heating curve :

liquid gas
cu ^
Vaporizing
B 11
& £
-
^/ -•— Condensing
£ <
/

E
solid
^ liquid &
£ g„ Melting
ii '
—
* Freezing

Heat
• Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid.
• The melting point: The temperature at which solid starts to melt

• What happened in melting?

Solid is heated particles get more energy vibrate more solid expands

m
At the melting point, the particles get enough energy , to overcome forces between and the solid turns

«8
liquid.

heat heat energy at

energy melting point

• Evaporation: The change of stateIrorrTl?quicTto gas

a liquid is formed

• boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid starts to evaporate.

42
S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

• What happened in boiling?

Liquid is heated particles get more energy move faster liquid expands
At the boiling point, the particles get enough energy to overcome forces between them and the
liquid turns gas.

dow-mcving partides
in liquid
heat
energy
DOM
the particles
move faster
heat energy at
boiling point

H
the particles get enough
energy to escape

• During process of melting or boiling No increase in temperature as energy is used to break bonds
overcome attraction between molecules

• During process of melting, there is equilibrium between solid and liquid (solid
^ liquid)

• During process of boiling, there is equilibrium between liquid and gas (liquid
^ gas)

Differences between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation

Source of energy needed Energy supplied by surroundings

Occurs at a definite temperature - Boiling point Occurs at all temperature

Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only from the exposed surface of the liquid

Bubbles are formed No bubbles formed

Fast Slow

43
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Cooling curve :

Q
gas liquid
OJ V ^
Condensation

2 Vaporizing
QJ liquid solid
CL
v — ^
Freezing
E
Melting

Time
• Condensation: is the change of gas to liquid.
• Condensation point: The temperature at which a gas starts to condense.

• Freezing : is the change of liquid to solid.

• Freezing point: The temperature at which a liquid starts to freeze.

• Some liquids evaporate extremely quickly at room temperature, they are said to be volatile liquids.
• Some substances never exist in a liquid form.
Heating solid form of these substances turn them into a gas, and upon cooling of the gas
substaces
turn into a solid again.
This process is called Sublimation.

Example: Iodine and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)

Iodine Iodine
(Solid) (Vapour)
(Dark grey) (Violet) Solid iodine

44
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

• The purity of substances can be easily determined by testing its boiling and melting points.
This is because pure substances have sharp boiling and melting points, while those of impure
substances

• Adding impurity to pure substance affects The MP & BP as follow

> It increases the boiling point

90 C -
BP is higher and over range .
> It decreases the melting point
> Melting point and boiling point are not sharp,
but they are ranging. E

temperature

B
t °C rC
MP is lower and over range

-5 °C
rA
time
• For a certain substance, there are melting point and boiling point as follow:

At a temperature above its BP it is Gas

At a temperature between BP & MP it is Liquid

At a temperature below its MP it is Solid

The Kinetic Theory of Matter States:

All matter is made up of tiny, microscopic moving particles.
Particles are in continuous movement.
Particles are moving all the time in random directions (Brownian motion).
Particles collide during random movement
The speed of movement depends on

1- The mass of the particle (as mass decreases, they move faster).
2- Temperature ( as T increases particles move faster )

45
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Diffusion:
It is the spreading of one substance to another substance by random motion from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.

1- Diffusion of solid in liquid

• Place a crystal of potassium manganate(VII) in a beaker of water.

•
•
The colour spreads through the water.
The explanation for this observation is as follow,
\
5 I / water
particle
particles from
the crystal ran
> Solid dissolves among the
> Particles diffuse & spread water particles

> slowly and radomly the crystal

2- Diffusion of solid in liquid

• A drop of blue ink in a beaker of water

• After a period, the blue ink spreads through the water
and turned it into blue solution
• The explanation for this observation is as follow,

> Liquid mixees

> Particles diffuse & spread
> slowly and radomly

3- Diffusion of gas in gas

• Place an inverted cylinder above an open gas jar containing a few drops of orange-brown bromine
• The colour spreads upwards and fill the entire volume of 2 cylinders
• The explanation for this observation is as follow,

> Liquid evaporates

r* w m
1»! particle
> Particles diffuse & spread
S
v bromine particles
> Fast, Freely and Radomly '
and air particles
now fully mixed

• Other examples of diffusion of gas in gas,

A ft 3

> The smell of cooking spreads through a house. 1

as
bromine
particle

***** -
> The smell of perfume spreads through the room ^

46
 S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Factors affecting diffusion:

1- The temperature

• The higher the temperature, the faster a Particles will diffuse as they get more energy, collide
more frequently.

2- The mass of the particles

• The lower the mass (relative molecular mass Mr ) of the particles, the faster it will diffuse.

mz
cotton wool soa ked
in ammonia solution
glass
tube
white smoke
forms here
cotton wool soaked
in hydrochloric add

Mr of NH3 = 14 + (3 X 1) = 17 Mr of HCI = 35.5 + 1 = 36.5

• Diffusion can be used as a tool to separate mixture of gases based on their molecular mass.

3- The intermolecular spaces of medium:

• That is why diffusion in gaseous medium is faster than liquid medium but no diffusion in solids.

Q Explain why nitrogen diffuses faster than chlorine at the same temperature.

A Nitrogen has smaller Mr (lighter), so its molecules (particles) move faster than chlorine molecules

Q Explain, using kinetic particle theory, why gases diffuse.

A
• Particles move in random motion continuously
• Particles collide
• Particles move from a region of high concentration to low concentration

47
S- STATES OF MATTER BY : PR / PETER POULES

Definition of Brownian Movement:

• The random movement of small visible particles in a suspension caused by the random
bombardment of unequal forces by molecules of gas or liquid on the visible particles.

• Upon viewing of movement of dead pollen grains in water under microscope,

the grains follow a random path because

> Pollen grains are bombarded by the much smaller and more numerous
water molecules constantly from all sides
> The water molecules move randomly and so pollen grain move randomly
Brownian movement

• You often see dust and smoke dancing in the air in bright sunlight.
The dust and smoke are clusters of particles dance around because

Dust and smoke particles are being bombarded by smaller and more
numerous air molecules (Nitrogen and oxygen molecules) from all side
The water molecules move randomly and so pollen grain move randomly

48
6-Separation technique
& preparation of salts

49
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 6
Separation technique
Solubility :

The solution is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent

• Solute: This is a substance that dissolves in a solvent forming a solution

• Solvent: This is a substance in which a solute dissolve forming a solution

• Solution: A uniform mixture which is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.

> If the solvent is water, the solution is called aqueous solution .
> Dissolving is an example of physical change.

• Dilute Solution: A solution with a small amount of solute/dm3.

• Concentrated Solution: A solution with large amounts of solute/dm3

• Concentration: The amount of solute (in grams or moles) that can dissolve in 1 dm3 of a solvent.

• Saturated Solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at fixed temperature

Separation of insoluble solid from a liquid:

1- Decanting: pouring off liquid from solid

> Advantage: Fast

> Disadvantage: Inaccurate

2- Filtration

> Advantage: Accurate

> Disadvantage: Slow suspension of
filter paper chalk in water

filter funnel chalk (the residue)

• The insoluble part in the filter paper is named residue
• The soluble part passed from filter paper is named filtrate

50
water (the filtrate)
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Separation of soluble solid from a solution

1- Evaporation:

• Ex: Sea water (NaCI dissolved in water )

Upon heating the solution, water evaporates, and solid is left

• If the solvent is flammable (Ex: Alcohol),

we use Indirect evaporation either through
> Electric heater OR
> Water bath.
Water bath

2- Crystallisation:

• The solution is evaporated and continuously dip the glass rod in the solution.
• When you see crystals of the solute starting to form on the glass rod outside the solution (cold
surface), turn off the Bunsen burner. (This is crystallization point / solution is saturated)
• Leave the solution to cool (cooling decreases solubility)
• Filter the solution to remove the crystals, which will be the residue
• Wash the crystals with drops of distilled water then dry them between two filter papers.
• Don’t dry crystals in oven as it will evaporate water of crystallization.

blue crystals
of copperfll)

dilute ccpper (ll)

sulfate solution

• Crystallization point: It is the temperature at which crystals start to be formed in the solution
• Crystal: It is the hydrated form of solid in which water is trapped in
• Powder: It is the anhydrous form of solid

Crystals Powder

Separation of ( magnetic ) solid

• This is made by magnet for magnetic materials (Ex: Iron, Cobalt and Nickle)

51
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Separation of solvent from a solution

Simple distillation

1 - Heat the salt solution in the flask. As it boils, solvent changes into vapour
and rises into the condenser, leaving salt behind.
2 - The condenser is cold, so the vapour condenses to water in it.
3 - The water drips into the beaker. It is called distilled water.
> It involves boiling of the liquid and condensing of the vapour
heat
> distilled water doesn’t contain dissolved salt.
> The liquid come out from distillation is named distillate
Distillate: the liquid distilling over during distillation at certain temperature

Separation of 2 miscible liquids thermometer

water out
Fractional distillation
condenser
1- This is used to separate a mixture of 2 miscible liquids from each other.
2- It depends on their difference in boiling points.

> Ex: mixture of ethanol and water.

water in

^
fractionating
1- Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78 °C, the ethanol begins to boiL p column packed
Some water evaporates too. So, a mixture of ethanol and water with glass beads
vapour rise the column. l
ethanol

2- The vapours condense on the glass beads in the column,

making them hot.

3- When the beads reach about 78 °C, ethanol vapour no longer condensesaon them.
Only the water vapour does. So, water drips back into the flask.
The ethanol vapour goes into the condenser, condenses and drips into the beaker.

> When the thermometer reading rises above 78 °C - a sign that all the ethanol is
collected
Also, when no more distillate is out of condenser at 78 °C, all the ethanol is collected.

4- The fraction is the distillate formed at certain temperature during fractional distillation

5- If the two liquid are of different colours, no need for thermometer.

52
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Application of fractional distillation

1- Various fractions from petroleum 2- Different gases from liquid air
c nitrogen
(b.p. - WQ (dbttls owe first)

1 (stage 1) (stage 2)
tonjL-AlM <ir r
I cooling and
» liquid air
fractional
argon
(bp. -186 *0

r r""
! ' compression dlstllatlon
oxygen
(b.p.-183 *C) |
\ ' i .lUr/.
(
...
r *I yBnplvflL

Separation of mixture of gases:

• Diffusion can be used to separate mixture of gases depending on difference in relative molecular
mass
• Fractional distillation of liquified mixture of gases depending on difference in boiling point

Separation of 2 immiscible liquids:

Separating funnel (tape funnel)
Ex: Oil and water

Chromatography
Depends on difference in solubility.
Diaaram of Apparatus
•
• Used to separate components like the following
1- Dyes
2- Enzymes / Amino acids
3- Carbohydrates
• Used also to identify food additives like colouring and flavouring substances to check its purity

• Pure substance: has no particles of any other substance mixed with it

• Purity matters very much in foodstuff and drugs

53
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

— chromatography paper
I solvent front

spot
I baseline

solvent

• A drop of dye sample is put using dropper on the line drawn by pencil on the chromatography
paper.
• Dip the paper into a solvent that the base line is above with the level of solvent.
• Solvent rises up and dissolve components at different locations due to different solubilities.
Hence, they are separated.

• Rf (retention factor) is measured which is distance moved by the substance

distance moved by the solvent

• Rf measured is compared with reference known data or with pure sample to identify the substance
Rf values
• Rf is the retention factor
• To identify unknown dye in the diagram in the following example, it is _X ^

Y Y
final position of
solvent front

t final position of dye

original spot of dye

original level
of solvent
X

• Baseline is drawn in graphite as it is insoluble in water and organic solvents and not drawn in ink
as it will spread in solvent and smear the paper

54
6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

• The baseline must be above the level of solvent to prevent dissolving and diffusion of sample into
solvent

• The chromatography paper developed is named chromatogram

• The separation and identifying mixtures of colourless substances is related to spraying locating
agent on chromatogram to produce a coloured product.

• The more soluble a substance is in the solvent, the further it will travel up the chromatography
paper.

• If the substance remains on the base line, this means it is insoluble in the solvent.

• When a sample is separated into more than one spot, so it is a mixture, when sample is
separated into only one spot, so it is pure.

• Rf values are always less than 1

• Reliability of the chromatography can be checked by:

> Repeating the test using other solvent and

> Measure Rf

55
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Preparation of salts:
• Salts are either soluble in water (ionized) or in insoluble in water
Soluble compounds
All Chloride salts except AgCI & PbCh All group ( I ) and ammonium salts
All Bromide salts except AgBr & PbBr2 Ex: NaCI KF U2SO4 RbBr Cs3P04
All Iodide salts except Agl & Pbte NH4CI (NH4)2S04 (NH4)3P04
All Sulphate salts except PbSC> 4 & CaSC> 4 & BaS04
Ex: ZnCb CuBr2 Mgte Ni2S04 BaCh AIBr3 Crb All nitrate salts
CuSC>4 Fe2(S04)3 Ex: Mg( N03)2 AI(N03)3 KNOs Cu(N03)2

Insoluble compounds
All carbonates except group (I) carbonate and ammonium carbonate
All oxides except group group (I) oxide, ammonium oxide, CaO and BaO
All hydroxides except group group (I) hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2
Ex of insoluble compounds: AI2O3 ZnO CuO FeO CaC03 MgCCb BaC03 NhCCb
Zn(OH)2 Cr(OH)3 Cu(OH)2 AI(OH)3 Fe(OH)2

Salt Formula Solid In solution

Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate CuSC> 4 White powder Blue

Hydrated copper (II) sulfate CuS04.5H20 Blue crystals Blue

Copper (II) hydroxide CU(OH)2 Blue Insoluble

Copper (II) nitrate Cu(N03)2 Blue Blue

Copper (II) Chloride CuCI2 Green Green

Copper (II) carbonate CUCO3 Green Insoluble

Iron (II) salts Ex: FeS04 / Fe(N03)2 Pale green Pale green

Iron (III ) salts EX: Fe(N03)3 Reddish brown Reddish brown

Iron (II) oxide FeO Black Insoluble

Mn (IV ) oxide Mn02 Black Insoluble

56
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Preparation of
salts

Precipitation method Excess method Titration method

( Insoluble salts ) ( Soluble salts ) ( Soluble salts )

Precipitation method:
MM I I I It .. j |MH
5id(lt> sulphate
•<
km in
sodicm nitrate
solution eacess
nitrate
•
ph M

tttet paper
leaddl) sulphate
(pure)
\
Alow the precipitate to dry
“on e piece of filter paper.

Soluble salt + Soluble salt —> Insoluble salt + soluble salt

Ex: preparation of barium sulphate
BaCl2(aq) + MgS04(aq) — BaS04(s) + MgCl2(aq)
1- Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulphate.
2- Mix them using glass rod. A white precipitate of barium sulphate forms at once.
3- Filter the mixture. The precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
4- Wash_the precipitate by distilled water to remove soluble salts.
5- Then place it in a oven or on a filter paper to dry.

Ex: preparation of AgCI AgN03(aq) + NaCI(aq) — AgCI(S) + NaN03(aq)

Ex: preparation of Ca3(P04)2 3Ca(N03)2(aq) + 2Na3P04(aq) —*• Ca3(P04)2 + 6NaN03(aq)

57
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Titration Method:

add added
from burette

=»:id added
from burette

colourless solution
( noindicator)

Acid + Alkali —> Soluble salt + water

• This method is used to prepare soluble salts in which the cation (positive ion) is group (I) or
ammonium (NH4+)

> NaCI KF NH4NO3 RbCI LiBr Na2S04 ( NH4 )3PC> 4

• In this method, the experiment is preformed twice,

> the first time is to find the amounts of reactants to use
> the second experiment is the actual one.
Ex: preparation of NaCI NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) —» NaCI(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of K2SO4 KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) — K2S04(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of NH4NO3 NH40H(aq) + HN03(aq) —* NH4N03(aq) + H20(l)
Ex: preparation of U3PO4 LiOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) — Li3P04(aq) + H20(l)

• Universal indicator isn’t used in titration as it changes over many colours

• Indicator is added using dropper (teat pipette / dropping pipette)

• This is a method to make a neutralization reaction between an alkali and an acid producing a salt
without any excess of acid or alkali to ensure the salt is pure.

• Pipette and burette are accurate in measuring volume of liquid and both are more accurate than
measuring cylinder.
• Pipette is used to measure fixed volume ( 25 cm3), burette can be used to measure variable
volumes (ex: 13 cm3, 19 cm3, 24.8 cm3)

58
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

1- Add 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide using a pipette to be accurate to flask.

2- Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the sodium hydroxide. The solution turns pink
indicating presence of a alkali.
3- Fill a burette to zero mark with hydrochloric acid.
4- Open stopcock to allow drops of the acid into conical flask.
5- The pink colour of the solution becomes lighter till it is colourless (end point)
(End point: is the point at which every base molecule is neutralized by an acid molecule).
6- Record the amount of hydrochloric acid used and repeat the experiment without using the
indicator.
7- After the 2nd experiment, you will have a sodium chloride solution.
8- Evaporate it till dryness to obtain powdered sodium chloride
or till crystallization point to obtain sodium chloride crystals.

Excess method:

.
uridissol ’ed
copper II) oxide aqueous solution
of ccpperfll) sulfate

jnreacted
zinc

- dilute aqueous solution

sulfuric acid of zinc sulfate

Acid + base —> soluble salt + water

Acid + carbonates —> soluble salt + water + carbo dioxide
Acid + metal — soluble salt + Hydrogen
• This method is used to prepare soluble salts in which the cation (positive ion) isn’t group (I) or
ammonium ( NH4+)

> MgCI2 AI(N03)3 CrCh CuBr 2 Zn2S04 FeSC> 4

• In this method, the base is in excess, not acid

> the base is in excess to ensure all acid is used up
> The acid isn’t in excess as an acidic mixture of both acid and salt is formed

59
 6> - SEPARATION TECHNIQUE & SALT PREPARATION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Ex: preparation of MgCb Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq) —> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Ex: preparation of C 11SO4 CuO(s) + H2S04(aq) —» CllS04(aq) + HbOfl)
Ex: preparation of Zn(N03)2 ZnC03(s) + 2HN03(aq) — Zn(N03)2(aq)+ 002(g) + H2O0 )
Ex: preparation of ZnS04 Zn(s) + H2S04(aq) — ZnS04(aq) + H2(g)

1 - Add the acid in a beaker

2 - Add excess mass of (Metal / Metal oxide / Metal carbonate / Metal hydroxide) So, all acid used up
3 - When the reaction is done, filter the mixture to remove excess magnesium (residue)

observations confirming acid is used up

> No more base or metal dissolves (solid is visible in the bottom of the beaker)
> No more bubbles if metal carbonates used
> The temperature stops rising
> The solution becomes neutral
4 - The filtrate is the salt solution
5- Evaporate it till dryness to obtain powdered form
or till crystallization point to obtain crystals.

• Method of using metal is suitable to for making salts of moderately reactive metals because highly
reactive metals like K, Na and Ca will cause an explosion

• Metals of low reactivity like Cu, Ag don’t react

• Method of using metal & metal carbonates react readily with acid at room temperature
while in case of metal oxide acid must be warmed to increase rate of reaction

60
7 - Electrolysis

61
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 7
Electrolysis
Conductors and insulators :

• Conductors allow electricity to pass through, but insulators don’t .

• Conductors carry the charge through free moving ions or free moving electrons
• Examples of conductors are as follow:

> Solids that conduct electricity are the metals and graphite as they have free moving electrons
> Ionic compounds conduct when melted or dissolved in water as they have free moving ions

• Examples of insulators

> Molecular substances (covalent ) as they haven’t free moving ions or free moving electrons
> Ionic compounds don’t conduct when solid as they don’t have free moving ions

"
H Ti
Electrolysis:
•
HNo conductivity
KCI
High condii . < 11 v 11 y

Solid metals and graphite allow passage of electricity without decomposition

-I
acetic acid solution
Low conductivity

• Ionic compounds conduct when melted or dissolved in water and ionic compound will be
decomposed

• Electrolysis is defined as breaking down of ionic when molten or aqueous by-passing electricity
through it

• A liquid that contains ions, and therefore conducts electricity, is called an electrolyte

• The electrolyte is formed of 2 ions, positive ion (cation) & negative ion (anion)

• The source of electricity is the battery (cell)

62
7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• The battery will transfer its current of electrons through wire and solid bar named electrodes that
are immersed in the liquid electrolyte

• There are 2 types of electrodes:

> Inert electrodes: Don’t take part in electrolysis (Ex: graphite / platinum)
> Active electrodes: take part in electrolysis (Ex: copper / silver / nickle)

Cathode (-). Anode (+)

Reduction Oxidation

Electrolyte

ELECTROLYTIC CELL

• The electrode connected to positive pole of battery is named anode which is positive electrode

• The electrode connected to negative pole of battery is named cathode which is negative electrode

• During Electrolysis,

Electrons move from negative pole of battery to wire to negative electrode (cathode)

+ve ions (cations) move towards cathode and gain electrons (reduction), the ions change
into atom or molecule

-ve ions (anions) move towards anode and lose electrons (oxidation), the ions change
into atom or molecule

Obviously, Ions migrate to opposite electrodes, +ve ions attracted to -ve electrode and
-ve ions attracted to +ve electrode

Electrons lost at anode move from positive electrode to wire to posituve pole of battery and
circuit is complete.
If a bulb is connected, bulb lights

• The electron flow in the external circuit is from

> Negative terminal (pole) of battery to positive terminal (pole) &
> The anode to the cathode.
63
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

For the metal wire (usually copper ), electrons move along the wire to the positive terminal and the
positive ions of the metal copper stay in position.

The particle moves in the wire (external circuit) is electron

The particle moves in the electrolyte is ion

Electrolysis is a process in which energy is taken in (endothermic)

Electrolysis is the process in which electric energy is changed into chemical energy

Electrolysis of molten lead bromide:

The molten lead bromide contains lead ions ( Pb2 + ) and bromide ions
_
( Br ). This shows what happens when the switch is closed:
1 Electrons flow from the
negative terminal of the
battery
battery to the cathode.
5 Electrons flow from the switch
anode to the positive dosed
terminal of the battery. cathode

2 In the liquid, the ions move to

4 At the anode ( + ) , the Br ions
“

the electrode of opposite charge.

give up electrons . Red-brown
bromine vapour bubbles off .
3 At the cathode ( - ) , the Pb 2 + ions
accept electrons . Lead begins to
heat appear below the cathode.
A source of heat is applied to ensure that compound is molten ana there are free moving ions
allowing the transfer of electric current
If source of heat is removed, compound will solidify, and no free moving ions present, and
electricity will stop passing
At end of electrolysis, the electrolyte is used up
Electrolysis of molten PbBr ? :

At cathode At anode
Pb2+(i) + 2e- — Pb(i) 2Br (i) —* Br2(g) + 2e-

64
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Observations:
1- Silvery grey metal at cathode
2- Orange brown gas at anode
3- The bulb lights

• Electrolysis of molten K ?Q:

At cathode At anode
K+(i) + e ^ K(i)
-
202~(i) - 4e -*• 02(g)
~

Observations:
1- Silvery grey metal at cathode
2- Bubbles of colourless gas at anode
3- The bulb lights

• Electrolysis of other molten compounds

Molten electrolyte Cathode product Anode product

Calcium chloride (CaCh) Calcium, Ca Chlorine, CI2
Sodium chloride (NaCI) Sodium, Na Chlorine, CI2
Aluminium oxide (AI2O3) Aluminium, Al Oxygen, O2
Sodium Iodide (Nal) Sodium, Na Iodine, I2
Electrolysis of aqueous ionic solutions:

• Electrolysing an ionic compound in its solution is very much different to electrolysing it when it’s
molten.

• This is because in a solution we have 4 ions,

K
> H+ from water and cation of the compound will compete at cathode Na
> OH from water and anion of the compound will compete at anode
'
Ca
Mg
Al
• Only one type of ions gets discharged at each electrode. c
• For the positive ions, the one that gets discharged at the cathode is the least reactive one. Zn
Fe

> if the ion from the ionic compound is above hydrogen in the reactivity series Sn
Pb
(more reactive like Na+, Mg2+, Al3+) H+ is reduced and H2 at the cathode H
Cu
> if the ion from the ionic compound is below hydrogen in the reactivity series Ag
(less reactive like Cu2+, Ag+) this ion is reduced into atom at the cathode. Au
Pt

Reactivity series

65
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• For the Negative ions, it all depends on the concentration (more abundant).

> If concentrated solution of Halides, halide is oxidised, and halogen gas is produced.
> If diluted solution of Halides, OH is oxidised and oxygen gas is produced.
'

> If Nitrate or sulphate, OH" is oxidised and oxygen gas is produced.

N03 and SO42 are not involved in electrolysis of aqueous solution even if solution is
' "

concentrated as they are difficult to be oxidised

• Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid : oxygen. hydrogen

At cathode At anode
dilute rinert metal
©
H *
SO42 sulfuric add - electrodes

2H+(aq) + 2e —> H2(g) 40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H2O + 4e

> This experiment is the electrolysis of water

> Dilute sulfuric becomes more concentrated

Observations:

1- Bubbles of colourless gas at cathode and anode

2- Volume of Hydrogen formed is twice that of oxygen
2H+(aq) + 2e —» H2(g) So 4H+(aq) + 4e —> 2H2(g) “

40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H2O + 4e

“ "

_
> Same n. of electrons gained and lost (4 e ) and ratio of H2 : O2 is 2 :1
+ t

• Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride: I

°H
&
At cathode At anode ©r~ @
Na +
Cl
© R
[ ;OH
-

© ©3 [ H-
° ©
2H+(aq) + 2e —* H2(g) 40H “

(aq) —* 02(g) + 2H2O + 4e

•
“

> This experiment is the electrolysis of water

> The solution of NaCI becomes more concentrated

Observations:
Bubbles of colourless gas at cathode and anode

66
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid:

chlonne
r> hydrogen

test tubes
At cathode At anode
H+
©
© OH '

HCI
2H+(aq) + 2e — H2(g) 2CI (aq) - 2e — Cl2(g)
_
or 2CI-(aq) —i Cl2(g) + 2e

> The remaining ions in solution are H+ & OH are left forming water
"

Observations:
1- Bubbles of colourless gas at cathode
2- Bubbles of green gas at anode

• Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride :

At cathode At anode

OH "

Na+
©
2H +
(aq) + 2e
~
—> H2 (g) 2CI (aq) — Cl2 (g) + 2e
> The remaining ions in solution are Na+ & OH are left forming sodium hydroxide NaOH
"

Observations:
1- Bubbles of colourless gas at cathode
2- Bubbles of green gas at anode
3- Formation of Alkaline solution ( NaOH) turning red litmus paper into blue
chlorine hydrogen
out out

Important application of electrolysis of brine (NaCI):

brine In TLixilfl
X
• The base of chloro- alkali industry op X <£ ° hydrogen
• It is named membrane cell chlorine -
gas
- X
X 6
gas
nickel
• The membrane allows the passage of Na+and water only. titanium -
<
X
cathode
anode
The products are kept separated and can’t react with each other Na+ <

-1 sodium hydroxide
solution out
67 ran b
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Comparison between Concentrated NaCI and dilute NaCI

> Rate of formation of bubbles is faster in concentrated
>
• Bulb is brighter

• Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using graphite electrodes:

At cathode At Anode
\y

kL
~
electrodes -
CU^+(aq) + 2e — CU(s) 40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H20(g) + 4e of carbon jm R— coating of
C PPer
bubbles of — « °coppeKII
Observations:
oxygen *t )
sulfate solution
blue colour fading
1- Copper deposited at cathode as a brown deposit
2- Bubbles of colourless gas at anode
3- Blue colour of CuS04 fades as copper sulphate is used up because copper ions are removed
from the solution and colourless dilute sulfuric acid formed that turns blue litmus paper into red

• Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using copper electrodes:

At cathode At anode \>

H+ OH-
*
S042-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e — Cu(s) CU(S) — Cu2+(aq) + 2e
copper \ copper cathode
anode grows larger

^
dissolves
copperfll)
Observations: sulfate solution
1- Copper deposited at cathode as a brown deposit blue colour does not fade
2- Mass of anode decreases as anode dissolves
3- Colour of copper sulphate doesn’t fade

> OH- isn’t oxidized forming oxygen as anode is made of copper which is active
electrode that is oxidised (dissolved) forming Cu2+
> As Copper ions removed from solution (deposited at cathode), they are replaced with
those from the anode atoms oxidised and dissolved into the solution at the same rate

68
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Applications of electrolysis :
1- Refining of copper
anode cathode
(Impure copper) (pure copper)
+ + +
J~L _RL

•
0 sludge
containing
precious
metals
l
Anode is impure copper, cathode is pure copper and electrolyte is soluble Cu2+ solution
{Ex: CuS04 or Cu(N03)2}

• The main impurities in the copper are small quantities of silver and zinc.
Upon electrolysis small piece of impure copper to extract pure copper from

> Copper is deposited at cathode

> Silver impurities fall to the bottom of the cell as silver is less reactive than copper
> Zinc impurities dissolve into solution (as ions) as zinc is more reactive than copper
+ Voltage -

2- Electroplating
• Many metals are electroplated for:

1- Protection of corrosion and rust

2- Making them look attractive
3- Make hard surface
AgN03(ag)

• Object to be electroplated is at cathode, metal used in electroplating is at anode

• Object to be electroplated must be cleaned well with sandpaper before electroplating to ensure
removal of impurities and being well coated
• Object to be electroplated must be fully dipped in solution in order to ensure complete coating
• Object to be electroplated must be rotated in order to ensure uniform coating

Example: Electroplating with silver

At cathode At anode
Ag+(aq) + e -
* Ag(S) Ag<s) -»• Ag+(aq) + e

69
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Extracting Aluminium :

• This is another application of electrolysis

• The rock from which metal is extracted is named ore

• Ore of Aluminium is bauxite (AI2O3/ Fe203)

• Bauxite is dissolved in Sodium Hydroxide

> The aluminium oxide (amphoteric oxide) dissolves to give a solution of sodium aluminate
> The iron ( III) hydroxide (basic hydroxide) does not dissolve and can be removed by filtration

• Aluminium oxide name alumina is regained from sodium aluminate by chemical process
• Aluminium is a reactive metal; it holds on very tightly to the anion it bonds which is oxide in this
case
> This oxide can’t be reduced by heating with carbon as C is less reactive than Al
> The best way to extract aluminium is by electrolysis.
• In this cell, the electrodes are made of graphite (carbon).
1- The cathode is a layer at the bottom of the cell
2- The anodes are bars dipped in the electrolyte
3- The electrolyte in this process is a molten mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite (Na3AIF6)
waste gases.
02, CO CO, Fj
*

carbon anode ( +)
I I
mixture of aluminium
carbon cathode (-) oxide and cryofite

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / 777*
molten aluminium
• Advantages of graphite as electrodes:
1- Good conductor of electricity (mainly)
2- High melting and boiling point
3- Inert
4- Cheap

• Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite as:

> It is the solvent

> Alumina has a very high melting point of 2030 °C and upon dissolving, the melting point
of the mixture decreases to 900 C, thus saves energy and reduces costs
> The conductivity is better
70
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Electrical must be continuously supplied to the mixture as heat energy produced keep it molten.
Aluminium oxide does not conduct electricity when solid because it does not have free mobile
ions to carry the charge.

At cathode At anode
Al3+(i) + 3e
~

— AI(D 202 (i) —* 02(g) + 4e

• O2 gas which evolves at anode reacts with carbon from the anode forming C02.anodes burn
away. To solve this, the anode is replaced at regular intervals.

• At the anode, the other following gases are formed

1- Carbon dioxide due to complete combustion (sufficient oxygen) C(S) + 02(g) -»• C02(g)
2- Carbon monoxide due to incomplete combustion (insufficient oxygen) 2C(s) + 02(g) — 2CO(g)
3- Fluorine (electrolysis of fluorine present in cryolite) 2F (i)
'
- 2e ->• F2(g)
• Aluminium is covered with protective nonporous oxide layer, makes it unreactive.

• Another important application of electrolysis is anodising of aluminium which is the thickening of

the protective oxide layer present on the surface of aluminium

> Anode is made of Aluminium

> Cathode is made of graphite
> Electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid
> Equation at anode is 40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H2O + 4e
“ ~

The oxygen produced will react with aluminium as follow 4AI(S) + 302(g) —*• 2Al203(s)

Uses of Aluminium :
1- Air crafts (Aeroplanes) and used as alloy not pure Aluminium due to:

> Low density

> High tensile strength

2- Overhead cables due to:

> High electrical conductivity

> Low density

> Overhead cables have a steel core to strengthen the cable (cables don’t sag)
> At pylons, ceramic disc is an insulator (for safety),
the ceramic prevents the electric current from running down the pylon.

71
 7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

3- Drinks cans & Windows frames due to:

> Resistance to corrosion (AI2O3 protective layer)
> Easily shaped

4- Food containers due to:

> Resistance to corrosion (AI2O3 protective layer)

> No reaction with food (AI2O3 protective layer )

5- Cooking utensils

> Resistance to corrosion (AI2O3 protective layer)

> No reaction with food (AI2O3 protective layer )
> Good conductor of heat
> High melting point
> Malleable

Simple cell

• It is a cell converting chemical energy into electric energy

• As electric energy is produced (given off) so it is exothermic
• Oxidation and reduction (redox ) take place in simple cells as electrons are
lost and gained
• The first electrochemical cell, for example,
consisted of zinc and copper electrodes in a dilute acid
electron flow
positive
electrode
(copper )
negative
electrode
(zinc)
cr
I
1
hydrogen
gas
f
Cu
+
electrolyte
sulfuric add Zn
R Cu 0Q
H2

Zn
( H2 S04 ) I
ionizes to
j 00 o *oo
4
2Hl+ so4=
ZnSOuOCO

• The zinc element is

> More reactive, more readily to releases electrons
> Zinc atoms oxidised into ions
> Oxidation occurs at anode, so zinc is anode
> Electrons give the zinc electrode a negative charge
Zn(s) —* Zn2+(aq) + 2e
^
72
7- ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• The electrons move around the circuit to the copper electrode

• Copper is a good conductor of electrons, hydrogen ions in the solution gain electrons (reduction)
• The coper element is
> Less reactive, less readily to releases electrons
> (H+) in solution are reduced into molecule
> Reduction occurs at cathode, so copper is cathode
> Copper electrode carries positive charge
> 2H+(aq) + 2e —y H2(g) "

• The overall reaction of the cell is the same as the ionic equation for the displacement reaction that
can be done in a test tube:
Zn<s) + 2H+(aq) — Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

• This cell works because the two metals have different reactivities

• The more the difference in reactivity between the 2 metals, the greater the voltage produced.

• In the previous cell of Zn & Cu to increase voltage

> Substitute zinc with more reactive metal like Mg or
> Substitute copper with less reactive metal like Ag or
> You can substitute both to have a new cell of Mg & Ag
> Use more concentrated acid
> Use stronger acid

voltmeter

copper • • — copper zinc 1 copper magnesium \- topper

solution of
u
/ sodium chloride

• You can use Simple cell to detect which metal is more reactive by setting up a cell of the 2
metals
> The metal that will decrease in size (dissolved) and oxidises is more reactive
> If no one of the 2 elements dissolve so they are equal in reactivity

73
 7 - ELECTROLYSIS BY : PR / PETER POULES

K
• You can use the known voltage of cells to predict the voltage
Na
of other cells as follow:
Ca
Mg
A cell of Mg and Cu is 0.8 Al
A cell of Mg and Pt is 1.2 Zn
A cell of cu & Pt is 1.2 - 0.8 = 0.4 Fe 0.8
Sn
Pb
H
Cu
y 1.2
Ag
Au
Rt

Different forms of simple cell:

voltmeter

magnesium copper
electrode electrode
zinc electrode

zinc sutfate(aq)

copper(n) sulfate(aq)
MgS04( aq ) CuS04( aq )
porous pot - stops porous barrier
solutions from mixing

Zinc is more reactive, oxidised, Zinc is anode Mg is more reactive, oxidised Mg is

anode
Anode is Zn & Cathode is Cu Anode is Mg & Cathode is Cu
_ _
At anode Zn(S) —* Zn2+(aq) + 2e At anode Mgts) —* Mg2+<aq) + 2e
At cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e "

CU(s) At cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e ~

—* Cu(S)

74
 BY: PR / PETER POULES
voltmeter

inert electrode inert electrode electron flow

carbon carbon
electrode

iOJtoi of solution of iron(E) salt

bromine Fe>(aq)
Br,(aq) potassiun l
^
manganatefVH) (aq)
potassium
iodide (aq )

filter paper soaked in

sodium chloride solution salt bridge
to complete the circuit ( allows ions to move from
one beaker to another )

Fe2+ is reducing agent (oxidised) h is reducing agent (oxidised )

Br2 is oxidising agent (reduced) KMnCUis oxidising agent (reduced)
Anode is Fe2+ & Cathode is Br2 Anode is Kl & Cathode is KMn04(VII)
At anode Fe2+(aq) — Fe3+(aq) + 1e~ At anode 2l (aq) — l2(aq) + 2e
'

At cathode Br2(aq) + 2e —* 2Br (aq) At cathode Mn7+(aq) + 5e — Mn2+(aq)

Comparison of simple cell and electrolysis: Battery

Anode Cathode
( Oxidation ) ( reduction )
Energy
Anode Cathode
( Oxidation ) ( reduction )

i Electrolytes

I
© © Electrolytic Cell

Simple cell Electrolysis

Chemical energy converted into electric energy Electric energy converted into chemical energy
Exothermic Endothermic
Source of electrons is the more reactive element Source of electrons is negative pole of battery
Application Applications
• Sacrificial protection • Refining of copper ,

• Electroplating and

• Cathodic protection

75
2- Metals

76
 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Chapter 8
Metals
metals. Here is a reminder of some of them: Croup III has aluminium , the
most abundant metal in the
—
Croup I the alkali N Earths crust , in this position ...
metals ( lithium,
sodium , potassium . . . ) Group 0
n in V VI VII

transition elements n< ci -

in > ta s
m > ta s

Croup II - the alkaline earth the transition elements - all are metals, and they
metals ( beryllium , magnesium , include most of the metals in everyday use , like iron,
calcium . . . ) copper, tin, zinc , lead, silver, gold . . .

The physical properties of metals :

• Most metals have these physical properties:
1- They are shiny when polished (Except group I)
2- They are strong. (Except group I)
3- They have high melting and boiling points (Except group I)
4- They have high density - they feel ‘heavy’. (Except group I)
5- They are solids (except Mercury)

• All metals have these physical properties:

1- They are malleable. They can be bent into sheets without breaking.
2- They are ductile: they can be drawn out into wires.
3- They are good conductors of electricity and heat.

The chemical properties of metals :

1- Metals react by losing electrons forming positive ions
2- The valency of metal ion is the same as the group number except transition metals which have
more than one valency
3- Metals are reducing agents
4- They react with oxygen to form oxides
5- Metal oxides are bases: they neutralise acids, forming salts and water
6- Metals react with non-metals forming ionic bond

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULES

Reactivity series: K
Na
• Metals are arranged in reactivity series. Down the series, reactivity decreases
Ca
Mg
• Reactivity of groups is as follow:
Al
Group (I ) > Group ( II ) > Group (III ) > transition metals
C
Zn
• As reactivity of metal increases, metal is more readily to lose electrons Fe
> More reactive metal, more easily oxidised, has more reducing power Sn
Pb
• As reactivity of metal increases, metal compound stability increases and so: H
> Extraction is more difficult Cu
> Extraction cost increases Ag
> It is more difficult to decompose the compound by heat Au
Pt
• More reactive metal can displace lower reactive metal in its salt

Mg(s) + CuS04(aq) —> MgS04(aq) + CU(s)

Ag(S) + CuS04(aq> — No reaction
Fe<s) + CuS04(aq) —> FeS04(aq) + CU(s)

Reaction of Fe & CuS04

• There are 2 non metals in the reactivity series of metals, carbon and hydrogen and both are
reducing agents

For carbon :

Metals below carbon are less reactive than carbon, so C can reduce its ions and can
be used in its extraction it from its ore
Ex: ZnO(s) + C<S) —* Zn(S) + CO(g)

Metals above C are more reactive than carbon, so C can’ t reduce its ions and can’ t be
used in its extraction it from its ore Ex: Al, Ca, K

Extraction of metals are clustered as follow:

1- Most reactive Elements above C are extracted by Electrolysis of molten compound

2- Moderate reactive elements below C and above H are reduced with carbon
3- Least reactive elements below H are found native

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8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

For hydrogen :

> Metals below hydrogen are less reactive than H, so can’t displace hydrogen in acids
Ag(s) + HCI(aq) — No reaction
> Metals above hydrogen are more reactive than H, so can displace hydrogen in acids

Mg(s) + H2S04(aq) —* MgS04(aq) +H2(g)

Zn(s) + HCI(aq) — ZnCl2(aq) +H2(g)
It is not safe to add sodium or potassium to acid in the lab, because the reactions are
explosively fast.

Reaction with water:

• There are some metals that react with cold water
> All group (I) elements
> Group (II) elements except Be

Metal + H2O —> Metal hydroxide + H2

2Na(S) + 2H20(i) — 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Ca<s) + 2H20(|) —> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

> Magnesium reacts with water very slowly and it must be powdered form
Reaction with steam:
• There are some metals that react with steam
> Magnesium, Iron and Zinc react with steam
Metal + —> Metal oxide + H2
Mg(s) + H20(g) — MgO(s) + H2(g)

• Burning of metals:
Metals behave differently during their burning in air (O2) as follow:
burning of Mg
> Some metals burn in oxygen and the basic oxide produced dissolves in water to give a
solution with pH above 7

Magnesium: Mg Burns with bright white flame (used in fireworks)

White solid formed (MgO) dissolves slightly,
turns red litmus paper blue

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

> Some metals burn in oxygen and the basic oxide produced doesn’t dissolves in sr
Iron: Fe burns with yellow flame
Black solid formed (FeO) that is insoluble in water

> Some metals react with oxygen at high temperature without burning
burning of Fe
Copper: Cu doesn’t burn but form oxides on their surface
Reddish brown Cu turns into black solid (CuO) which is insoluble in water
stream of
copper turnings
oxygen
Zinc also doesn’t burn but form oxides on their surface

• .
Gold Silver are used in jewellery as the don’t form oxides in air at room temperature. heal

Group (I ) metals: i

• They are named Alkali metals as they form alkaline solutions

when they react with water

• Like all metals, they are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Physical properties of group (I):

1- They are softer than most other metals. They can be cut with a knife.
2- They have low density. So, they float on water while reacting with it
3- They have low melting and boiling points, compared with most metals.

• They are shiny when freshly cut by knife

• They are usually stored under oil as they are highly active and react with air

Trend of physical properties and reactivity through the group:

Down the group Li

Na
> • Reactivity increases
> Softness increases K
> Density increases Rb
> Melting & boiling Points decrease
Cs
They are the lightest metals and lithium is the lightest metal. Fr
They are the most reactive metals and francium is the most reactive metal
Elements of group (I) react in similar way as they have the same number of valency electrons
Reactivity increases down the group as more electron shells are added and the atoms and
outermost shell electron becomes further from nucleus with weaker attraction force

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Chemical properties:

1- The alkali metals are the most reactive of all the metals as they need to lose only one electron, to
gain a stable outer shell. So, they have a strong drive to give up this electron.
2- They form white compounds
3- They react with cold water

• Reaction with Oxygen:

4Li(s) + 02(g) — 2Li20(s) 2,8,8,1

• Reaction with halogen:

2Na(S) + Cl2(g) — 2NaCI(S)

• Reaction with water:

Metal + H2O —> Metal hydroxide + H2
2Na(S) + 2H2O0) — 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2K(S) + 2H20(I)
— 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

The gas produced tested with lighted splint, makes pops sound
Alkaline solution
tested with phenolphthalein

The alkaline solution tested with phenolphthalein, turns pink

Reaction is highly exothermic we go down the group, reactivity of metal increases,
severity of reaction increases.
severity of reaction is expressed as follow: Explosively > Violently > Vigorously
The observations of the reaction:
1- Metal floats as it has low density
2- Metal melts as reaction is highly exothermic and metal has low MP
3- Metal move in darts caused by bubbles of hydrogen gas
Li Na K
float float float
melt slowly melt melt
move slowly move in darts move in darts
may catch a fire catch fire and explode
• If a metal like potassium left in air, it would form the following:

> potassium oxide

> potassium hydroxide
> potassium carbonate
> potassium hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)

• Safety measures of adding sodium to water in lab:

Use goggles, use gloves and stand at safe distance
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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Group (II) metals : Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals

• They are named Alkali earth metals

> Alkaline as oxides and hydroxides slightly soluble

in water forming alkaline solution
> Earth as oxides are found in earth crust Periodic Table of Elements

• Like all metals, they are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Physical properties of group ( I ) :

1- Higher MP than Group (I)

2- Higher density than Group (I)
3- Harder than Group (I)
Be
Trend of physical properties and reactivity through the group: Mg
Down the group Ca
> Reactivity increases
Sr
> Density increases
Ba
> Melting & boiling Points decrease
Ra
Chemical properties:
1- Less reactive than Group (I)
2- Form white compounds
3- Ra, Sr, Ba, Ca and powdered Mg react with cold water

• Reaction with Oxygen:

2Sr(s) + 02(g) —* 2SrO(s)
> Beryllium doesn ' t react with oxygen
• Reaction with halogen:
Mg(S) + Cl2(g) — MgCl2(s)

• Reaction of calcium with water:

Metal + H2O —> Metal hydroxide + H2

Ca<s) + 2H2O0) — Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Ba(s) + 2H2O0) — Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) reaction of Ca with H2O

The gas produced tested with lighted splint, makes pops sound
The alkaline solution tested with phenolphthalein, turns pink
Reaction is highly exothermic we go down the group, reactivity of metal increases,
severity of reaction increases.
severity of reaction is expressed as follow: Explosively > Violently > Vigorously
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8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

> The observations of the reaction:

1- Metal sinks as it has high density
2- Effervescence due to formation of hydrogen gas
3- Turbidity as calcium hydroxide formed is poorly soluble in water
> Upon using large piece of Ca, it will sink as it has high density then it will float by the
action of bubble of gas, then sinks again then floats again and so on.
> Be doesn’t react with water
> Magnesium powder reacts very slowly

Thermal decomposition:
• It is the decomposition of the compound by the effect of heat

• As reactivity of metal increases, Stability of the compound increases, and its decomposition
becomes harder

Thermal decomposition of Group (I) compounds:

Metal Nitrate —* Metal nitrite + Oxygen

Metal carbonates — No decomposition
Metal hydroxide — No decomposition
2KN03(S) -* 2KN02( ) + 02(g)
S

2RbN03(s) — 2RbN02(s) + 02(g)

_
l i2C03 — No decomposition
NaOH —* No decomposition
•

Thermal decomposition of other metal compounds :

Metal Nitrate —> Metal oxide + Oxygen + Nitrogen dioxide

Metal carbonates — Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide

Metal hydroxide — Metal oxide + Water

Metal bicarbonate — Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide + Water
Metal sulphate —* Metal oxide + Sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide
2Cu(N03)2(s) — 2CuO(s )+ 4N02(g> + 02(g)
CaC03(s) —* CaO(s) + C02(g)
Zn(OH)2(s) —> ZnO(s) + H20(i)
> N02 is a reddish-brown gas
> Decomposition of KN03 differs from 0u(NO3)2 as potassium is more reactive than
copper and its compound are more stable than that of copper
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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Corrosion or Rusting:
When metal is attacked by water and air frequently, it corrodes.
The corrosion in case of iron and steel is named Rusting.
Aluminium doesn’t corrode due to formation of thin single protective
non- porous layer of Aluminium oxide which seals and protects it from corrosion.

Iron + Oxygen + Water — hydrated iron (III) oxide (rust / reddish brown flaky solid)
4 Fe(s) + 302(g) + 2H2O0) — 2Fe203.H20(s)

Carrying out an experiment on damp iron wall in inverted container

In a trough filled with eater, we will observe rise in level of water as the
Oxygen in air is used up

> Oxygen represent almost 21% of the volume of air,

*
damp iron wool
> If the volume of air in the container is 50 cm3
> The volume of O2 consumed = 50 X (21 + 100) =10.5 cm3
> The water will rise to level of 10.5 an

Sea water, acid rain increases the rate of corrosion.

Pure oxygen increases the rate of corrosion
water —
A. B I> TE

r )X
IX Manhydrous
calcium
chloride
water
JX fcx>ile<J
water
water
salt
JD
• Absence of one of the 2 factors (H2O / O2) will prevent rusting
> Exp A, rust occurs, O2 and water vapour are present in air
Exp A, no rust, CaCl2 is a drying agent so air is dried (no H2O)
Exp C, rust occurs, O2 is present in air and dissolved in water. Also, H2O is present
Exp D, no rust,
No dissolved oxygen in boiled H2O,
Oil prevent air from dissolving in H2O
No O2, only H2O present so no rust as both factore are must

Exp E, rusts occurs quickly, due to presence of dissolved ions

84
 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Prevention of rusting:
1 - Through preventing air and water from reaching the surface
• This can be made by several techniques as follow:
> Painting
> Galvanising: dipping the object in molten zinc
> Electroplating: using a layer of other unreactive element (Ex: tin)
> Oiling and greasing
> Plastic coating

2- Sacrificial protection
• A more reactive element (Mg / Zn) is attached to iron
and it corrodes instead of it

Ex: Ship’s hull, oil rigs and underground pipes

are attached with blocks of Mg or Zn

• More reactive metal like Zn corrodes as:

12e ~ zinc (Zn) »» Zn
> Zn is more active than iron, Zn is more readily to lose electrons.
> Zn is oxidised and change to ions, lost electrons are transferred to Fe (Ml
> Zn corrodes in preference to iron which doesn’t rust.
• Sacrificial protection is an application of simple cell
• Galvanising has the advantage over plating with Sn or Cr as it will still protect the iron even though
the layer is scratched by sacrificial protection

3- Cathodic protection
steel oil rig
• This is named also electrolytic protection which is cathode
• It’s an application of electrolysis using
titanium
> Power supply anode
> Inert anode resistant to corrosion (titanium)
> Steel is at cathode sea water contains
H+(aq), OHiaq),
Na+(aq), Cl-(aq)
• Steel doesn’t rust as
> It doesn’t lose electrons because it receives electrons from the battery
> Steel is at cathode at which reduction (gain of e ) occurs
'

85
 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Comparison between sacrificial protection and cathodic protection :

Sacrificial protection Cathodic protection

Application of simple cell Application of electrolysis
No electric source Electric source exists

Electrons from more reactive metal Electrons from battery

The anode is made of more reactive metal The anode is made of inert metal

Extracting iron : waste gases

• Raw materials added to the furnace are:
> Iron ore, hematite, containing impurities such as silica (SiC>2)
> Hot air (source of O2) raw materials:
> Coke (C) coke, C
> Limestone (CaCOs) firebrick lining iron ore, Fe203
limestone. CaC03
• Substances formed in the blast furnace are:
> Molten iron CO forms
> Molten slag
> Waste gases such as carbon dioxide
CO:, forms
C(s) + 02(g) - 002(g)
air
002(g) + C(s) —» 2CO(g) C
c
-

Fe203(s) + 3CO(g) —* 2Fe<i) + 3002(g)

0aCO3(s) —* CaO(s) + 002(g) molten iron
1
CaO(s) + Si02(s) — CaSi03(i>
• 1st reaction:
> This is a combustion, redox and exothermic reaction
> Hot air is a source of oxygen to burn coke
> Heat given out of the reaction is used to heat blast furnace (1900 - 2000 °C)
• 2nd reaction:
> This is a redox reaction
> In this reaction CO (reducing agent) is formed
> In this reaction Carbon is both oxidised and reduced
oxidised

002(g) + C(S) —* 2CO(g)

4+ 2+

reduced
86
8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

> CO is formed in the bottom of furnace, above CO2 as:

- CO2 formed react with excess C to form CO
- Most O2 used in combustion, less O2 is available so incomplete combustion
occurs forming CO

• 3rd reaction:
In this redox reaction, carbon monoxide is the reducing agent
It reduces the iron(lll) oxide to the metal
The carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide
The liquid iron formed at middle runs down to the bottom of the furnace
The iron formed is named pig iron (cast iron)
The iron formed is molten as temperature at the bottom of the furnace is higher than
melting point of iron
The hot air (oxygen) doesn’t react with molten iron as:

- Molten iron is covered with slag which prevents oxygen from reaching it
- Most of oxygen reacts with carbon

• 4th reaction:
> The limestone is thermally decomposed by the heat of the furnace
> This is an endothermic reaction
> Basic CaO is formed named lime

• 5th reaction:
> This is a neutralization reaction
> Basic CaO reacts with acidic Si02 forming calcium silicate (CaSi03 / slag)
> Calcium oxide will remove the sand that was present in the ore
> Molten Slag runs down the furnace and floats on the iron as it is less dense
it is skimmed off to be separated

• The waste gases formed at the top of the furnace are hot carbon dioxide and nitrogen
• The waste gases are used in heat exchangers to heat the incoming air (save energy )
• Water is used as coolant to control temperature but not involved in the reaction

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Steel makinq:

high

malleablity

molten iron low

increasing percentage
of carbon

• Iron produced from blast furnace (pig iron) contains 4% carbon and other impurities.
• As the amount of C increases, Iron is harder and more brittle.
• The molten iron from the blast furnace is poured into an oxygen converter, and a jet of oxygen is
turned on.

> Carbon is oxidized into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and escapes
> Sulfur is oxidized into sulfur dioxide and escapes
> Silicon and phosphorus are oxidized into silicon oxide and phosphorus pentoxide
which are solids.

• Calcium oxide (lime) which is basic oxide is added to remove the acidic solid impurities as slag
which is skimmed off the surface
• Throughout the process, sample of the iron are being taken and analysed for the percentage of
carbon present in

Alloy :

• It is a mixture of two or more elements (usually metals)

• Made by melting metals together then cooled.
• It is made to:
> Increase the strength (harder/stronger)
> More resistant to corrosion
> Increase the range of uses
> Better appearance
• Alloy is a mixture of elements; it isn’t a compound (not chemically combined)
• The only non-metal in alloys is carbon
• All Alloys conduct electricity but less efficient than pure metal

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

• Alloys are more expensive than the metals they are made from.
• Alloys are stronger than pure metals as introduction of new atom with deferent size (different
atomic radius) will interrupt and reduce the sliding of the layers of metal ions.

Metal

Types of steel and its uses:

• Mild steel
> It is an alloy of 99.75% Iron & 0.25% carbon
> Used to make car bodies, machinery and nails

• Hard steel
> It is an alloy of 99% Iron & 1% carbon
> Used to make bridges, railway lines, building constructions, knives and hammers

• Stainless steel
> It is made of Iron, chromium, nickel and 0.5% carbon
> Used to make cutlery, kitchen sinks and pipes, surgical tools and
chemical plants (factories)
> Stainless steel is prevented from rusting by mixing it with other metals
(mainly chromium) not by excluding oxygen.

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Extracting Zinc:

• The ore of zinc is called zinc blende and it is made of zinc sulfide. (ZnS)

•
—
Roasting in air ( oxygen )

2ZnS + 302 2ZnO + 2SQ2

> Zinc sulfide gets heated very strongly with hot air in a furnace.
> Zinc sulfide reacts with oxygen from the air to produce
zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide
> SO2 is used in manufacture of sulfuric acid)

• Reduction of ZnO
> Zinc oxide produced is put into a furnace with powdered coke.
> The mixture is heated with hot air
> Carbon from the coke reduces the zinc oxide into zinc producing carbon monoxide
which escapes as waste gas.
ZnO(s) + C(s) —* Zn(g) + CO(g)

> The heat produced in the furnace is by combustion of carbon

C(s) + 02(g) — C02(g)
> The CO2 produced react with excess C forming CO that also reduce ZnO
C02 (g) + C(s) — 2C0(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(s) — Zn(g) + C02(g)

• Zinc has low boiling point which is below the temperature of furnace, so it is formed as gas

• Zinc vapour passes out of the furnace and is cooled and condensed at condensing tray

• Uses of Zinc
> Galvanizing
> Sacrificial protection
> Battery (Cell)
> Coinage
> Brass alloy

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 8 - METALS BY: PR / PETER POULBS

Extracting of copper:

• Copper is found native

• When it is used for electric wires, refining (purification) by electrolysis is made.
• Most of its soluble salts are blue

• Uses of copper :
> Electric wires as it is
good conductor of electricity
malleable & ductile

> Cooking utensils (saucepan) as it is

Good conductor of heat
High melting point
Unreactive, so corrosion resistant

> Pipes
> Ornaments
> Making alloys like

1- Brass alloy: made of copper and zinc

used to make musical instruments, doorknobs, door knocker

2- Bronze alloy: made of copper and tin

used to make casting and machine parts

91
<? - Air and Water

92
 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Chapter
9
Air and water
1- Water
• Water is essential in our daily life
• There are many types of water
> Tape water which is water which contains dissolved salts
> Sea water which is water which contains dissolved salts and high % of NaCI
> Distilled water, which is water only, contains no dissolved salts
> Desalinated water which is treated sea water by removing NaCI

Water cycle:
• Liquid water evaporates into water vapor
• Vapour condenses to form clouds
• Water precipitates back to earth in the form
of rain and snow
• Water is collected in lakes, rivers and seas
Then start evaporation again

Uses of water:

• At home we need it for household uses

> Drinking
> Cooking
> Washing things and ourselves
> Flushing toilet waste away.

• In industry

Used as solvent
Used as coolant to keep hot reaction tanks cool
Ex: cold-water pipes coiled around the blast furnace
Manufacture of ethanol
Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid (contact process)
Manufacture of hydrogen in ammonia manufacture (Haber process)

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 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Chemical tests for water:

• The chemical test is used to check identity (composition) of water
• If a liquid contains water , it will ...
> turn white anhydrous powder of copper(ll) sulfate into blue hydrated crystals
CuS04(s) +5H2O CUS04.5H20(S)
* - 5 H 2O

> turn blue anhydrous powder of cobalt (II) chloride into pink hydrated crystals
COCI2(s) +6H?Q
- 6H 2O
- COCl2.6H20(s)

• Both colour changes can be reversed by heating the hydrated form and evaporation of H2O

Physical tests for water :

The physical test is used to check purity of water
If a liquid is pure water, it will ...
> boil at 100 °C
> freeze at 0 °C .
If a liquid is pure water, it will ...
> boil at temperature higher than 100 °C
> freeze at temperature lower than 0 °C
> boil and freeze at range of temperature not fixed temperature

Water treatment:
• Filtration by bed of coarse and fine sand to remove insoluble particles
• Chlorination by addition chlorine to kill the bacteria and other microbes
covered
screen storage tank
A

water in
4 1
B C
pump
U D
coarse /
filter 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

pump factories
sediment fine filter
tank chlorine
added

• Some countries, charcoal is used to remove bad tastes and smells.

• In the modern form of water treatment ozone is used as it is excellent in disinfection.
94
 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

• Soluble salts like NaCI and nitrates are not removed by filtration
• Pollution of water supply may occur as a result of Less oxygen available as follow:

> Untreated sewage can trap O2 by chemical reaction

> Industrial warm water dissolves less O2 than cold water
> Fertilisers increase growth of aquatic plant life such as algae growth
which take oxygen from the water during growth and during its decay
causing the death offish

2- Air
Composition of air
Element percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.9%
Carbon dioxide 0.04%
Helium, Krypton, Water vapour,
Xenon and Neon
Uses of nitrogen:
• Liquid nitrogen used in cryogenics ( storage of living tissues at very low temperature)
• Filling bags of crisps (chips) as it is unreactive and to keep air (oxygen) away to avoid
rancidity.
• Making of ammonia and fertilisers (Haber process)

Uses of oxygen:
• Production of steel from cast iron
• Cutting and welding of metals (high temperature Oxyacetylene)
• Breathing of sick people (not respiration)
• Combustion of petrol to produce energy (EX: react with methane in a Bunsen burner)

Uses of Carbon dioxide:

• In fizzy drinks
• Fire extinguisher

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 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Separation of components of air:

nitrogw
• This is made by fractional distillation and it involves two stages:
(b.p. - 196 *0 (dktilsowfim)
1- Cooling of air until it is liquid —
(stage 0 (stage 2)
2- Warming up liquid again, argon
air liquid air
every gas boil at different boiling point. coding and fractional (b.p. -186 *0
compression distillation
Pollution of air: „ o( *ygen *
b.p. - 183 0
Pollutant Source effect

Carbon dioxide 1-Respiration Greenhouse gases causing

C02 2-Complete combustion of fossil fuel global warming resulting in:

(excess oxygen which is more than -melting of polar ice

enough to react with all the hydrocarbon) -spreading of desserts
3-Themal decomposition of limestone -people will have less water
-Hurricanes and flooding will be
4-Decay of animals and plants after death
more common
5- Fermentation > CH4 is more dangerous as a
Methane 1-Decomposition of vegetation in absence greenhouse gas than CO2
CH4 of oxygen
2-Waste gas of digestion of food of
animals
Ex: farming of cattle
Carbon Incomplete burning of fossil fuel inside car - Highly toxic.
monoxide engines and furnaces - Combines with haemoglobin and
CO (Limited and insufficient oxygen) prevents it from carrying oxygen.
- At high dose causes death
Sulphur dioxide Combustion of fossil fuel containing
SO2 sulphur - Forming acid rain
Nitrogen dioxide
NO2 Oxides of nitrogen are formed by reaction
Nitrogen of nitrogen and oxygen from air at high - Skin and eye irritation
monoxide temperature inside car engine - Breathing problems
NO
Lead Leaded petrol Toxic metal causing brain damage in
Pb young children and reduce IQ

• All oxides (CO & oxides of nitrogen & SO2) irritates lungs, nose, eyes, throat and skin,
also have bad effect on respiration (breathing difficulties)

• Farming of cattle produces both greenhouse gases CO2 by respiration CH4 by digestion

96
 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Acid rain: W
If :
(
• Acid rain causes the following:
K: \
> Acidify lakes and rivers and kill fish and small aquatic animals in water
> Acidify soil and reduces its fertility, decreases crop yield and kill plants
> Erodes limestone building & statues
> Damages metal structures and bridges
> Acid rain cause respiratory problems in humans

• Acid rain is formed as follow:

> Sulfur (from fuel) is burnt and oxidised by oxygen in air and forming sulfur dioxide that
reacts with O2 & H2O in air to form sulfuric acid

> Oxygen and nitrogen (from air) react at high temperature inside car engine making oxides
of nitrogen that react with O2 & H2O in air making nitric acid

Ozone depletion :
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and mainly Cl in the compound cause ozone depletion
203(g) —> 302(g)

Balance of percentage oxygen and carbon dioxide in air:

C02

• Photosynthesis of plants changes CO2 into carbohydrates, removes CO2 from the atmosphere
light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
• Burning of fossil fuels to produce energy produce CO2

• Respiration by living organisms to obtain energy from food produces CO2

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —* 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

• Balance between these 3 processes determines the percentage of carbon dioxide

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 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

• Cutting of trees and burning it results in increase of CO2 in environment due to:
> Complete combustion of carbon results in CO2 formation
> Less photosynthesis

• The increase in the percentage of CO2 in air in previous years is due to:
> Increased combustion of fossil fuels
> Deforestation (less photosynthesis)
Catalytic converter:

• When petrol burns in a car engine, harmful gases are produced, including:
> Oxides of nitrogen
> Carbon monoxide, CO catalytic converter exhaust pipe
> Unburnt hydrocarbons from the petrol

• The catalysts are usually the transition elements platinum, palladium and rhodium

• They are coated onto a ceramic honeycomb, or ceramic beads to give a large surface area for
adsorbing the harmful gases)

• The catalytic converter works as follow:

> First harmful compounds, nitrogen monoxide are reduced into nitrogen
2NO(g) — N2(g) + 02(g)

> Second harmful compounds, Carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons are oxidised,
using the oxygen produced un 1st reaction into Carbon dioxide and water
2C0(g) + 02(g) — 2002(g)

Unburnt hydrocarbons + O2 (g) —* Carbon dioxide + Water

> The overall reaction can be written also as follow

2NO(g) + 2CO(g> + Unburnt HC —* N2(g) + 2C02(g) + H2O0)

• If the petrol used is leaded petrol, the Pb will poison the catalyst and it will no longer work

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 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Fuel cell: Solid Oxide

Fuel Cell
-
• A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by changing
Electron
Flow | *
chemical energy into electric energy t

JL
Load

• At the anode, (the negative pole) Hydrogen •t o

• IOxygen
> 2H2(g) —* 4H +
(aq) + 4e
_
•° «-
oo o |§ M
<
^
>
and electrons
+
Hydrogen molecules are oxidized into H (protons)
Water
• °o O Oxyjyen O

©
> Electrons move in an external circuit that they can be o
used Anode
Electrolyte

> Protons go directly through to the cathode side

• At the cathode, (the positive pole)

02(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e —* 2H20(I)
> Oxygen molecule are reduced into OH "

> OH ions combine with H+ forming water

"

• The overall equation is 2H2(g) + 02(g) I— 2H2O0)

Advantages of fuel cell:

1- CELL: Lightweight
Quieter
Less maintenance
More energy produced
Lower flammability than gasoline

2- SUSTAINABILITY: Use of renewable resource (if hydrogen from water )

Conserves non-renewable resources of fossil fuels

3- POLLUTION: No or less greenhouse effect

No or less acid rain
No or less toxic gases
No or less smog
H2O is the only product

Disadvantages of fuel cell :

1- Storage problems as it takes more space to store

2- Transport problems as it has high likelihood of hydrogen leaks
3- Limited range of vehicles available

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 <? - AIR AND AWTER Y: DR / PETER POULES

Types of fuels:
• There are many types of fuels

1- Fossil fuel (Coal / Natural gas / Crude oil), it needs oxygen for combustion
> Burning of hydrocarbon produces CO2 & H2O
> Burning of carbon produces CO2 only
2- Hydrogen and it needs oxygen for combustion producing water only
3- U235 (Nuclear fuel) and it doesn’t need oxygen
4- Ethanol which is biofuel and it needs oxygen for combustion producing CO2 & H2O

Fossil fuel:
• Disadvantages of fossil fuels
> It is non renewable
> It produces greenhouse gas causing global warming
> It produces toxic gas
> It participates in the formation of gases forming acid rain
Ethanol
• Ethanol is used as a fuel for car engines in many countries due its advantages:

1- It can be made quite cheaply from waste plant material

2- It will conserve and substitute petroleum which is non renewable
3- Ethanol has less impact on carbon dioxide levels than fossil fuels do as CO2 given out by
burning ethanol is taken in by plants being grown to make more ethanol

• Ethanol is limited as a fuel in other countries due to its disadvantages

1- Crops grown to make ethanol take up a lot of land.

It means less land to grow food crops and shortage of food crops means a rise in food prices

Charcoal

• Combustion of wood rather than coal can reduce the effect of the emissions of CO2 as

1- Wood burns to produce less carbon dioxide as it is carbon neutral fuel

2- Trees (wood) take in carbon dioxide by photosynthesis

100
xo~ Identification of iions

101
 lO - IDENTIFICATION OF IONS BY : PR / PETER POULES

10 Chapter
Identification of ions
Collection of gases:
Method Downward delivery Upward delivery Over water Gas syringe
(upward displacement (downward displacement
of air) of air)

Use when the gas is heavier than the gas is lighter than air the gas is you want to
air sparingly measure
soluble in water the volume
accurately

If
Apparatus gas jar gas jar
gas syringe

Examples Carbon dioxide, CO2 Ammonia, NH3 Carbon dioxide, Any gas
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 Hydrogen, H2 CO2
Hydrogen chloride, HCI Hydrogen, H2
Chlorine CI2 Oxygen, O2
Nitrogen N2
Organic gases
• Acidic gases (CO2 & SO2) are dried by passing it through concentrated sulfuric acid
• Ammonia gas is dried by passing over calcium oxide not concentrated sulfuric acid as it will
form ammonium sulfate salt & not anhydrous CaCb as it forms a complex
• Anhydrous calcium chloride used to dry moist hydrogen
Moist HCl

Moist O,
'
«L hydrogen III h MM

Quicklime

sulphuric acid Moist

lO - IDENTIFICATION OF IONS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Test for gases :

Gas Colour and Test & Result

smell
Ammonia • Colourless > Damp red litmus paper turns blue
NH3 • Pungent smell > Universal indicator turns blue
> Concentrated HCI (on glass rod) —> White fumes

Carbon • Colourless > Bubbles gas through limewater — Solution turns milky
dioxide, • Odourless Ca(OH)2 solution ( White ppt of CaCOa)
CO2

Chlorine • Pale green > Damp litmus paper is bleached white

CI2 • Choking sell > Litmus solution turns colourless

Sulfur • Colourless > Pass into a solution of acidified potassium manganate

dioxide, (VII )
SO2
• Acidic smell
—* colour changes from purple to colourless

Hydrogen, • Colourless > Hold a lighted splint in a gas — pops sound

H2
• Odourless

Oxygen, • Colourless > Hold a glowing splint in a gas — The splint relights
O2
• Odourless

• You can differentiate O2, H2 and CO2 using lighted splint

O2 — keep lightening H2 —> Pops sound CO2 —* fire extinguished

• You can differentiate N2 from CO2 using glowing splint

N2 —* glowing splint extinguished CO2 — glowing splint not extinguished

• All halogens are bleaching agents

103
 lO - IDENTIFICATION OF IONS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Test for anions:

Carbonate • Add acid, dilute HCI or dilute HNO3 > Effervescence of CO2 tested
CO32- with limewater — turns milky)

Sulfite SO32- • Acidify with dilute HNO3 and heat, gas > Acidified potassium
evolved is tested with a damp paper dipped manganate (VII) changes
in a solution of acidified potassium from purple to colourless
manganate (VII)

Chloride Cl '
• Acidify with dilute HNO3 > White PPT of AgCI
• Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNCte) Ag+(aq) + Cl'(aq) — AgCI(s)

Bromide Br '
• Acidify with dilute HNO3 > Creamy PPT of AgBr
• Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNCte) Ag+(aq) + Br*(aq) -» AgBr(s)

Iodide I "
• Acidify with dilute HNO3 > Yellow PPT of AgI
• Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNOs) Ag+(aq) + I (aq) —* Agl(s)

Sulfate SO42 "

• Acidify with dilute HNO3 > White PPT of BaS04

• Add aqueous barium nitrate (BaNCb) Ba2+(aq) + S042 (aq) —* BaS04(s)
'

Nitrate NO3' • Make solution alkaline with sodium hydroxide > Bubbles of colourless gas
• Add Aluminium foil > Pungent smell
• Warm carefully > Change damp red litmus
paper into blue

(Ammonia gas give off)

> HNO3 is added before AgNC> 3 and before Ba(N03)2 to remove any impurities of carbonates that
may interfere with results

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 lO - IDENTIFICATION OF IONS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Test for Cations:

Cation Effect of adding NaOH Effect of adding NhUOH

Calcium White ppt No ppt

Ca2+ insoluble in excess
Ca2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
"
— Ca(OH)2(s)
Magnesium White ppt White ppt
Mg2+ insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
Mg2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
"
—» Mg(OH)2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 20H (aq) — Mg(OH)2(s)
"

Aluminium White ppt White ppt

Al3+

—
soluble in excess giving colourless solution insoluble in excess

Zinc
Al3+(aq) + 30H (aq)
*

White ppt
AI(OH)3(s) Al3+(aq) + 30H (aq)
"

-
White ppt soluble
AI(OH)3(s)

Zn2+ soluble in excess giving colourless solution in excess giving colourless solution
Zn2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
'
—» Zn(OH)2(s) Zn2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
"
— Zn(OH)2(s)
Chromium Grey green ppt Grey green ppt
Cr3+ soluble in excess giving green solution insoluble in excess
Cr3+(aq) + 30H'(aq) —* Cr(OH)3 s
• ( ) Cr3+(aq) + 30H (aq) —» Cr(OH)3(s>
'

Copper Light blue ppt Light blue ppt

Cu2+ insoluble in excess soluble in excess giving deep blue solution

Cu2+(aq) + 20H (aq)

*
—» Cu(OH)2(s)
•
Cu2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
*
—* Cu(OH)2(s)

—
Iron (II) Dirty Green ppt insoluble in excess
Fe2+
Fe2+(aq) + 20H (aq)
*
Fe(OH)2(s)

—
Iron (II) Rusty brown (reddish brown) ppt insoluble in excess
Fe3+
Fe3+(aq) + 30H (aq)
*
Fe(OH)3{S)
Ammonium Ammonia produced on warming with NaOH
NH4+ > Bubbles of colourless gas
> Pungent smell
> tested with red litmus paper changes blue
Ex: NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) —*• NaCI(aq) + NH3(g) + H20(l)
OH (aq) + NH4+(aq) —* NH3(g) + H20(l)
'

105
 lO - IDENTIFICATION OF IONS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Flame tests: 1. Heat up the wire 3 . Dip the wire salt to be tested

• Clean a platinum (or nichrome wire) by heating

and dipping in concentrated HCI

• Dip the wire in the testes salt

• Hold the wire in the edge of hot part 2 . Dip the wire in concentrated HCI 4 . Hold sample in the edge of a hot flame
(blue part ) of the flame

Colours of flame test:

Lithium Li+ Red

i
*<4
Sodium Na+ Yellow
Potassium K +
Copper Cu 2 -
Calcium Ca2+
Barium Ba 2+
Lilac
Blue green
Brick red
Apple green
m
Magnesium Mg 2 + No colour

09

106
11- Rate of chemical
reaction

107
 11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 11
Rate of chemical reactions
• Rate is a measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time ( a second, a minute, an
hour, even a day).
Measuring rate of reaction:

• In general, to find the rate of a reaction, you should measure one of the followings:

1- The amount of a product produced (gas) per unit of time

2- The amount of a reactant used up per unit of time

—F
1 Ml the plunger can move out light plug of
cotton wool

flask with acid

and marble chips
gas syringe
stopdock

f
178 SSI

excess dilute
hydrochloric add balance
magnesium
Measuring gas volume per unit of time Measuring mass change per unit time

• These ways are used for reaction in which gas is produced

• Examples for these reactions:

Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq) —* MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

CaC03(s) + 2HCI(aq) — CaCl2(aq) + C02(g) + H2O0)
2H202(aq) — 2H20(I) + 02(g)
NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) —* NaCI(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O©
K2S03(S) + 2HCI(aq) —> 2KCI(aq) + S02(g) + H2O0)
CaC03(s) —i CaO(s) + 002(g)

108
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Example: For a reaction of metal M with acid, Hydrogen was evolved, and the results of the
experiment was as shown in the table

Time / minutes

Volume of hydrogen / cm3

A graph of the results

• Volume of gas in the 1st minute = 14 cm3

> rate for the 1st minute = volume of gas / time = 14/1 = 14 cm3/minute

• Volume of gas in the 2nd minute = volume of gas after 2 min - volume of gas after 1st min
= 25 cm3 - 14 cm3 =11 cm3
> rate for the 2nd minute = volume of gas / time = 11/1 = 11 cm3/minute

• Volume of gas in the 3rd minute = volume of gas after 3 min - volume of gas after 2 min
= 33 cm3 - 25 cm3 =8 cm3
> rate for the 3rd minute = volume of gas / time = 8/1 = 8 cm3/minute

• Volume of gas in the 4th minute = volume of after 4 min - volume of gas after 3 min
= 38 cm3 - 33 cm3 = 5 cm3

> rate for the 4th minute = volume of gas / time = 5/1 = 5 cm3/minute

• Volume of gas in the 5th minute = volume of gas after 5 min - volume of gas after 4 min
= 40 cm3 - 38 cm3 = 2 cm3

> rate for the 5th minute = volume of gas / time = 2/1 = 2 cm3/minute

• Volume of gas in the 6th minute = volume of gas after 6 min - volume of gas after 5 min
= 40 cm3 - 40 cm3 = 0 cm3

> rate for the 6th minute = volume of gas / time = 0/1 = 0 cm3/minute

109
 11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

• The rate of the reaction is the greatest at the start, but decreases as the reaction proceeds
as concentration of the reactants decrease with time

I a::
curve flat §
reaction over 8
I curve less steep,
.

reaction slower

'curve steepest,
reaction fastest
time/s

time/ s
• Rate of the reaction is slope of the curve = V2 - vi
t2 - ti
• The faster the reaction, the steeper the curve and the bigger is the gradient

• After 5 minutes, no more hydrogen is produced,

> The volume no longer changes

> This is because the reaction is over
> As one of the reactants is used up named limiting reagent
> The curve level out and goes flat

• The average rate for the reaction = total volume of hydrogen = 40cm3 = 8 cm3 / minutes
total time for the reaction 5 min

Example: The lump is placed in the flask, add the acid

• Quickly plug the flask with cotton wool to stop any liquid splashing out.

• Weigh it, starting the clock at the same time.

• Note the mass at regular intervals until the reaction is complete.

• Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas, it escapes through the cotton wool, which means that the flask
gets lighter as the reaction proceeds. So, by weighing the flask at regular intervals, you can
follow the rate of reaction

Time / minutes 0 1 2 3 4 5
Total mass of flask / grams 103 90 81 75 72.5 72.5
Mass change / grams 0 13 22 28 30.5 30.5
(Loss in mass / grams)

110
 11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

3
<D
O)

3 £
8
2
E

time ( s) time (s)

• Mass change st
in the 1 minute = 13 a
> rate for the 1st minute = Mass change / time = 13/1 = 13 g/minute

• Mass change in the 2nd minute = Mass change_after 2 min - Mass change after the 1st min
= 22 g -13 g = 9 g
> rate for the 2nd minute = Mass change / time = 9/1 = 9 g/minute

• Mass change in the 3rd minute = Mass change_after 3 min - Mass change_after 2 min
= 28 g - 22 g = 6 g

> rate for the 3rd minute = Mass change / time = 6/1 = 6 q/minute

• Mass change in the 4th minute = Mass change_after 4 min - Mass change_after 3 min
= 30.5 g - 28 g = 2.5 g

> rate for the 4th minute = Mass change / time = 2.5/1 = 2.5 q/minute

• Mass change in the 5th minute = Mass change_after 5 min - Mass change_after 4 min
= 30.5 g - 30.5 g = 0 g

> rate for the 5th minute = Mass change / time = 0/1 = 0 g/minute

Factors affecting the rate :

1- The temperature at which reaction is carried out.
2- The concentration of a dissolved reactant.
3- The surface area of any solid reactant
4- The use of catalyst
5- The influence of light on some reactions

111
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

1- The temperature at which reaction is carried out:

faster reaction at
higher temperature
-
iT rate
1'

i
1 0
0
Time temperature

Example: For a metal and acid, graphs are plotted at different temperatures

• At higher temperature,
> The rate of the reaction is higher
> Curve is steeper, gradient is bigger
• The rate of the reaction is higher as:

> Particles gain more energy, exceeding activation energy

> Particles move faster
> Particles collide more frequently
> More particles have sufficient energy to react
> Particles collide more successfully.

• In curve of temperature and rate,

> Graph is not linear
> Rate does not increase proportionally
> It is upward curve.
2- The concentration of a dissolved reactant :

A B

50 cm3 of 50 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid hydrochloric add
(twice as concentrated)

0.05 g of magnesium 0.05 g of magnesium

112
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

Jsi 60
a.
Q 50
J.
S 40
*

I
J3 30

Time / seconds
Example: For a metal and acid, graphs are plotted at different concentration of acid

• At higher concentration,
> The rate of the reaction is higher
> Curve is steeper, gradient is bigger
• Increasing the concentration of solution or pressure on gas increases the rate of the reaction as

> Particles per unit volume increase

> Greater opportunities for collisions
> Particle collide more frequently

3- The surface area of any solid reactant:

?•
t:
r
.c
§

Time/ minutes
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Example: For a marble chips and acid, graphs are plotted at different particle size

• As particle size decreases, surface area increases

• Aa surface area increases,

> The rate of the reaction is higher
> Curve is steeper, gradient is bigger

• Decreasing particle size and increasing surface area increases the rate of the reaction as
> One reactant is more exposed to another reactant
> Greater opportunities for collisions
> Particle collide more frequently
• The shapes are arranged according to their particle size
> Lump > Ribbon > Granule > Powder
> So according to surface area Powder > Granule > Ribbon > Lump
• Examples of industrial process where there is a risk of fine powders to make explosion when
mixed with air:
> The fine powders in the flour mills have a large surface area,
So, in presence of air (oxygen) and small spark it can catch fire easily

Carbohydrate (flour) + O2 (Air) — CO2 + H2O

> In coal mines

> fireworks and gun powders

Flour fireball
4- The use of catalyst:
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and remains unchanged at the
end of the reaction

Catalyst works by
> offering a surface upon which the reaction occurs
> other complex way
So it is wrong to say that catalyst doesn ’ t take part in the reaction

Catalysts act by lowering the activation energy

114
 11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Example: Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

2H2O2 (aq) —* 2H20(|) + 02(g)

Upon measuring the volume of oxygen 3 times:

1- Hydrogen peroxide is without any catalyst

2- Hydrogen peroxide is with 0.5 g of black solid of Mn02 (catalyst)
3- Hydrogen peroxide is with 1 g black solid of Mn02 (catalyst )

t More Catalyst Energy Activalion Energy

Volume without catalyst
of
Oxygen Activation Energy
(in cm3) with catalyst
Less Catalyst Reactants

No Catalyst
Products
>
Time (in seconds)
Progress of reaction

The rate of the reaction id doubled in the 3rd experiment upon doubling the quantity of catalyst
If the catalyst used is the reaction is finely powdered, the rate increase and this ensures that
surface area of Mn02 the catalyst is very important.
Increasing mass of catalyst or increasing its surface area (finely divided) increase the rate as
> More catalyst particles are exposed
> Greater opportunities for collisions
> Particle collide more frequently

Increasing mass of catalyst or increasing its surface area don’t affect the yield of oxygen as
number of moles of hydrogen peroxide is the same
Enzyme: They are defined as biological catalyst
> Enzymes are proteins
> They are specific (each enzyme controls one reaction)
> They are temperature sensitive usually denatured (inactivated) above 45 °C
> Enzyme is of low efficiency at low temperatures and therefore cooling is a
good way of preserving food
> They are PH sensitive, usually works at PH 7

115
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of catalysts:
Ammonia manufacture Iron (Fe)
Sulfuric acid manufacture Vanadium (v) oxide (V2O5 )
Margarine production Nickel (Ni}
Catalytic converter Platinum / Rhodium / Palladium ( Pt / Rh / Pd )
Fermentation of sugar Zymase enzyme in yeast
Photosynthesis Chlorophyll
Esterification Sulfuric acid ( H2SO 4 )
Hydration of ethene Phosphoric acid (H3PO 4 )
Cracking Alumina or silica (AI2O3 / Si02)
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide Manganese ( IV ) oxide ( MnC>2)

5- The effect of light (photochemical reactions) :

• Photochemical reaction are the chemical reactions that occur
in the presence of light

• Examples for photochemical reactions:

> Photosynthesis
> Photographic film
> Chlorination of methane

Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the reaction between carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of
chlorophyll and sunlight, to produce glucose:

Chlorophyll
6C02(g) + 6H20(I) —* C6Hl206(aq) + 602(g)
Sunlight
• Photosynthesis takes place in plant leaves
• Chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves, is a catalyst for the reaction
• The water is taken in from the soil, through the plant’s roots
• The CO2 is taken from the air
• Sunlight provides the energy for this endothermic reaction.

116
11- RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

r\
test-tube . filter funnel

bubbles '
of oxygen
— very dilute
amp solution of sodium
hydrogen carbonate

[MJ pondweed
distance measured

• An experiment is made to show important effect of light in photosynthesis in an aquatic plant,

By setting lamp at different distances from plant and compare number of bubbles of O2 formed

> The more the distance, the less the intensity of light and the less the n. of O2 bubbles

The reactions in film photography :

Black-and-white film photography relies on a photochemical reaction
The film is covered with a coating of gel that contains tiny grains of silver bromide.
Light causes this to break down
Photography reaction is
> photochemical reaction
> redox reaction
r endothermic reaction
'

2AgBr(S) —< 2Ag<S) + Br2(g)

creamy white black

The silver ions are reduced (electron gain) 2Ag+ + 2e -» 2Ag *

The bromide ions are oxidised (electron loss) 2Br — Br2 + 2e

"~
'

As the intensity of light increases, more silver ions are reduced and the darkness increases

117
3-2.- Energy of reaction

118
12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 12
Energy changes in reactions

• During a chemical reaction, there is always an energy change

• Energy is given out (released) or taken in (absorbed)
• The energy is usually in the form of heat
• Based on energy, reactions are divided into two groups, exothermic and endothermic as follow:

> Breaking of chemical bonds absorbs energy from surrounding. It is an endothermic process
> Formation of chemical bonds releases energy to the surrounding. It is an exothermic process

> If the energy given out during bond formation is more

than the energy taken during the bond braking, then the reaction is exothermic

> If the energy taken in during the bond breaking is more

than the energy released during bond formation, then the reaction is endothermic

• Most chemical reactions are exothermic

In an exothermic reaction, In an endothermic reaction,

energy is released into the energy is absorbed from the
surroundings as heat . As a surroundings. As a result ,
result, the temperature of the temperature of the
the surroundings increases . surroundings drops.

119
 12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

• The total energy change is called the enthalpy change or energy changed (AH)

> AH = Energy in - Energy out

> When the reaction is endothermic , the AH value is positive as Ein > E0ut
> When the reaction is exothermic, the AH value is negative as Ejn < E0ut

Reactants

Exothermic reactions: x
1- Heat is given out, temperature of surrounding increases
AH = negative
IH
2- Energy of products are less than that of reactant £ [loss of energy]
UJ
3- Energy of bond breaking is less than that of bond formation

4- AH is negative
f Products

Time
Exothermic

Endothermic reactions: Products

1- Heat is taken in , temperature of the surrounding decreases

2- Energy of products are more than that of reactants

3- Energy of bond breaking is more than that of bond formation

ss
o
AH = positive
4- AH is positive [gain of energy]
£

Reactants

Time
Endothermic

120
12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Examples of Exothermic and Endothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions

Condensation Melting
Freezing boiling
Simple cell Electrolysis
Hydration Dehydration
CuS04(s) + 5H2O0) —y CUS04.5H20(S) CUS04.5H20(S) — CuS04(s) + 5H20(g>
COCI2(s) + 6H2O0 ) —* C0Cl2.6H20(s) C0Cl2.6H20(s) —* COCl2(s) + 6H20(g)

Crystallization Hydrolysis
Chlorination of alkane Photosynthesis
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) —* CH3CI(g)
• + HCI(g) 6C02(g) + 6H20(I) —»• C6Hl206(aq) + 602(g)
Photographic film
2AgBr(S) — 2Ag<S) + Br2(g)
Displacement reaction Reaction of base with ammonium salt
Mg(s) + HCI(aq) —*• MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) —i NaCI(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O0)
Zn(s) + CuS04(aq) —* ZnS04(aq) + Cll(s)
> Reaction of acid with carbonates is
either exothermic or endothermic

Neutralization
NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) — NaCI(aq) + H2O0)
MgO(s) + 2HN03(aq) * Mg (N03)2(aq) + H2O0)
—

Combustion Fractional distillation

C(S) + 02(g) -» C02(g)
Fermentation Cracking
Respiration Thermal decomposition
C6Hl206(aq) + 602(g) —> 6C02(g) + 6H20(g) CaC03(s) — CaO(s) + C02(g)
Rusting
4Fe(s) + 302(g) + 2H2O0 ) —» 2Fe203.H20(s)
•

121
 12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

The exothermic reaction between hydrogen and chlorine:

bonds broken

energy in
R energy
s out
i H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
overall, energy OUT j
- 184 kJ jrj 2HCl (g)

• Hydrogen reacts with chlorine in sunshine, to form hydrogen chloride

• The step of bond breaking of molecules into atoms is endothermic
> H — H —> 2H
> Cl — Cl ^ 2CI
• The step of bond formation between atoms to form molecules is exothermic
> 2H + 2CI — 2H Cl —
• The final equation is

1H — H
Energy in to break each mole of bonds:
+ 1C I — Cl
— 2H — Cl
1 xH — H 436 kJ
1 x Cl — Cl 242 kJ

Total energy in 678 kJ

Energy out from the two moles of bonds forming:

2 x H — Cl 2 x 431 = 862 kJ

AH = Energy in - Energy out

= 678 kJ - 862 kJ = - 184 kJ

So, the reaction gives out 184 kJ of energy, Exothermic reaction

122
 12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

The endothermic reaction of breaking of Ammonia

2 H — N — H — N= N + 3 H — H bonds broken

energy in energy out

s*
H
'1'
N2 (g> + 3H2 (g)

• overall, energy IN
2NH 3 (g) • + 92 kJ

For the decomposition of ammonia.

• Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia

• The step of bond breaking of molecules into atoms is endothermic
> 2 H — N — H — 2N + 6H
I
H

• The step of bond formation between atoms to form molecules is exothermic

> N + N — N= N
> 3H + 3H — 3 H— H
• The final equation is
2 H — N — H — N= N + 3 H — H

Energy in to break the two moles of bonds:

6xN—H 6 x 391 5 = 2346 kJ

Energy out from the four moles of bonds forming

1 x N= N = 946 kJ
3 x H — H = 3 x 436 = 1308 kJ

Total energy out 2254 kJ

AH = Energy in - Energy out

= 2346 kJ - 2254 kJ = 92 kJ
So, the reaction takes in 92 kJ of energy, endothermic reaction

123
 12- ENERGY OF REACTION BY: PR / PETER POULES

Activation energy ( Ea ):

Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction

t
t
Activation
•narW of products
I
IuJ Itmw
. ft
t
iAj
liww
OtlNCUMt M

f
"*9y
tiwrw
of rMctmti of products

Direction of reaction Direction of reaction

• Activation energy (Ea ) is the energy needed to break the bonds to start a reaction
• Activation energy (Ea ) is absorbed energy that is always positive (+) in both endothermic and
exothermic reactions
• For most exothermic reactions, not much activation energy (Ea ) is needed

> Reaction of potassium with water, just mix the reactants at room temperature
> burning of fuels need heat from a Bunsen burner just to start bonds breaking

Then the energy given out by the reaction breaks further bonds

• For endothermic reactions, higher amount of activation energy (Ea ) is needed

> The decomposition of calcium carbonate you must heat until the reaction is complete

124
 - Reversible reaction
13

& Equilibrium

125
13 - EQUILIBRIUM OF REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 13
Reversible chemical reactions
• Reversible reaction is a reaction that can go both ways
• A product is formed, then break down again into reactants
• The symbol is used to show a reversible reaction
• A reversible reaction is endothermic in one direction, and exothermic in the other direction
The same amount of energy is transferred each time
• A reversible reaction reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium , when

> The rate of the forward and backward reactions is equal

> The concentrations of reactants and products are constant, don’t change with time
> The system is closed

• Examples of reversible reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
2S02(g) + 02(g) 2S03(g)
CaC03(s) CaO(s) + 002(g)
CO(g) + Cl2(g) COCl2(g)
^
+H2O
0uSO4(s) + 5H20(i) CuS04.5H20(S)
White - H2O Blue

+H2O

CoCl2(s) + 6H2O0) C0CI2. 6H20(S) H2O added to anhydrous CuS04

Blue - H2O Pink

NH4CI(S) NH3(g) + HCI(g)

White

• For a reversible reaction with a sign T in which arrows are not of the same length,
It means that rate of forward reaction isn’t equal to rate of backward reaction

> In this sign v rate of backward is greater than rate of forward, equilibrium shifted to left
> In this sign —* rate of forward is greater than rate of backward, equilibrium shifted to right

126
 13 - EQUILIBRIUM OF REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

Shifting the equilibrium:

Le Chatelier’s principle:
When a reversible reaction is in equilibrium and you make a change, the system acts to oppose the
change, and restore equilibrium

1- Change the temperature

• If the temperature is increased, the equilibrium will shift towards the endothermic side

Temperature — Endothermic direction

• If the temperature is decreased, the equilibrium will shift towards the exothermic side

U Temperature — Exothermic direction

• Example
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
^ 2NH3(g)
Forward reaction id exothermic, backward is endothermic

t Temperature — favours endothermic which is backward direction

•
U
Example
Temperature — favours exothermic which is forward direction

N2(g) + 02(g) 2NO(g)

Forward reaction id endothermic, backward is exothermic

t Temperature favours endothermic which is forward direction

f Temperature favours exothermic which is backward direction

• Increasing temperature will increase rate of both forward and backward reaction.

127
 13 - EQUILIBRIUM OF REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

2- Change the concentration;

• Example

A + B X + Y
^
In concentration of In concentration of
Forward reaction is favoured by A or B X or Y

In concentration of In concentration of
Backward reaction is favoured by A or B X or Y

• Example
2K2Cr04(aq) + H2S04(aq) <=? K2Cr2C>7(aq) + K2SC> 4(aq) + H20(|)
yellow orange

A Solution is a mixture of aqueous yellow potassium chromate(VI) and orange aqueous potassium
dichromate(VI) at equilibrium, sulfuric acid was added to solution.

t concentration of sulfuric acid —>• equilibrium moves to the right-hand side (forward)

because the concentration of H2S04 has increased, the system acts to oppose the change, and
restore equilibrium

• Example

CoCI2(s) + 6H20(i) CoCI2. 6H20(S)

blue pink

Equilibrium is established cobalt( ll) chloride is added to water

As Warming is applied to the solution, water evaporates,

concentration of water decreases — equilibrium moves to the left-hand side (backward)

because the concentration of water has decreased, the system acts to oppose the change, and
restore equilibrium

128
13 - EQUILIBRIUM OF REACTION BY : PR / PETER POULES

3- Change the pressure:

• Liquids and Solids are not really affected by pressure as they are non-compressible
• Pressure only occurs on gas involving reaction
• If the pressure is increased, the equilibrium will shift towards the side producing the least number
of moles of gas (smaller volume).
• Example
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
^ 2NH3(g)
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles

t Pressure — favours side of lower n. of moles (products), favours forward direction

•
d
Example
Pressure — favours side of greater n. of moles (reactants), favours backward direction

N2(g) + 02(g) ?=* 2NO(g)

1 mole 1 moles 2 moles

> Pressure has no effect in this reaction as number of moles of reactants and products are
equal
• Example
ICI(l) + Cl2(g) ICb(s)
1 mole 1 moles ^ 2 moles

d Pressure — favours side of greater n. of moles (reactants), favours backward direction

> Moles od solid and liquid are not considered

Effect of catalyst on equilibrium:

• Catalysts doesn’t affect equilibrium; as it increases the rate of both forward reaction and
backward reaction
• Catalysts accelerates the rate at which equilibrium is reached

129
_3 4- Non- metals

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14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 14
Non-metals
Halogens ( qp VII )
1SJ.U
Fluorine (F) Pale yellow gas / 9
F
35.5
Chlorine (Cl) Pale green gas Cl
17
79.9
Bromine (Br) Orange brown liquid
Br
35
Iodine (I) Dark grey solid 126.9
I
Astatine (At) Black solid [ 210 ]
The name halogen comes from the Greek At
vords for salt-making. 85

Trend of reactivity and physical properties through the group:

• Down the group,

> Reactivity decreases
> Melting point and boiling point increases
> Density increases
> Colour gets darker

Physical properties :
Fluorine and chlorine are gas at room temperature
Bromine is the only liquid non metal
Iodine and astatine are solid at room temperature
Iodine forms a dark brown solution when dissolved in water
Iodine forms a purple solution when dissolved in organic solvent
Sublimation occurs with Iodine solid forming purple vapour
Bromine is orange brown liquid that forms brown vapour
Halogens have chocking smell and they are poisonous

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14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chemical properties of halogens:

They have 7 electrons in the outer shell with a valency of 1
They react with metals forming ionic bond
2AI(S) + 3Cl2(i) — 2AICb(s)
2K(S) + Br2(i) — 2KBr(S)

They react with non - metals forming covalent bond

They react with hydrogen forming acids
H2(g) + Cl2(g) — 2HCI(g)
H2(g) + Br2(g) —*• 2HBr(g)
They react with oxygen forming acidic oxides
They are diatomic
They are oxidising agents
All halogens bleaching agent
> They bleach litmus paper into white colour
> They bleach litmus solution into colourless
> As reactivity increases, bleaching power increases
Cb bleaches rapidly - Br2 bleaches slowly - I2 bleaches very slowly
Displacement reaction:
• More reactive halogen will displace less reactive halogen from a solution of its halide

Cl2(aq) + 2KBr<aq) — 2KCI(aq) + Br2(aq)

colourless orange browm

Cl2(aq) + 2KF(aq) —* No reaction

colourless

Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq) —* 2KBr(aq) + l 2(aq)

colourless dark reddish brown
Bromine being displaced by chlorine,
• The reaction is redox in which from a colourless solution of potassium
bromide. The solution goes orange

> halogen is reduced CI2 —> 2CI "

> Halide is oxidised 2 I — I2

"

If the solution contains ... when you add chlorine ... when you add bromine ... when you add iodine ...

chloride ions (Cl') there is no change there is no change

bromide ions (Br ) ‘

bromine is displaced there is no change

iodide ions (l‘) iodine is displaced iodine is displaced

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

The noble gases ( qp VIII):

This group of non-metals contains the elements
/
VIIIA
He

Ne
helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon
Ar

They are present in small quantities in air Kr

They are non-metals Xe
They are colourless gases
Rn
They are Monatomic - they exist as single atoms
They are unreactive as the atoms of the noble gases have a full saturated outer shell
So, the atoms have no need to react to gain or lose electrons.

> The atoms don’t form compound

> The oxidation number is zero
> Their group is named also group 0

Uses of the noble gases:

• Helium is used to fill balloons as

> It is unreactive and wouldn’t react (will not catch fire)

> It is much lighter than air

• Argon is used as a filler in tungsten light bulbs as

> It is unreactive and wouldn’t react, so it makes tungsten last longer

If air is used, O2 will react and tungsten filament burn away

• Argon is used in lamps and not helium as it is more abundant in air

• Neon is used in advertising signs. It glows red, but the colour can be changed by mixing it with
other gases.

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Carbonate:
CaC03

Limestone
Marble chips
Chalk
f
Thermal decomposition

Ca(OH)2 CaO

Lime water (liquid) Lime

Slaked lime (solid) +H2O Quick lime

Limestone is a sedimentary rock.

It is formed on the sea floor where materials rich in calcium carbonates accumulate
Changing limestone into lime is a thermal decomposition (endothermic)
Adding water to lime is a highly exothermic reaction
Neutralization reaction occurs between CO2 (acidic oxide) and
Ca(OH)2 which is alkaline forming milky precipitate of CaC03 in a

calcium oxide

addition of water to calcium oxide

Uses of limestone: fuel

1- Used to make cement (with clay) and concrete limestone

lumps of crushed
/7
2- Making pig iron from iron ore limestone
* ^7
3- Neutralise acidity in soil and lakes good draught
of air In
W ROTARY KILN
— carbon
00

4- Making of lime through thermal decomposition in rotary kiln / ^

stainless steel lined
7
dioxide
out
with refractory
hrri '

lime

Uses of CaO & CafOHh :

1- Flue gas desulfurization means the removal of sulfur dioxide from the waste gases at power
stations, before they go out the flue chimney to prevent acid rain formation

2- Neutralise acidity of soil and lakes

• CaC03 is better neutralizer than CaO for soil acidity as CaC03 is insoluble in water so

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14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

1- It neutralises the acidity of soil without increasing PH pf soil above 7 which is optimum PH
2- It is not washed by rain, remains longer in the soil
3- It is not absorbed by the plant
4- CaC03 is naturally occurring (does not need to be processed)

• It is important to control soil acidity

1- Plants have optimum pH (for growth)

2- To increase the crop yield

Nitrogen:

• The process used to make ammonia is called the Haber process

• The reactants are nitrogen and hydrogen
• The nitrogen is obtained from fractional distillation of liquified air
• The hydrogen is obtained by one of the following:
> Steam reforming which is reaction of steam with methane CH4 + H2O —>• CO + 3H2
> Cracking hydrocarbons
> Electrolysis of brine
N2(g) 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
1 mole 3 moles
^ 2 moles

•
CsD 0-0 -
The reaction is reversible, conditions of the reactions:
> Pressure reaches 200 atmospheres
> Temperature is 450 °C
> Catalyst, Finely divided iron
BPofNHs -33 °C

• The mixture of the 3 gases formed is cooled at -40 °C to separate N2 as liquid Coolig at -40 °C
As ( -40 °C) is lower than BP of NH3 but higher than that of N2 and H2
BP of N2 -196 °C
• Removing ammonia favours the forward reaction and increase the yield

• The nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled to the converter to pass over
the catalyst again for another chance to react and make more ammonia.
BP of H2 -299 °C
• Only 15% of the mixture leaving the converter is ammonia,
the low yield of ammonia is due to its decomposition at high temperature

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

pump
I
- i
[ 2 Compressor beds of
catalyst

iti
1 Cases
i atmospheres
'I C
3 Converter

Tr1
pump
i .n
ISI 2 2
]iL . .
N2 H2 NH 3

rsia
T
M2
4 Cool

C7
^——
L
Liquid ammonia

Conditions and effect on yield and rate:

The pressure

• Pressure increases yield as it is side of lower n. of moles

• Pressure increases rate
> particles per unit volume increase
> opprtunity for collosion increases
> particles collide more frequently

• A pressure higher than 200 atmospheres is not used due to

> safety issues and risk of explosion
> Higher cost

The temperature

• The forward reaction is exothermic so

> Low temperature will increase the yield, but the reaction rate is slow (not economic),
> High temperature will decrease the yield, but the reaction rate is fast
> The optimum temperature is 450 °C as it is: 100-

1- Low enough for good yield and

-
80

2- High enough with catalyst for economic rate 60 -

40 -
V
20 -

100 200 400 7< i

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

The catalyst

• Iron speeds up the reaction

• Iron does not change the yield
• Iron is used instead of platinum as it is cheaper and better catalyst
• The function of iron is:
> increase reaction rate
> Allow lower temperature to be used (economic rate & good yield)
Uses of Ammonia :
1- Making of fertilizers
2-Making of nitric acid
3- Making hair dyes

Fertilizers :
• There are 2 types of fertilizers:

1- Straight N fertilizers like urea

2- NPK fertilizers containing nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus

• Fertilizers are substances that are added to the soil to:

1- Increase soil fertility

2- Promote plant growth
3- Increase the crop yield

• Fertilisers must be soluble in water to be absorbed by plants

• Ammonia is involved in manufacture of fertilizers by reacting ammonia with acid forming a salt
> NH3(g) + HCI(aq) —* NFUCIfaq)
> 2NH3(g) + H2S04(aq) — (NH4)2S04(aq)
> 3NH3(g) + H3P04(aq) — (NH4)3PC>4(aq)
> NH3(g) + HN03(aq) —! NH4N03(aq)

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Sulfur:
Sources:

• It is found as element, in the Earth’s crust in large underground beds in several countries,
including Mexico, Poland and the USA
• It is also found around the rims of volcanoes
• It occurs as a compound in many metal ores (EX: Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 - Zinc blend ZnS)
• Sulfur containing fossil fuels

Properties :

• It is a brittle yellow solid.

• It does not conduct electricity
• It is insoluble in water.

Uses of sulfur:

1- Matches
2- Fireworks
3- Medicines and sterilizing agents
4- Added to rubber to increase its elasticity and toughen it
5- Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Uses of sulfur dioxide:

1- Bleaching of wood pulb for manufacture of paper
2- Food preservative in juices and wine as it kills bacteria
3- Fumigant & refrigerant

• Both SO2 and Cbare bleaching agents but SO2 is less harmful to the environment.

Uses of dilute sulfuric acid :

1- Acid in car battery

2- Laboratory reagent
3- Paints, dyes and fibres
4- Fertilizer
5- Detergents
6- Tanning leather

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of concentrated sulfuric acid:

1- Dehydrating agents removes water from compounds

Ex: Concentrated sulfuric acid was added to two teaspoons of sugar ,

It turned the sugar into carbon (black ash).
-11 H2O
C12H22O11 12 C

Ex: Concentrated sulfuric acid was added to hydrated copper (II) sulfate

-5 H2O Moist HCl -> -» Dry HCl

CUS04.5H20 CuSC> 4
Hydrated anhydrous

2- Drying agent as it removes water from mixture

Ex: drying of mixture of carbon dioxide and water
Concentrated
3- Oxidising agent sulphuric add

4- Catalyst

Making sulfuric acid by the Contact process:

• The raw materials are: Sulfur, air, and water

S(s) + 02(g) — S02(g)
2S02(g) + 02(g) 2S03(g)
S03(g) + H2SO4O) — H2S207(I)
H2O0) + H2S2O70) — 2H2S04(I)
1st step

• Roasting (burning) of sulfur in air

• Usually made by spraying molten sulfur into air to increase the surface area, increase the rate
• When sulfur is heated, it melts (physical change) as it melts
further heating, sulfur is oxidised to form sulfur dioxide (chemical change)
• Redox reaction, S is oxidised and O2 is reduced

2nd step

• Reaction of SO2 with oxygen (air)

• This reaction isn’t roasting
• Reaction is reversible
• Reaction is redox

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Conditions of the reaction

> Temperature 450 °C
> Pressure is 2 atmospheric pressure
> Catalyst is Vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5)

The pressure
Pressure increases yield as it is side of lower n. of moles
Pressure increases rate
> Particles per unit volume increase
> Opprtunity for collosion increases
> Particles collide more frequently

A pressure higher than 2 atmospheres is not used due to

> Safety issues and risk of explosion
> Higher cost
> At 2 atm, the yield is high (98%)

The temperature

• The forward reaction is exothermic so

> Low temperature will increase the yield, but the reaction rate is slow (not economic),
> High temperature will decrease the yield, but the reaction rate is fast
> The optimum temperature is 450 °C as it is:

1- Low enough for good yield and

2- High enough with catalyst for economic rate

The catalyst

• Vanadium pentoxide speeds up the reaction

• Vanadium pentoxide does not change the yield
• The function of Vanadium pentoxide is:
> increase reaction rate
> Allow lower temperature to be used (economic rate & good yield)

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 14- NON - METALS BY : PR / PETER POULES

3rd step

• Bubble into concentrated sulfuric acid thick fuming liquid called oleum
• Addition of water directly to SO3 is
> Highly exothermic
> Forming acid mist
That is why SO3 is dissolved in concentrated sulfuric

4th step

• Oleum is Mixed carefully with water forming sulfuric acid

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IS - Moles

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Chapter 15
Moles
Relative atomic mass ( Ar )
• A single atom weighs hardly anything. You can’t use scales to weigh
it.but scientists do need a way to compare the masses of atoms.
So this is what they did.

• The mass of an atom compared with the carbon-12 atom is called its
relative atomic mass, or Ar.
A mass spectrometer , for finding
relative molecular mass
Relative atomic mass ( Ar ) and isotopes
• The atoms of an element are not always identical. Some may have extra neutrons. Different
atoms of the same element are called isotopes.

• Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element

= (% X nucleon number for the first isotope) + (% X nucleon number for the second isotope)
... and so on, for all its natural isotopes
Example: Chlorine has two isotopes: CI35 & CI37
Ratio 3 : 1
Percentage 75% : 25%
relative atomic mass (Ar ) of Cl = (75% X 35) + (25% X 37)
= 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5
Relative molecular mass ( Mr ) & relative formula mass
• If the substance is made of molecules, its mass found in this way is called the relative molecular
mass, or Mr. So the Mr for hydrogen molecule is 2, and for water is 18.

• But if the substance is made of ions, its mass is called the relative formula mass, which is also Mr
for short. So the Mr for NaCI is 58.5.

Examples:
Substance Formula Atoms in Ar of atoms Mr
formula

ammonia NH, 1N
3H
N
H
-- 14
1
1 x 14
3 X 1 --
14
3
Total = 17

magnesium nitrate Mg(NOs)2 1 Mg Mg = 24 1 X 24 = 24

2N N = 14 2 X 14 = 28
60 0 16- 6 X 16
Total
-
- 148
96

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• Relative atomic mass the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale
where the carbon 12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units

• Relative formula mass the sum of all relative atomic masses of the atoms present in the formula
unit of a substance

• Relative molecular mass the sum of all relative atomic masses of the atoms present in the
molecule of a substance

Mole
• The masses of atoms are found by comparing them with the carbon-12 atom
• One mole of a substance is obtained by weighing out the Ar or Mr of the substance, in grams

• Mole is defined as the measure of substance in chemistry. One mole of substance has
y mass equal to relative, atomic, molecular or formula mass in grams depending on the
substance considered

> 6.02 x 1023 (the Avogadro constant) atoms, molecules or formula units depending on the
substance considered

The Avogadro constant

• 12 g of carbon-12 contains 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 carbon atoms (6.02 X 1023)
• This huge number is called the Avogadro constant.
• It is defined as It is 6.02 x 1023 and One mole of a substance contains (the Avogadro constant)
atoms, molecules or formula units, depending on the substance considered

Sodium is made of Iodine is made of Water is made of

single sodium atoms. iodine molecules. water molecules . .0 H
Its symbol is Na . Its formula is Ir Its formula is H20.
Its AT is 23. Its Mr is 254. Its Afr is 18.

This is 23 grams of sodium . This is 254 grams of iodine. The beaker contains 18 grams
It contains 6.02 X 10“ sodium It contains 6.02 X 10“ iodine of water, or 6.02 X 10“ water
atoms, or 1 mole of sodium molecules , or 1 mole of iodine molecules, or 1 mole of water
atoms . molecules. molecules.

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Finding the empirical formula

• The formula of carbon dioxide is CO2

> 1 carbon atom combines with 2 oxygen atoms so

> 1 mole of carbon atoms combines with 2 moles of oxygen atoms

> 12 g of carbon combines with 32 g of oxygen

In the same way

Example: 32 grams of sulfur combine with 32 grams of oxygen to form an oxide of sulfur.
What is its empirical formula?

Elements that combine sulfur oxygen

Masses that combine 32 g 32 g
Relative atomic masses (A,) 32 16
Moles of atoms that combine 32 / 32 1 32 / 16 2
Ratio in which atoms combine 1:2
Empirical formula so2
Example: An experiment shows that compound Y is 80% carbon and20% hydrogen.
What is its empirical formula?

Elements that combine carbon hydrogen

Masses that combine 80 g 20 g
Relative atomic masses (A ) 12 1
Moles of atoms that combine 80 / 12 6.67 20 / 1 20
Ratio in which atoms combine 6.67 : 20 or 1:3 in its simplest form
Empirical formula CHj

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An experiment to find the empirical formula
• To work out the empirical formula, you need to know the masses of elements that combine.
• The only way to do this is by experiment.
• For example, magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
• The masses that combine can be found like this:

1- Weigh a crucible and lid, empty. Then add a coil of magnesium ribbon
and weigh it again, to find the mass of the magnesium. tongs to
k raise lid
2- Heat the crucible. Raise the lid carefully at intervals to let oxygen in.
MM -_ the magnesium
t
The magnesium burns brightly. bums

3- When burning is complete, let the crucible cool ( still with its lid on). heat
Then weigh it again (repeat till it reaches constant mass)
The increase in mass is due to oxygen.

The results showed that 2.4 g of magnesium combined with 1.6 g of oxygen.

Elements that combine magnesium oxygen

Masses that combine 2.4 g 1.6 g
Relative atomic masses (A ) 24 16
Moles of atoms that combine 2.4 / 24 0.1 1.6 / 16 0.1
Ratio in which atoms combine 1: 1
Empirical formula MgO

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Moles of solids:

Number of moles in a given mass = massmass

of 1 mole

Example: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine atoms.

The Ar of bromine is 80, so 1 mole of bromine atoms has a mass of 80 g.

So 0.5 moles of bromine atoms has a mass of 0.5 X 80 g , or 40 g.

Example: Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of bromine molecules.

A bromine molecule contains 2 atoms, so its Mr is 160.

So 0.5 moles of bromine molecules has a mass of 0.5 X 160 g, or 80 g.

Example: How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64 g of oxygen ?

The Mr of oxygen is 32 so N. of moles = 64 / 32 = 2 moles of oxygen molecules.

Example : Ethanol is made from sugars by fermentation.

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2C02

The mass of one mole of glucose, C6H12O6, is 180 g .

Calculate the maximum mass of ethanol which could be obtained from 72 g of glucose.

C6H12O6 - 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

1 2
0.4 ?

number of moles of glucose = 72/180 = 0.4

maximum number of moles ethanol = 0.8
maximum mass of ethanol, Mr = 46 g, 0.8 * 46 = 36.8 g

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Example: Quicklime, which is calcium oxide, is made by heating limestone in a furnace.
CaC03 (s)
^ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Calculate the maximum mass of calcium oxide which could be made from 12.5 tonnes of calcium
carbonate. 1 tonne = 1 * 106 g.
number of moles of CaC03 = Mass / Mr = [ (12.5 X 106 ) / 100 ] = 125000

CaC03(s) <=> CaO( s) + 002(g)

1 1
125000 ?

number of moles of CaC03 = 125000

mass calcium oxide = 125000 * 56 = 7000000 g = 7 tonnes

Example: Propanol reacts with methanoic acid to form the ester propyl methanoate.
CH3CH2CH2OH + HCOOH HCOOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O
4.0 g of methanoic acid was reacted with 6.0 g of propanol.
(i) Calculate the Mr of methanoic acid
(ii) Calculate the Mr of propanol
(iii) Determine which one is the limiting reagent. Show your reasoning.

(i) Mr of methanoic acid = 46

(ii) Mr of propanol = 60

(iii) moles of CH3CH2CH2OH = Mass / Mr = 6 / 60 = 0.1

moles of HCOOH = Mass / Mr = 4 / 46 = 0.087

CH3CH2CH2OH + HCOOH HCOOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O

1 1
Actual moles 0.1 0.087

Rario 0.1 / 1 > 0.087 / 1

Methanoic acid is smaller percentage so it is the limiting

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Calculating the molecular formula

To find the molecular formula:

i Calculate Mr for the compound. This gives a number, n .
empirical mass
ii Multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by n .

Example: A molecular compound has the empirical formula HO.

Its relative molecular mass is 34. What is its molecular formula? (Ar : H = 1, O = 16.)
For the empirical formula HO, the empirical mass = 17. But Mr = 34.

N = 34 / 17 = 2

So the molecular formula is 2 X HO, or H2O2.

Example: Octane is a hydrocarbon - it contains only carbon and hydrogen. It is 84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen by mass. Its Mr is 114.
What is its molecular formula?

From the %, we can say that in 100 g of octane, 84.2 g is carbon and 15.8 g is hydrogen.

Changing masses to moles:

moles of carbon atoms 84.2/12 = 7.02 moles

moles of hydrogen 15.8/1 = 15.8

1 mole of carbon atoms combines with 2.25 moles of hydrogen atoms.

(Give the ratio as whole numbers, since only whole atoms combine.)
So, the atoms combine in the ratio of 1: 2.25 or 4:9.

The empirical formula of octane is therefore C 4H9.

Then use Mr to find the molecular formula.

N= Mr / empirical mass = 114 / 57 = 2

So the molecular formula of octane is 2 X C 4H9 or CsH -is.

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Finding the % purity

mass of ( he pure product

% purity of a product = mass of the impure product obtained X 100%
Example: Chalk is almost pure calcium carbonate.
10 g of chalk was reacted with an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid.
2280 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas was collected at room temperature and
pressure (rtp). What was the purity of the sample?

The equation for the reaction is: CaC03 + 2HCI —*• CaCI2 + H20 + CO2

Mr of CaC03 is 100 (Ar : Ca : 40, C : 12, O : 16.)

1 mole of CaC03 gives 1 mole of CO2 and

N. moles produced by CO2 = 2280 / 24 000 = 0.095 mole and so N. of moles of CO2 is 0.095

Mass of CaC03 = n. of moles X Mr

= 0.095 X 100 = 9.5 g

So, there is 9.5 g of calcium carbonate in the 10 g of chalk.

So the % purity of the chalk = {9.5 / 10 } X 100 = 95%.

Moles of Liquids:
Meaning of concentration

A B

Solution A contains 2.5 grams Solution B contains 25 grams Solution C contains 125 grams
of copper(ll) sulfate in 1 dm3 of copper(ll) sulfate in 1 dm3 of copper(ll) sulfate in 0.5 dm3
of water. So its concentration of water. So its concentration of water. So its concentration
is 2.5 g / dm3. is 25 g / dm3 is 250 g / dm3

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 IS- MOLES BY : PR / PETER POULES
Finding the concentration in moles:

Example Find the concentrations of A and C above, in moles per dm3.

First, change the mass of the solute to moles.

The formula mass of copper(ll) sulfate is 250, .

Solution A has 2.5 g of the compound in 1 dm3 of solution.

2.5 g moles = 2.5/250 = 0.01 moles
so its concentration is 0.01 mol / dm3.

Solution C has 250 g of the compound in 1 dm3 of solution.

250 g = 1 mole
so its concentration is 1 mol / dm3

• A solution that contains 1 mole of solute per dm3 of solution is often called a molar solution.
So C is a molar solution

In general , to find the concentration of a solution in moles per dm3:

amount of solute ( mol )
concentration ( mol /dm3 ) =
volume of solution (dm3 )

Amount of solute Volume of solution Concentration of

(mol) (dm3) solution (mol / dm3)
1.0 1.0 1.0
amount (mol)
0.2 0.1 2.0
0.5 0.2 2.5
cone (mol /dm3) x vol (dm3)
1.5 0.3 5.0

• Amount of solute (mol) = concentration (mol / dm3) X volume (dm3)

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solution sodium hydroxide sodium thiosulfate lead nitrate silver nitrate

NaOH NajSft Pb(N03)2 AgNOj

25 cm3

100 cm3

concentration
(mol / dm3)
1 2 0.1 0.05

amount of solute 250 100 = 25 =

1 x2=2 021 x 0.05 x
present (moles)
2X
^
1000
r = 0.5
^
1000
0.01
^
1000
0.00125

M, 40 158 331 170

mass of solute
80 79 3.31 0.2125
present ( g)
Moles of gases:

fluorine, F2 chlorine, Cl2 nitrogen, N2 oxygen, 02 neon, Ne

38 g 71 g 28 g 32 g 20 g
( 1 mole) ( 1 mole) ( 1 mole) ( 1 mole) ( 1 mole)

Imagine five very large flasks, each with a volume of 24 dm3. Each is filled with a different gas.
Each gas is at room temperature and pressure, or rtp. (rtp is 20 °C and 1 atmosphere.)

If you weighed the gas in the five flasks, you would discover something amazing.
There is exactlyl mole of each gas!
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 IS- MOLES BY : PR / PETER POULES

• 1 mole of every gas occupies the same volume, at the same temperature and pressure. At
room temperature and pressure, this volume is 24 dm3.

24 dm3 = 24 litres = 24 000 cm3

Example: What volume does 0.25 moles of a gas occupy at rtp?

Volume
1 mole occupies 24 dm3 so at rtp (dm3)
0.25 moles occupy 0.25 X 24 dm3 = 6 dm3
no of moles x 24 dm3
so 0.25 moles of any gas occupies 6 dm3 (or 6000 cm3) at rtp.

Example: What volume does 22 g of carbon dioxide occupy at rtp?

Mr of carbon dioxide = 44, so

N. of moles = 22/44 =0.5 mole

so the volume occupied 0.5 X 24 dm3 = 12 dm3.

Example: What volume of hydrogen will react with 24 dm3 of oxygen to form water?
the reaction is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g ) —*• 2H2O (i)

volumes of hydrogen volume of oxygen

2 1
??? 24

2 X 24 dm3 react with 24 dm3, so 48 dm3 of hydrogen will react.

Example: When sulfur burns in air it forms sulfur dioxide. What volume of this gas is produced when 1
.
g of sulfur burns? (Ar : S = 32 )

The equation for the reaction is: S (s) + O2 (g) —* SO2 (g )

Moles of sulfur = Mass / Mr

1/32 = 0.03125 mole

Sulfur SO2
1 mole 1 mole
0.03125 mole ???

Moles of SO2 is 0.03125 mole

Volume = 0.03125 mole X 24 dm3 = 0.75 dm3 (or 750 cm3)

153
16 - Organic chemistry

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chapter 16
Organic chemistry
• The study of carbon containing compounds (except simple one like carbonate, CO2 and CO)
• The term organic means living

Hydrocarbons:
These are compounds containing hydrogen and carbon only.
They are classified into:
> Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbon)
> Alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbon)
Saturated hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons that contain (C - C) single bonds only
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond
Homologous series: These are organic compounds having the following properties,
1- The same functional group
2- The same chemical properties
3- The same general formula
4- Common method of preparation
5- Consecutive members differ by (CH2 group)
6- Different physical properties
> Melting point & boiling point increases with increase of number of carbon atoms due to
increase in the strength of weak Van der Waals’ forces between molecules
> Melting point & boiling point increases in a predictable way

The number of Carbons and name of compounds:

• Organic compounds are
> Similar in 1st section of the name reflecting n. of C atoms
> Different in 2nd section of the name reflecting its family (homologous series)
Name Number of C atoms Name Number of C atoms
Meth 1 Hex 6
Eth 2 Hept 7
Prop 3 Oct 8
But 4 Non 9
Pent 5 Dec 10

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Alkanes:
• They are saturated hydrocarbons
• They gave the general formula of (Cn H2n+2)
• N represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
> 1st member C1H2XI + 2 ChU
> 2nd member C2H2X2 + 2 C2H6
> 33d member C3H2X3 + 2 C3H8
> 4th member C4H2X4 + 2 C4H10

• Name of compound is indicating the n. of C atoms and the family belonging to:
> Example: C4H10 is named butane
> But refers to 4 carbon atoms
> ane refers to saturated hydrocarbon
> Example: CsH -is is named Octane
> Oct refers to 8 carbon atoms
> ane refers to saturated hydrocarbon

• The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number of each atom in the compound
> C3H8 : Propane molecule contains 3 C atoms & 8 H atoms
> C7H16 : Heptane molecule contains 7 C atoms & 16 H atoms
• The structural formula is the formula that shows the bonds between atom in the compound
Molecular Structural formula - -
Ball and stick model
formula

-^
Methane CH M

Ethane c 2HB
H C

i
H
4
H H

H G C H

H H

Propane C3H8 H H H

Butane C H ,
0
H

H
I
C

H
I
C

H
I
C

H
H

W
*
I I I I
H C C C C H
I I I I
H H H H

Pentane CSH12 H H H H H
I I I I I
H C G G C C H
I I I I I
H H H H H

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Physical properties:

• The number of carbon atoms detect the state at room temperature

> Compounds containing Ci — C4 are gases
> Compounds containing C5 — C17 are liquids
.
> Compounds containing C18 and greater n of C are solids
• Alkanes are insoluble in water
• Alkanes are soluble in organic solvents like alcohols and esters

• Alkanes are flammable (they catch fire)

• As number of carbon atoms of alkane increase

> The energy released upon burning increases
> The flammability (ease of ignition) decrease

Chemical reactions of alkane:

• They are unreactive due to strong covalent C-C and C-H bonds, react with substitution only

1 - Combustion (Burning):
• Reaction is exothermic giving out plenty of heat
• They are used as fuels
• Examples:

CH4(g) + 202(g) — C02(g) + 2H2O0) + heat energy

2CH4(g) + 302(g) —> 2CO(g) + 4H2O0) + heat energy
C3H8(g) + 502(g) — 3C02(g) + 4H20(i) + heat energy
C4H10(g) + 13/2 02(g) — 4C02(g) + 5H20(i) + heat energy
CSHI8(I) + 25/2 02(g) — 8C02(g> + 9H2O0 ) + heat energy
• Complete combustion of hydrocarbon occurs at sufficient supply of O2 forming CO2
• Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon occurs at insufficient supply of O2 forming CO
• Complete combustion must be ensured to avoid formation of carbon monoxide which is lethal

2- Chlorination (reaction with chlorine):

• This is called a substitution reaction, because a chlorine atom takes the place of a H atom
• It is also a photochemical reaction because: light energy is needed to break the bonds in the
Chlorine and alkane, to start the reaction off
• Reaction will not take place in the dark
• This reaction is Exothermic

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

H H
light I
Ex: methane: H—< !— Hj + Cb —Cl + HCl
H H

methane chioromethane

• If there is enough chlorine, H will be replaced one by one

• All the four hydrogen atoms will be replaced is sufficient chlorine and light are present

H H
H C H - Cl* H A Cl * HCl
H H
Methane Chloromethane

H H
H AI Cl Cl, H A Cl HCl
H Cl
Dichloromethane

H Cl
H AI Cl Cl, H A Cl HCl
Cl Cl
Trichioromethane

Cl Cl
H
I
Cl Cl, Cl AI Cl HCl
Cl Cl

Tetrachloromethane

Ex: propane:
light
2CH3CH2CH3 + 2CI2 CH3CH2CH3CI + CH3CHCICH3 + 2HCI

H H H
I I I
H C C C H
- - - -
n?
H- C-C-C-H
H Cl H
I I I
H- C- C-C-H
I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H
l-chloropropane 2-chloropropane

> The result of the reaction of propane is not pure

> The result is mixture of more than one product which are 1- chloropropane
and 2- chloropropane
> 1- chloropropane and 2- chloropropane are named isomers

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 16 - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Isomers:
• Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formula are named
structural isomers

Example: both have same number of C and H atoms, both are C 4H10 but different structures
H
H — C —H
H H H H 11 II
1 1 I 1 I I
H — CI — C — C — C — H H — —C—C—H
C
I I I I I
H H H H H H H

butane 2- methylpropane
boiling point O ° C boiling point — 10 ° C

Example: compounds have same number of C and H atoms, they are C5H12 but different structures
H
I
H —C —H
H H H H H H H H H H H

— C — CI — CI — CI — CI — H — CI — CI — CI — CI — H
I I I
H H H —C—C —C —H
I I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H H
H — C —H H — C —H
I I
• I H
• branched alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms have lower boiling point.

3 - Reaction with bromine water :

Ff
r

Hexane No effect on
• Alkane don’t decolourise orange bromine water
with bromine water
• This is a test used to differentiate alkanes from alkenes bromine
• Alkenes decolourise bromine water into colourless water

Uses:
1- Methane is the main component of natural gas, used as a fuel
2- Butane is used in the bottled gas

160
Butane is used as fuel for cooking
and heating, in many homes.
 16 - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Alkene :
• They are unsaturated hydrocarbons, at least one C=C double bond
• This C=C is their functional group
• They gave the general formula of (Cnhbn)
• N represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
> 1st member C2H2X2 C2H4
> 2nd member C3H2X3 C3H6
> 33d member C4H2X4 C4H8
• There is no alkene with one carbon atoms
• The 1st member in the alkene family is ethene
• Name of compound is indicating the n. of C atoms and the family belonging to:

> Example: C4H8 is named butene

> But refers to 4 carbon atoms
> ene refers into unsaturated hydrocarbon

• The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number of each atom in the compound
> C3H6 : Propene molecule contains 3 C atoms & 6 H atoms
> C7H14 : Heptene molecule contains 7 C atoms & 14 H atoms
• All Alkenes empirical formula, the simplest repeating formula, is CH2

• The structural formula is the formula that shows the bonds between atom in the compound
Example: Ethene

Ethene

But-1-ene
* -.
0 11

03Me

„
G HB
.

H
M
I
C =
H

M
I
C
=
M

M
I
C
H

A
M
I
C M
> —
H H

But-2-ene G MB
* M M M M
I I I I
M O 0 = 0 C M

161
H
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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Physical properties:

• The number of carbon atoms detect the state at room temperature

> —
Compounds containing C2 * C 4 are gases
> —
Compounds containing C5 * C15 are liquids
> Compounds containing C16 and greater n. of C atoms are solids

• Alkenes are insoluble in water

• Alkenes are soluble in organic solvents like alcohols and esters
• As number of C atoms increase,
> melting point and boiling point increase
> Density increase
• Alkanes are flammable (they catch fire)
• Alkenes are flammable with characteristic smoky yellow flame
as ratio of C:H in the molecule of alkene is greater than that of alkane

• As number of Carbon atoms increase

> The energy released increases
> The flammability (ease of ignition) decrease

• Comparing alkane and alkene containing same number of Carbon atoms

Example: heptane C7H16 and heptene C 7H14
> Boiling point and melting point of alkane is greater than that of alkene
BP & MP depend on breaking of weak an der Waal forces between molecules
Alkane has 2 more H atoms and so 2 more electrons than that of alkene of same
number of C atoms
> As both have similar number of C atoms, the one with greater n. of H atoms
will produce more energy when burnt
Isomers:
• Compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formula are named
structural isomers

Example: butene C4H8 has many isomers as shown

3
3 4 1 4 H CH3
CH2 -CH3 H3C CH3 \1 2/
\2 3/ c =c 4
/
c=c\ /
H
\
CH3
H H
But-2-ene 2, methylpropene
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Cyclobutane is an isomer for them as it has same molecular

formula but different structural formula

Cycloalkanes: Cyclobutane
• They are saturated hydrocarbons
CIH:
• They have general formula Cnhbn like alkenes
H:< : < H:
• They react by substitution like alkane
• They don’t decolourise bromine water
H2C . ,CH2
• Ex: Cyclohaxne
CH2

Cyclo because they are joined in a ring Cyclohexane

hex because there are six carbon atoms
ane is means C-C single bond only ( saturated)

Chemical reactions of Alkene:

• They are reactive compared with alkanes as they have C=C and react with addition
• They don’t react by substitution like alkanes

Combustion:
• Reaction is exothermic
• They are used as fuels
• Examples:

C2H4(g) + 302(g) —» 2C02(g) + 2H20(i) + heat energy

C2H4(g) + 202(g) — 2CO(g) + 2H20(i) + heat energy

• Complete combustion of hydrocarbon occurs at sufficient supply of O2 forming CO2

• Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon occurs at insufficient supply of O2 forming CO

Hydrogenation :

H H
150 -300 °C I I
Nickel
H H
ethene ethane
• Vegtable oils (Polyunsaturated fatty acids) is changed by hydrogenation into margarine
which is sturated fatty acid
• Margarine is solid with higher melting point than liquid vegetable oils
• Unsaturated fatty acid is healthier than saturated and that is why margarine is left partially
unsturated.

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Hydration :

60 atmosphere ,300 °C
(g) + H20(g >
Phosphoric acid
ethene ethanol

• Phosphoric acid acts as a catalyst

• Water is used in a steam form

Bromination:
Br Br
Hexane
with
bromine
0 No effect on
bromine water

(g ) + Br2(ag)
(orange)
H lI- lI-Hin water

H H Alkenes decolourise
Hexene bromine water
with
ethene 1,2- dlbromoethane bromine
water
(colourless) (colourless)

• Alkene decolourises orange bromine water into colourless solution

• Reaction doesn’ t need catalst like that of steam

Oxidatiotion:
• It can be made by acidified potassium managanate (VII)
• The purple solution becomes colourless
• This test can be used as a test for unsaturation (- C = C -) as bromine

Reaction with hydrogen choride :

H H H H
I
i
H— =c — H + HCI > H- C —C — H
I
H Cl
Ethene Chloroethane

Q Chloroethane can be made from ethene and can be made from ethane.
Preparation through ethene is preferred, why?

A 1- ethane and chlorine gives range of products (CH2CI2, CHCI3 and CCU)
2- In ethane reaction, half of chlorine wasted as hydrogen chloride
3- ethene is more reactive than ethane

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of ethene:
1- Manufacture of polymers like polyethene
2- Making ethanol
3- Ripening fruits

Alcohols
• General formula of (CnH2n+iOH)( CnH2n+20)
• They are a group pf organic compounds containing hydroxyl functional group (-OH)
• They are not hydrocarbons. They contain C , H and O atoms
• N represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
> 1st member CiH2xi + 1 OH CHsOH
> 2nd member C2H2X2 + 1 OH C2H5OH

• The structural formula is the formula that shows the bonds between atom in the compound
H
H H H H H
I I I I I I
H — C —O H H— C — C —OH H— C — C — C —O H
I I I I I I
H H H H H
H
Methanol Rthanol 1-Propanol

H H
Isomers of alcohols: 1 1
H — C —H H — C —H
H H H H H H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I I I I I I
H — C — C — C — C — 0—H H — C — C — C — C —H H — C — C — C — O- H H— C — C — C — H
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H 0 H H H H H O H
I l
H 2-methylpropan- 1 -ol H
Butan- 1- ol
Butan- 2-ol 2- methylpropan- 2-ol

Q Deduce the molecular formula of the alcohol whose Mr = 158. Show your working.
A Cn H2n+1 OH = 158
[12 xn] + [1 x (2n +1)] + 16 +1 = 158
14n +18 = 158
14n = 140
n = 10
C10 H21OH

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 16 - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Physical properties :

• Liquid at room temperature

• Colourless
• Sweet smell (nail varnish remover smell)
• Sweet taste (fruity taste)
• Volatile (Low boiling point)
• Flammable
• Soluble in water

Manufacture of ethanol:
1- Hydration of ethene
2- Fermentation

Hydration of ethene
60 atmosphere , 300 °C H H

<g) + H20(g) J J <

H-< - < -OH I )
Phosphoric acid H H

ethene ethanol

• Phosphoric acid acts as a catalyst

• Water is used in a steam form

Fermentation:
C6H12O .M
glucose
enzymes
in yeast
2C2H 5OH ( aq ) + 2C02 (g ) + energy
ethanol carbon dioxide
• Fermentation is the process of conversion of carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide in
the presence of certain conditions:
airlock

> Yeast as it contains zymase enzyme

> Absence of air which is known as anaerobic respiration water
> Temperature of 25 - 40°C (best is 37°C)
> Aqueous solution of carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen yeast, sugar and water
and oxygen in a ratio of 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen atoms

• Respiration is the by which living organisms obtain energy from food

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

• _
Enzyme is biological catalyst
• Yeast is separated by filtration

• The ethanol is separated from the final mixture by fractional distillation

• Water is added as a coolant to ensure the optimum temperature

• Air lock is used to prevent entrance of air and subsequent

> stoppage of fermentation as yeast will not act in aerobic conditions
> oxidation of ethanol formed into ethanoic acid

• Fermentation is exothermic & self-limiting

• The rate increases initially as
> increase in temperature as reaction is exothermic
> more yeast present as yeast multiplies rate of
reaction
• The rate then decreases as
> Concentration of alcohol 14% is high to poison yeast cells
> Glucose concertation decreases by time till it is used up time
> Enzyme denatured
Comparison between hydration of ethene and fermentation:

Ethene and steam Fermentation

Type of raw Non- renewable renewable
materials
Labour Few makers A lot of workers
Equipment Small equipment Large vessel
Conditions needed High temperature and pressure Warm and normal pressure
(A lot of energy) (A little energy )
Implementation Complex method Simple method
Type of process Continuous Batch (stop-start )
Rate of reaction Fast Slow
Yield 100% Low yield
Purity of the Pure Impure and needs treatment
product
Cost expensive Less expensive

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Chemical reactions of alcohols:

PH of alcohols: Alcohols are Neutral (PH=7)

Combustion:
• Alcohols burn in oxygen giving out plenty of heat so used as fuel
CH3OH (|) + 3/2 O2 (g) —* CO2 (g) + 2H O ( ) + heat
• 2 |

• Ethanol burns very well in oxygen, shows blue flame only indicating complete combustion
C2H5OH (|) + 302 (g) —i 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (i) + heat

Oxidation:
H H
I I [ O]
H— C — C— OH
I I
H H

• Ethanol is oxidised much faster by warming it with the powerful oxidising agent
like Acidified potassium manganate(VII) that changes colour change from purple to colourless

• Potassium dichromate(VI) could also be used as the oxidising agent, this gives a colour
change from orange to green mineral wool soaked aluminium oxide elhene
in ethanol
collects

Dehydration :

•
•
Dehydration is removal of water from compound
It can be made by
t
heat

> Passing ethanol vapour over heated catalyst Aluminium oxide (Alumina / AI2O3)
> Using concentrated sulfuric acid as a dehydrating agent.

ethene water

H H
coned H2S04,
excess acid
C= C + HOH
/ \
H H

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of ethanol:
1- Biofuel
2- Solvent
3- Making perfumes
4- To make esters
5- To make vinegar (ethanoic acid)
6- Antiseptic
eftanoic acid for
g food and making
esters

Organic acids ( carboxylic acids):

• This family has general formula -CnhhnCte

• The functional group -COOH is also call the carboxyl group
• They are not hydrocarbons. They contain C, H and O atoms
• N represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
>
1 st member CiH2xi O2 CH2O2
>
2nd member C2H2X2 O2 C2H4O2
• The molecular formula of acid can be written in different ways showing n. of atoms as follow:
>
Methanoic acid CH2O or HCOOH
> Propanoic acid C3H6O2 or CH3CH2COOH
> Butanoic acid C4H8O2 or CH3CH2CH2COOH
> Pentanoic acid C5H10O2 or CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH
• The displayed formula that shows the bonds between atom in the compound

O H H O
//
H —C I I //
\ H —C—C—C
O —H I I \
H H O—H
Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid (vinegar) Propanoic acid

> Example for ethanoic acid showing

Electrons shared in bonding

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Physical properties:
1- They are colourles
2- The smell is strong acidic
3- Sour taste
4- They are soluble in water
5- Weak acids, partially ionised (universal indicator is orange with PH of 4 - 6)
CH3COOH(aq)
ethanoic acid
—^ CH3COO (aq) + H+(aq)
'

ethanoate ions hydrogen ions

6- Ethanoic acid has vinegar smell

Chemical reactions of acids:

Neutralization:
• Ethanoic acid reacts with bases, and carbonates, to form salts and water

CHjCOOH (aq ) + NaOH (aq ) CHjCOONa (aq ) + H20 (/)

H 0
I
H-C-C
I \
H
* OH
(aq) + NaOH (aq) (aq ) + H20 ( / )

ethanoic acid sodium sodium ethanoate water

hydroxide (a salt)

Displacement :

• Ethanoic acid reacts with metal to form salts and hydrogen

2HCOOH(aq)+ Ca(s) — (HCOO)2Ca(aq) + H2(g)

Methanoic acid + calcium —» calcium methanoate + Hydrogen

Esterification:
cone. H2SO
CH3COOH (/) + C3H7OH (/) S CH3COOC3H7 (/) + H2O (0
this group is called
ester linkage
H H H cone H
H2S04
I I I I :
C- C - C -H - C+ C H H H

-u
H + HjO
H
I I I
H H irvu
I l I
water

ethanoic acid propanol H H H

170 propyl ethanoate (an ester)
 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

H H H H
cone
H2S04 I —CI —
Z
H H
M.O
I HI T N> 1 1
H
TT
H H
ester link
propanoic acid ethanol ethyl propanoate water

cone +
CH3CH2COOH + CH30H H2SO4 CH3CH2COOCH3 H20

Propanoic acid Methanol V Methyl propanoate

H H 0 H H H

/\
cone
H2S04
H C C + HO C H A H C C H H2 O
+

H H H H H 0 C H

• Two molecules have joined to make a larger molecule, with the loss of a small water molecule
So, this is called a condensation reaction
• Ester molecule can be decomposed by water in presence of HCI (Hydrolysis)
• The reaction is reversible
• Conditions are concentrated sulfuric acid acts a catalyst and heat
• The alcohol part comes first in the name -but second in the formula.
• Many esters have attractive smells and tastes
• They are added to perfumes and soaps for their smells, and to foods as flavourings.

Isomers:
• Esters have general formula CnH2n02 like acids
Example: The 2 esters and the acid have same molecular formula C3H6O2
but different structures so they are structural isomers

H O H O H H o
I II I II I // I
H—C — C — O —C — H H— C— O— CH2- CH3 H—C—C—C
I I I I \
H H H H O —H
Methyl ethanoate Ethylmethanoate Propanoic acid

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Fossil fuel:
• It is formed over millions of years in the earth crust from material that was once living
• They are non-renewable resources
• There are 3 major fossil fuels

1- Coal
2- Petroleum (crude oil)
3- Natural gas

• Natural gas is a mixture of methane, ethane, propane and butane in which methane is 90%

• Coke is made from coal, but charcoal is made from wood

Fractional distillation of petroleum:

• Petroleum (crude oil) is separated into different hydrocarbons (fraction) by fractional distillation
• It is separated in fractionating column (fractionating tower / oil refinery)
• The temperature applied at the base is almost 400 °C and above
• Temperature at the top of column is lower than the bottom

• Each fraction collected is of different number of carbons and with different boiling point.
> Light fractions (low boiling point ) are at the top
> heavy fractions (high boiling point) are at the bottom

• Fraction: it is distillate collected at a certain range of temperature (boiling point) during fractional
distillation

• Hydrocarbon Fraction: are molecules with certain number(s) of carbon atoms and collected at
certain range of temperature (boiling point)

• Each fraction distilled out is formed from mixture of hydrocarbons

• Refinery gas is a mixture of methane, ethane, propane and butane in which butane and propane
are the main constituents

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16 - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Fraction N. of carbon Down the fractionating column:

atoms > Number of C atoms increase
Refinery gas 1-4 > Boiling point increase
Petrol ( gasoline) 5 -6 > Melting point increase
Naphtha 6-10 > Density increase
Paraffin (Kerosene ) 10-15 > Viscosity increase
Diesel oil ( gas oil) 15-20 > Energy upon burning (if flammable) increase
Fuel oil 20-30 > Flammability decrease
Lubricant 30-50 > Volatility decrease
Asphalt ( bitumen) >50 \7

cool Name of Number of What fraction is used for

(25° C )
fraction carbon atoms

I
refinery gas C, to C 4 bottled gases for cooking and
heating
gasoline (petrol) C 5 toC 6 fuel for cars

naphtha C6 toC 10 starting point or feedstock for boiling

many chemicals and plastics points
and
paraffin C ,0 toC 15 fuel for aircraft, oil stoves, viscosity
(kerosene) and lamps increase
, toCM

I
diesel oil (gas oil) C 5 fuel for diesel engines

HA fuel oil C2010 CJO fuel for power stations, ships, and
for home heating systems
lubricating C 30 to CJO oil for car engines and machinery;
fraction waxes and polishes
very hot tiilTil bitumen CM upwards for road surfaces and roofs
(over 400° C )

Fraction Boiling point How easily How volatile is it? How easily Size of
range does it flow ? does it burn ? molecules

1 up to 100 °C very runny volatile very easily small

2 100 - 150 °C runny less volatile easily

3 150 - 200 ° C not very runny even less volatile not easily

4 200 - 300 ° C viscous (thick and sticky) least volatile only with a wick large

wick
,
Fraction 1 Fraction 2 Fraction 3 Fraction 4

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Blending gasoline:

• This is made to improve the quality of gasoline because

>If the fuel ignites too easily, the engine will not run smoothly, (Knocking) will occur,
>If the fuel ignites with difficulty, the engine will be difficult to start
• Lead is added to prevent knocking but
> it leads to brain damage in children
> it poisons the catalytic converter
• Short chain alkane is used for blending gasoline

Cracking:

• The breakdown of non - useful, large chain molecules hydrocarbons

into useful short chain hydrocarbon (simpler alkane and alkene)
by the action of catalyst as (Alumina, Silica) and at a temperature around 500°C

• Cracking reactions give either

> Long chain hydrocarbon — Short chain alkene (s) + shorter Alkane than original
C15H32 » 2C2H4 + C3H6 + CSHI 8
C10H22 —» 2C3H6 + C4H10
C18H38 —> 2C4H8 + C3H6 + C7H16
Long chain hydrocarbon — Short chain alkene ( s)+ Hydrogen
>
C5H12 —* • C2H4 + C3H6 + H2
C9H20 — C2H4 + C3H6 + C4H8 + H2
C7H16— 2C2H4 + CsHe + H2

Importance of cracking :

• Shortened alkanes
> Blended with gasoline to enrich the petrol
> Used as a solvent
• Alkene
> Useful materials for several important products like polymers
> Used as a solvent
> Used to make alcohols
• Source of Hydrogen
> Making Ammonia
> Fuel cell
> Margarine manufacture

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Polymerisation:

• A polymer is large organic macromolecule, formed when lots of small repeating units (monomers)
join together by polymerisation.

• If monomers are the same (only one monomer), it is named homopolymers

Ex: Polyethene and poly vinyl chloride
• If monomers are the different (more than one monomer), it is named copolymers
Ex: Nylon (made of 2 monomers) and protein (20 amino acids)

• There are two types of polymerisation

1- Addition polymerisation
2- Condensation polymerisation

1 - Addition polymerisation

heat, pressure,
a catalyst

CH 3 H
heat, pressure.
n C C
a catalyst
H H

• n stands for a large number which is number of molecules in the polymer

• In addition polymerisation, double bonds in molecules break and the molecules add on to each
other
• For addition polymerisation to take place, the monomers must have C=C double bonds
• Only one product is formed which is the polymer

Polymer Use
Poly (ethene) Plastic bags
Poly (propene) Plastic ropes
Poly (chloroethene) / PVC Pipes & insulator cover for electric wire
Poly (tetrafluoroethene) / Teflon Non-stick frying pans
Poly (phenylethene) / Styrene Thermal insulation & packing (foams)

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES
The monomer Part of the polymer molecule The equation for the reaction

H H H H H H H H H
4- W-U4-U4-
chloroethene
uunuA
polyfchloroethene) or
(vinyl chloride) polyvinyl chloride (PVC) n stands for a large numberl

F F F F F F F F
I I I I I I I I
-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-
I I I I I I I I
F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene poly(tetrafluoroethene) or
Teflon

XIXVCIT
A 1A A A A A
phenylethene poly(phenylethene) or
Styrene) polystyrene)

Disadvantages of plastic:
1- Non-biodegradable, do not decompose by microorganisms so persist for years and accumulate
2-Limited landfill sites or it is filled up
3- Visual pollution
4- Danger to wildlife
5- Burning it forms toxic gases and harmful gases

Advantages of plastic over metals in cooler of water :

1- Does not corrode

2- Doesn’t decay
3- Lower density (ighter)
4- Easily moulded (easier to manufacture)
5- Good insulator
6- Cheaper

Advantages of plastic as insulator for electric wires:

1- Insulator (doesn’t conduct electricity)
2- Does not decay or non-biodegradable
3- Does not corrode
4- Easily moulded
5- Low density (light)
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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Plastic disposal:
1- Burning:
Disadvantages:

> Produces toxic gases, harmful to health

> Increases greenhouse gases causing global warming

Advantages:

> Reduces visual pollution

> Reduces risks to wildlife
> Reduces space needed in landfill sites
> Burning is source of energy used to generate electricity

2- Recycling :
Disadvantages :

> Difficult to recycle as it takes much energy (expensive)

> Problems of sorting
> Quality of plastic is reduced each time it is recycled

Advantages:

> Reduces visual pollution

> Reduces risks to wildlife
> Reduces space needed in landfill sites
> Conserves petroleum which is natural resources

Degradable plastics:

1- Biodegradable: by adding starch that bacteria can feed on

2- Photodegradable: It contains additives that breakdown in sunlight

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

2- Condensation polymerisation:
• in condensation polymerisation, no double bonds break
• Two different monomers join
• Each has two functional groups that take part in the reaction
• The monomers join together at their functional groups, by getting rid of or eliminating small
molecules (usually water)
• Products formed ate polymer and small molecule
• It includes:
1- Polyamides (polypeptide)
> Natural polyamide like protein
> Synthetic polyamide like nylon
2- Polyester
> Natural polyester like fat
> Synthetic polyamide like nylon
3- Glycosidic linkage
> Natural like carbohydrates
• Protein, carbohydrates and fats are the three main food groups

1- Polyamide

Protein

• Proteins are natural polymers (natural polyamide)

• Proteins are built up from molecules of amino acids
• The general structure of an amino acid molecule shows that COOH (carboxyl) and
NH2 (amino) are the functional groups
• Examples of amino acids

H O H o H O

H — N— C — C H N
I
C
I
C
I
H N
I
C
I
C
I
I I I
H H OH H CH3 OH H C3H7 OH

glycine alanine cysteine

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

• When 2 amino acids combine, they form dipeptide

H O H H O
I II
H2N —C— C OH + HN—C— C— OH
H CH3
Glycine Alanine
H O H O
III I- II-
H2N C
- - C N —C C OH + HgO
I
H H CH3
• When many amino acids combine, they form
> Polypeptide: (15-100 amino acids)
> Protein: (more than 100 amino acids)

amino acid A amino acid B

+ H2O (hydrolysis) -H2O (condensation)

-H KII N
I
—c
H O H O
• Proteins can be hydrolysed by
> Heating with concentrated hydrochloric acid
> Action of enzymes at a temperature 25 -40°C
• The amino acids present upon hydrolysis can be separated by chromatography
• Hydrolysis of protein is endothermic

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Nylon
o o
II
HO— C C—OH + H 2 N
- NH 2
a dicarboxylic acid a diamine

r O
-r -
11
O H
II I V1
h= -C—N

a polyamide

• Nylon is an example of synthetic polyamide

• Monomers are
> Dicarboxylic that has a -COOH group at each end
> Diamine that has a -NH2 group at each end

• Amide linkage is formed (peptide linkage) and nylon is known as polyamide

this linking group of atoms

is called an amide linkage

o„ ,
o
I-N- C- B- C -N-I I-N
: t-K
)
-c—
o
l
NH
H
I I
H
^ I
H
I
C

Uses of nylon:
1- Fishing lines
2- Umbrella
3- Parachutes
4-Raincoat
5- Dental floss
6- Seat belt

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Polyester:

Fats:
• They are the natural macromolecule formed with ester linkage
• They are not considered typical polymer
• Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol (alcohol)
• Reaction between fatty acid and glycerol is esterification
• Hydrolysis of fats or vegetable oil with strong base like NaOH & heat
will results in breaking the bond forming glycerol and sodium salt of the fatty,
heat
Fats + NaOH Soap + Glycerol

• Soap: it is the sodium salt of fatty acid (long chain carboxylic acid)

Terylene:

o o
ii
HO— C C— OH + HO OH
a dicarboxylic acid a dialcohol

- O
i
11
o
II
I
~
tC c— o o
a polyester

• They are the synthetic polyesters formed with ester linkage

• Monomers are:
H O O C— C O O H
> Dicarboxylic (has a -COOH group at each end)
> Diol (has a -OH group at each end)

Then another D . . . and another C

reacts here ... reacts here ... and so on.

this group is called

an ester linkage
' '
o o 0 .o \
I II
c- o-l 1- 0-c -c — o 4dbo —

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 16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of tervlene:
1- in fabrics
2- Bottles, packaging and bags

Carbohydrates :

• Compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, The ratio of H:0 is 2:1
• They are example of natural polymer formed by condensation
• The linkage is named glyosidic linkage
• Monomer is glucose HOH h OH
• Glucose is Diol (has a -OH group at each end ) glucose
• Polymer is polysaccharide (ex: starch)

Ho-| hbH HO-I HOH HO I NOH

water molecules
J eliminated

—o

• Starch can be hydrolysed by

> Heating with concentrated hydrochloric acid
> Action of enzymes at a temperature 25 -40°C
• The sugars present upon hydrolysis can be separated by chromatography

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16- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY : PR / PETER POULES

Comparison between addition & condensation polymerisation:

Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation

Monomers • Single monomer • Same or different monomer

• Unsaturated alkene (C=C) • Compounds containing functional groups
at their ends

Reaction • Addition reaction by breaking C=C • Condensation reaction with loss of a

small molecule (usually water)

Product • Only one single product • 2 products (polymer & small molecule
• Non-biodegradable • Biodegradable
• Resistant to acid hydrolysis • Hydrolysed by acids

Comparison between natural protein & synthetic nylon:

Protein Nylon

Similarity Both have amide linkage

Differences Many monomers 2 monomers

Monomer is amino acid Monomer is dicarboxylic and diamine

183
17 - Definitions &
equations & uses and
colours

184
PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Definitions
• Acid is proton donors
• Acid rain is rain which has been made more acidic than normal by the presence of dissolved
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)

• Acidic oxides oxides of non-metals which will react with bases and dissolve in water to
produce acid solutions

• Activation energy ( £A) the energy required to start a chemical reaction - for a reaction to take
place the colliding particles must possess at least this amount of energy
• Addition polymer a polymer formed by an addition reaction - the monomer molecules must
contain a C=C double bond
• Alkalis soluble bases

• Alloys mixtures of elements (usually metals) designed to have the properties useful for a
particular purpose

• Amino acids naturally occurring organic compounds which possess both an amino (-NH2) group
and an acid (COOH) group in the molecule; there are 20 naturally occurring amino acids and they
are polymerised in cells to make proteins

• Amphoteric oxides oxides which can react with both acids and alkalis to produce salts

• Anaerobic decay decay of organic matter which takes place in the absence of air

• Anion a negative ion which would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis

• Aqueous dissolved in water

• Artificial fertiliser a substance added to soil to increase the amount of elements such as
nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus ( NPK fertilisers), this enables crops to grow more healthily and
produce higher yields

• Atom the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction

• Atomic number ( or proton number ) the number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom.
It is equal to number of electrons present in an atom and determine position of the
element in the periodic table

185
PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Avoqadro constant It is 6.02 x 1023’ and one mole of a substance contains the Avogadro
constant atoms, molecules or formula units, depending on the substance considered

Base proton acceptors

Basic oxide oxide of a metal that will react wit to neutralize the acid

Biodegradable can be decomposed by bacteria

Boiling a condition under which gas bubbles are to form within a liquid - gas molecules escape
the body of a liquid, not just from its surface

Boiling point, the temperature at which liquid starts to boil when the pressure of the gas created
above the liquid equals atmospheric pressure

Bond energy the energy required to break a particular type of covalent bond

Brine a concentrated solution of sodium chloride in water

Brownian motion the random movement of small visible particles in a suspension caused by the
random bombardment of unequal forces by molecules of gas or liquid on the visible particles

Burning combustion in which, a flame is produce

Carbohydrates a group of naturally occurring organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in the molecules is always 2:1

Catalyst a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and remains unchanged at the end of
the reaction

Cation a positive ion which would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis

Coal a black, solid fossil fuel formed underground over geological periods of time by conditions
of high pressure and temperature acting on decayed vegetation

Compound a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements

Concentration: The amount of solute (in grams or moles) that can dissolve in 1dm3 of a solvent
a measure of how much solute is dissolved in a solvent. Solutions can be dilute (with a high
,

proportion of the solvent), or concentrated (with a high proportion of the solute)

Concentrated Solution: A solution with large amounts of solute/dm3.

Condensation the change of a vapour or a gas into a liquid; during this process heat is given out
to the surroundings

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• Condensation polymerization large molecule made from many small molecules named
monomers by joining together

• Contact process the industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid using the raw materials sulfur and air

Corrosion the name given to the process that takes place when metals and alloys are chemically
attacked by oxygen, water.

Covalent bonding chemical bonding formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons
between two atoms

• Cracking The breakdown of non - useful, large chain molecules hydrocarbons into useful short
chain hydrocarbon (simpler alkane and alkene) by the action of catalyst (powdered minerals as
Alumina, Silica and zeolite) and at a temperature, around 500°C

• Crystallization the process of forming crystals from a saturated solution

• Decanting the process of careful pouring to removing a liquid from a solid which has settled or
from an immiscible heavier liquid.

• Decomposition a type of chemical reaction where a compound breaks down into simpler
substances

• Dehydration a chemical reaction in which water is removed from a compound

• Density Mass / Volume

• Diatomic molecules molecules containing two atoms;

• Diffusion It is the spreading of one substance to another substance by random motion from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

• Dilute Solution: A solution with a small amount of solute/dm3.

• Distillate the liquid distilling over during distillation

• Downward delivery a method of collecting a gas which is denser than air by passing it
downwards into a gas jar

• Drying agent, a chemical substance that absorbs water from a mixture

• anhydrous calcium chloride and concentrated sulfuric acid are two examples

• Ductile a word used to describe the property that metals can be drawn out and stretched into
wires
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PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

• Dynamic ( chemical ) equilibrium chemical reactions taking place in both directions (forward and
backward) at the same time, where

> the concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant because
> the rate at which the forward reaction occurs is the same as that of the back reaction
> in a closed system

• Electrochemical cell a system for converting chemical energy to electrical energy, made by
connecting two metals of different reactivity via an electrolyte;

• Electrolysis the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by the use of

electricity
• Electrolyte substance that conducts electricity when molten or aqueous. It is decomposed by
electrolysis and chemically changed

• Element a substance which cannot be further divided into simpler substances by chemical
methods; all the atoms of an element contain the same number of protons

• Empirical formula a formula for a compound which shows the simplest ratio of atoms present

• Endothermic change a process or chemical reaction which takes in heat from the surroundings;

• Enzyme protein molecules that act as biological catalysts

• Esterification chemical reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid that produces an ester
the other product is water

• Evaporation a process occurring at the surface of a liquid, involving the change of state from a
liquid into a vapour at a temperature below the boiling point

• Exothermic chemical reaction which heat energy is produced and released to the surroundings

• Excess More than enough

• Filtration the separation of a solid from a liquid using a fine filter paper which does not allow the
solid to pass through

• Fermentation is the process of conversion of carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide by
the action of yeast in an absence of air (anaerobic respiration) at a temperature of 25 - 40°C (best
is 37°C)

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PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Fossil fuels, such as coal, crude oil and natural gas formed underground over geological period of
time from the remains of plants and animals. It is burnt to produce energy

Fractional distillation Separation of mixture of liquids depending on difference in boiling points.

Fraction it is distillate collected at a certain range of temperature (boiling point ) during fractional
distillation.

Fuel a substance that can be used as a source of energy usually by burning

Hydrocarbon Fraction are molecules with certain number ( s) of carbon atoms and certain range
of temperature (boiling point)

Hydrated salts salts containing water of crystallization

Hydrocarbons compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen only

Hydrogenation an addition reaction in which hydrogen is added across the double bond in an
alkene using catalyst (Ni) and high temperature

Hydrolysis a chemical reaction in which covalent bonds are broken by water and can be carried
out with acids or alkalis, or by using enzymes

Immiscible if two liquids form two layers when they are mixed together, they are said to be
immiscible

Indicator a substance which changes colour when added to acidic or alkaline solutions; for

Insoluble term that describes a substance that does not dissolve in a particular solvent

Insulator substance that does not conduct electricity

Intermolecular forces the weak attractive forces which act between molecules

Ionic bonding a strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions

Ions charged particles made from an atom

Isomers compounds which have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae

Isotopes atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but a different nucleon
number,
some isotopes are radioactive because their nuclei are unstable ( radioisotopes )

• Lattice a regular arrangement

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• Locating agent, a compound that reacts with invisible, colourless spots separated by
chromatography to produce a coloured product which can be seen

• Macromolecule : Giant covalent structure

• Malleable a word used to describe the property that metals can be bent and beaten into sheets

• Mass number ( or nucleon number ) the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom

• Melting point the temperature at which a solid starts to turn into a liquid - it has the same value
as the freezing point; a pure substance has a sharp melting point

• Metallic bonding an electrostatic force of attraction between the mobile sea of electrons and the
layers of positive metal ions within a solid metal

• Mixture two or more substances not chemically joined and can be separated by physical means

• Mole the measure of substance in chemistry; one mole of substance has

> mass equal to relative, atomic, molecular or formula mass in grams depending on the
substance considered
> 6.02 x 1023 (the Avogadro constant ) atoms, molecules or formula units depending on
the substance considered

• Molecule two or more atoms bonded by sharing electrons (by a covalent bond)

• Molecular formula number of atoms of each element; in one molecule

• Monomer a small molecule, such as ethene, which can be polymerized to make a

polymer

• Neutralization a chemical reaction between an acid and a base to produce a salt and water

• Nucleon number ( or mass number) the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom

• Oxidation a reaction involving the loss of electrons

• Photochemical reaction a chemical reaction that occurs only in presence of light

• Photosynthesis the chemical process by which plants synthesize glucose from atmospheric
carbon dioxide and water: the energy required for the process is captured from sunlight by
chlorophyll molecules in the green leaves of the plants
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• Physical change a change in the physical state of a substance or the physical nature of a
situation
that does not involve a change in the chemical substance(s) present

• Polymer large molecule made from many small molecules named monomers by joining
together at high temperature and pressure

• Polymerization the chemical reaction in which molecules (monomers) join to form a long-
chain polymer

• Precipitate Insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution

• Pure substance has no particles of any other substance mixed with it

• Radioisotopes (or radioactive isotopes) isotopes give out radioactive emissions because they
have unstable nuclei

• Redox reaction a reaction involving both reduction and oxidation

• Relative atomic mass the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale
where the carbon 12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units

• Relative formula mass the sum of all relative atomic masses of the atoms present in the formula
unit of a substance

• Rf value = distance moved by the substance

distance moved by the solvent

• Respiration: It is the by which living organisms obtain energy from food

• Reversible reaction is a reaction that can go both ways: expressed by the symbol

• A reversible reaction reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium ( equilibrium ) , when

> the rate of the forward and backward reactions is equal

> the concentrations of reactants and products don’t change (with time)
> in a closed system

• Saturated Solution: A solution in which no more solute will dissolve at that temperature.
If the solvent is water, the solution is called aqueous solution

• Solute: This is a substance that dissolves in a solvent forming a solution

• Solvent: This is a substance in which a solute dissolve forming a solution

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• Solution: A uniform mixture which is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.

• Strong acid an acid that is completely ionized

• Strong alkali an alkali that is completely ionized

• Steel Alloy (mixture) of iron and carbon & another metal.

• Substitution reaction one atom or group is replaced by another atom or group

• Thermal decomposition the breakdown of a compound due to heating

• Weak acid an acid that is partially ionized

• Weak base a base that is partially ionized

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Equations
Ionization of acids:
HCI(aq) H+(aq) + Cl (aq)
'

HN03(aq) H+(aq) + N03 (aq)'

H2S04(aq) 2H+(aq) + S042 (aq) '

H2C03(aq) 2H+(aq) + C032 (aq) '

H3P04(aq) 3H+(aq) + PC>43~(aq)

r
*
• Ionization of aid takes place in water so it can be written as follow

HCI(aq) + H20(l) H30+(aq) + Cl (aq) '

H2S04(aq) + 2H20(I) 2H30+(aq) + S042 (aq)

'

H3P04(aq) + 3H20(I) 3H30+(aq) + P043 (aq)

'

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq) —> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
—* ZnS04(aq)
—
Zn<s) + H2S04(aq) • + H2(g)
2AI(S) + 6HN03(aq) 2AI(N03)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Acid + Base Salt + Water

HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) — NaCI(aq) + H2O0 )
CuO(s) + H2S04(aq) — CllS04(aq) + H2O0)

Acid + Carbonate or bicarbonate Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

CuC03(s) + H2S04(aq) —* CllS04(aq) + H20(l) + C02(g)
NaHC03(s) + HCI(aq) — NaCI( aq) + H20(l) + C02(g)

Base + ammonium salt Salt + Water + Ammonia

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4CI(aq) — CaCl2(aq) + 2H20(I) + 2NH3(g)
NaOH(aq) + NH4CI(aq) —* NaCI(aq) + H20(l) + NH3(g)
•

2LiOH(aq) + (NH4)2S04(aq) — Li2S04(aq) + 2H20(I) + 2NH3(g)

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Water act as base

HCI(aq) + H20(l) — Cl (aq) + H30+(aq)
'

Water act as acid

NH3(g) + H2O0) — NH4+(aq) + OH (aq)
*

Equation at boiling / evaporation and condensation :

Gas Liquid
^
Equation at melting and freezing:
Liquid Solid
^
Preparation of insoluble salts:

Soluble salt + Soluble salt — Insoluble salt + soluble salt

Ex: preparation of BaS04 BaCl2(aq) + MgSC> 4(aq) —* BaS04(s) + MgCl2(aq)
Ex: preparation of AgCI —* AgCI(s) + NaN03(aq)
AgNOaoq) + NaCI(aq)
Ex: preparation of Ca3(P04)2 Ca(N03)2(aq) + NaCI(aq) —* AgCI( ) + NaN03(aq)
• S

Preparation of soluble salts by titration:

Acid + Alkali — Soluble salt + water

Ex: preparation of NaCI NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) —* NaCI(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of K2SO4 KOH(aq) + H2S04(aq) — K2S04(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of NhUNCb NH40H(aq) + HN03(aq) —* NH4N03(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of Li3P04 LiOH(aq) + H3P04(aq) — Li3P04(aq) + H20(l)

Preparation of soluble salts by excess method :

Ex: preparation of MgCL Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq) —> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ex: preparation of CuSCM CuO(s) + H2S04(aq) —1 CuSC> 4(aq) + H2O0)
Ex: preparation of Zn(N03)2 ZnC03(s) + 2HN03(aq) —» Zn(N03)2(aq)+ 002(g) + H20(i)
•

Ex: preparation of ZnS04 Zn(s) + H2S04(aq) — ZnS04(aq) + H2(g)

Electrolysis of molten PbBr?:

At the cathode At the anode
Pb2+(i) + 2e- —> Pb(i) 2Br (i) —* Br2(g) + 2e-
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Electrolysis of molten K 2 O :
At the cathode At the anode
K+(i) + e~ —> K(i) 202 (i) - 4e —* 02(g)
'

Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid :

At the cathode At the anode
2H+(aq) + 2e - H2(g) 40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H20(|) + 4e

Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride:

At the cathode At the anode
2H+(aq) + 2e -*• H2(g) 40H (aq) —*• 02(g) + 2H2O0 ) + 4e

Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid :

At the cathode At the anode
2H+(aq) + 2 e H2(g) 2CI (aq) - 2e — Cl2(g)

Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride:

At the cathode At the anode
2H+(aq) + 2 e H2(g) 2CI (aq) — Cl2(g) + 2e

Electrolysis of copper ( II ) sulphate using copper electrodes:

At the cathode At the anode
Cll2+(aq) + 2e~ —* CU(S) 40H (aq) — 02(g) + 2H20(I) + 4e

Electrolysis of copper ( II ) sulphate using copper electrodes:

At the cathode At the anode
Cll2+(aq) + 2e — Cll(s) CU(S) — Cu2+ (aq) + 2e

Electroplating with silver

At the cathode At the anode
Ag+(aq) + e ^ Ag<S) Ag(S) — Ag+(aq) + e

Extraction of Aluminum :
At cathode At anode
_ _
Al3+(i) + 3e —»• Al(i) 202 (i) 02(g) + 4e ~

C(S) + 02(g) -»• 002(g)

2C(s) + 02(g) —»• 200 g ( )

2F (i)
'
- 2e —» F2(g)
~

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Anodising of aluminium:
At cathode At anode
_
4AI(S) + 302(g) — 2AI203(S) 40H (aq) —*• 02(g) + 2H20(i) + 4e

Different forms of simple cell :

voltmeter

magnesium copper
electrode - - electrode

copper electrode zinc electrode

zinc sulfate(aq)
MgS04 (aq ) CuS04(aq)
copper(II) sulfate(aq)
porous pot - stops porous barrier
solutions from mixing
At anode Zri(s) —> Zn2+(aq) + 2e At anode Mg< s) — Mg2+(aq) + 2e
At cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e —> Cu(S) At cathode Cu2+(aq) + 2e —* Cu<s)

voltmeter

inert electrode inert electrode electron flow

cattxxi eartm
electrode

11
solution of solution of iron(n) salt
bromine ^Fe^-(aq)
Br,(aq) potassium
manganate(Vn) (aq]
potassium
Iodide (aq)

filter paper soaked in

sodium chloride solution salt bridge
(allows ions to move from
to complete the circuit one beaker to another)

At anode Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e "

At anode 2l (aq)
*
—* l2(aq) + 2e
At cathode Bf2(aq) + 2e —> 2Br (aq) ~ "
At cathode Mn7+(aq) + 5e — Mn2+(aq) "

Displacement reaction of metals:

Mg(s) + CuS04(aq) —* MgS04(aq) + CU(S)
Ag(S) + CuS04(aq) —»• No reaction
Fe(s) + CuS04(aq) —> FeS04(aq) + Cll(s)

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Reduction of metal compounds with Carbon:

ZnO(s) + C(s) —* Zri(g) + CO(g)
CaO(s) + C(s) — No reaction
Reaction of metal with water:
2Na(s> + 2H2O0) —* 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H2O0) —*• Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction of metal with steam:
Mg(S) + H20(g) —> MgO(s) + H2(g)
Zn<s) + H20(g) —*• ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Reaction of qp ( I ) metal:
4Li(s) + 02(g) —* 2Li20(s)
2Na(S) + Cl2(g) —* 2NaCI(s)
2Na(S) + 2H2O0) — 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2K(S) + 2H20(i) —* 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction of qp (II) metal:
2Sr(s) + 02(g) —* 2SrO(s)
•

Mg(s) + CI20) —> MgCl2(s)

Ca(s) + 2H20(l) — Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(ag)
Ba(s) + 2H2O0) — Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Thermal decomposition of qp (I) compounds:

2KN03(S) 2KN02(S) + 02(g)
2RbN03(s) —i 2RbN02(s) + 02(g)
Li2C03(S)— No decomposition
NaOH(s) —* No decomposition
•

Thermal decomposition of other metal compounds :

2CU(N03)2(S) — 2CuO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g)
CaC03(s) —* CaO(s)
• + 002(g)
Zn(OH)2(s) —> ZnO(s) + H20(g)

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Rusting:
Iron + Oxygen + Water —> hydrated iron (III) oxide
4Fe(s) + 302(g) + 2H2O0) — 2Fe203.H20(S)

Extraction of iron:
C(s) + 02(g) -» 002(g)
002(g) + C(s) —> 200(g)
Fe203(s) + 300(g) — 2Fe(i) + 3002(g)
CaC03(s) —*
• CaO(s) + 002(g)
CaO(s) + Si02(s) —> CaSi03(i)
Extraction of zinc:
2ZnS(s> + 302(g) —> 2ZnO(S) + 2S02(g)
ZnO(s) + C(s) —* Zn(g) + 00(g)

Chemical tests for water:

CuS04(s) +5H?0 CUS04.5H20(S)
-5H2O

COCI2 (s) +6H?0 C0Cl2.6H20(s)

Photosynthesis:
Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Respiration :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 —* 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Ozone depletion and photochemical smog :

203(g) -*• 302(g)

Catalytic converter:
2NO(g) + 200(g) + Unburnt HC — N2(g> + 2002(g) + H20(g)

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Fuel cell:
2H2(g) + 02(g) — 2H20(I)

Test for anions

C02(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) —* CaC03(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl (aq) — AgCI(s)
'

Ag+(aq) + Br<aq) -> AgBr(s)

Ag+(aq) + l (aq)
"

— Agl(s)
Ba2+(aq) + S042 (aq) '
—* BaS04(s)
Test for cations
Ca2+(aq) + 20H (aq) —* Ca(0H)2(s)
'
•

Mg2+(aq) + 20H (aq) *

— Mg(OH)2(s)

Al3+(aq) + 30H (aq)

Zn2+(aq) + 20H (aq )—* Zn(OH)2(s)

*
— AI(OH)3(s)

Cr3+(aq) + 30H (aq)*

— Cr(OH)3(s)
Cll2+(aq) + 20H (aq) —* Cu(OH)2(s)

——
'
•

Fe2+(aq) + 20H (aq)*

Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe3+(aq) + 30H (aq)*
Fe(OH)3(s)

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide:

2H202(aq)—* 2H20(|) + 02(g)
•

Photographic film:
2AgBr(S) — 2Ag(S) + Br2(g)
_
2Ag+ + 2e *
2Ag 2Br -»• Br2 + 2e
"

Reaction of halogens:
2AI(s) + 3Cl2(i) 2AICl3(s)
2K(s) + Br2(i) — 2KBr<S)
H2(g) + Cl2(g) —> 2HCI(g) •

H2(g) + Br2(i) —* 2HBr(g) •

Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) —* 2KCI(aq) + Br2(aq)

Cl2(aq) + 2KF aq) — No reaction
Bf2(aq) + 2KI(aq) —» 2KBr(aq) + l2(aq)
•

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Carbonates:
CaC03(s) — CaO(s) + 002(g)
CaO(s) + H2O0) — Ca(OH)2(aq)
002(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) —* CaC03(s)

Haber process :
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Reactions of ammonia :
NH3(g) + H20(l)
NH3(g) + HCI(aq)
—
—
NH40H(aq)
NH4CI(aq)
2NH3(g) + H2S04(aq) —* (NH4)2S04(aq)
3NH3(g) + H3P04(aq) —* (NH4)3P04(aq)
NH3(g) + HN03(aq) — NH4N03(aq)

Contact process:
S(s) + 02(g) —* S02(g)
2S02(g) + 02(g) 2S03(g)
S03(g) + H2S04(I) —> H2S207(I)
H20(i) + H2S2O70) —* 2H2S04(I)

Sulfuric acid as dehydrating agent :

• On sucrose
-11 H2O
C12H22O11 12 C

• On hydrated copper (II ) sulfate

-5 H2O
CUSO4.5H2O (S) CuS04(s)
Hydrated anhydrous

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Combustion of alkane
CH4(g) + 202(g) —* 002(g) + 2H20(g) + heat energy
•

C2H6(g) + 3.502(g) — 2002(g) + 3H20(g) + heat energy

C3H8(g) + 502(g) — 3002 (g) + 4H20(g) + heat energy
C4Hio(g) + 6.5 02(g) —i 4002(g) + 5H20(g) + heat energy
C8Hi8(i) + 12.5 02(g) —i 8002(g) + 9H20(g) + heat energy

Chlorination ( reaction with chlorine):

H H
I light I
H—< — H
j
H
+ Cb H
r°
H
+ HCl

methane chloromethane
If excess chorine & in presence of light
n
M H Cl, HI <[r — ci HCI

Methane Chloromethane

M M
M h— c\ ci, HI i C\
* HCI
A CI
I
Dichloromethane

I K ci
M AI C\ Cl, M hI Cl MCI
Cl c\
Trichloromethane

Cl ci

M Cl * Cl, Cl C Cl MCI
I
Cl
Ex: propane: Tetrachloromethane
light
2CH3CH2CH3 + 2CI2 CH3CH2CH3CI + CH3CHCICH3 + 2HCI

H H H
I I I
H-C-C-C-H
v? ?
H-C -C -C -H
H Cl H
I I I
H-C-C -C-H
I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H
l-chloropropane 2-chloropropane

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Reaction of alkene
Combustion:
C2H4(g) + 302(g) —> 2002(g) + 2H20(g) + heat energy (complete combustion)
C2H4(g) + 202(g) — 2CO(g> + 2H20(g) + heat energy (incomplete combustion)

Hydrogenation:

150 -300 °C
Nickel

ethene ethane
Hydration:

H H
60 atmosphere , 300 °C I I
(g) + H20(g) H— < — (j:—OH (/ )
Phosphoric acid H
J H
ethene ethanol

Bromination:
Br Br
(g) + Br2(ag)
(orange)
L L
H- - -H ( D
H H
ethene 1,2- dibromoethane
(colourless) (colourless)

Manufacture of ethanol:
Hydration of ethene
60 atmosphere , 300 °C H H

( g) + H20(g) H— O H (/)
Phosphoric acid H H
ethene ethanol

Fermentation:
enzymes
C6H1206 (aq ) 4 2C2H5OH (aq ) + 2C02 (g) + energy
in yeast
glucose ethanol carbon dioxide

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Chemical reactions of alcohols:

Combustion:
CH30H(i) + 1.502(g) — 002(g) + 2H20(i) + heat

C2H50H(i) + 302(g) —* 2002(g) + 3H20(i) + heat

Oxidation:
[O ]

Dehydration:

H H
I
H-C
I
C—H
Hot aluminium
Hvc-_rc /H H — O— H
I I
H O H — oxide catalyst H'
ethanol ethene water
H H
H H
I I coned H2S04, 180°C
H C C H excess acid
C= C + HOH
I / \
H H
H OH

Chemical reactions of acids:

Neutralization:

CH3C00H ( aq ) + NaOH ( aq ) CHjCOONa (aq ) + H20 (0

H O H O
I // I //
H-C-C (aq) + NaOH (aq) H- C-C (a<7 ) + H20 (0
\ I \
H OH H ONa
ethanoic acid sodium sodium ethanoate water
hydroxide (a salt)

Displacement:

2HCOOH + Ca
— (HCOO)2Ca + H2O
Methanoic acid + calcium —» calcium methanoate + water

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 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Esterification:
cone. H2S04
CH3COOH (/) + C3H7OH (/) CH3 COOC3H7 (/) + H,0 (0
this group is called
'
cone
/ an ester linkage
H
I
H
I
H
I H2S04
H
I i
/ 0' < ^
C- C- C -H H-C t C ! H H H + H2O
I ! \ O i CI - CI - CI - H
T
I I I
H H H H , ^I I I
'
water

ethanoic add propanol H H H

propyl ethanoate (an ester)

-L
~* < .
H

H
H

M
rV -fo— I
H
i
c —c
H
|
I
H
cone
H2SO4
H
MO

H H
ester link
propanoic acid ethanol ethyl propanoate water

+
cone +
CH3CH2COOH CH30H H2SO4 CH3CH2COOCH3 H 2O

Propanoic acid Methanol V Methyl propanoate

H H H o
I — cI — c/
cone

HO
I
C H
H2S04
XH c H
+ H2 O
V

H
I I IH \0
H
• C H

204
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Addition polymerization:

heat, pressure.
a catalyst

CH 3 H

n
heat, pressure . I C
a catalyst
H H /„

The monomer Part of the polymer molecule The equation for the reaction

H H H H H H H H H
i i i i
- c — c — c — c —c — -
I I I M I, I I I
U
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H
chloroethene polyfchloroethene) or
(vinyl chloride) polyvinyl chloride (PVO n stands for a large number !

F F F F F F F F
I I I I I I I I
-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-
I I I I I I I I
F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene poly(tetrafluoroethene) or
Teflon

C 6H5 H C6HSH C H C tHsH CJHJ CfiHc H

\
C -C
/ ^ |

/ \ I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H

phenylethene poly(phenylethene) or
(styrene) polystyrene)

205
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Protein :

+ H2O (hydrolysis) -H2O (condensation

- H hsII
H O H O
Nylon
o o
II
HO— C C—OH + H 2 N NH 2
a dicarboxylic acid a diamine

O O H H
II II I I
C C—N N—
a polyamide

Hydrolysis of fat:

Fats + NaOH Soap + Glycerol

Sodium salt
of fatty acid

Terylene:

o o
11 11
H O— C C— O H + H O OH
a dicarboxylic acid a dialcohol

O o
II
i
c— o o
n
a polyester

206
PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Carbohydrates:

rio-l N>H I I- OH
HO- hio —I h-iQH
water molecules
I eliminated

207
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Colours
S All metals are silvery grey except Copper (reddish brown) and gold (golden yellow)

•S All salts of group (I), group (II) and group (III) are white (Ex: NaCI, KBr, CaO, AIF)

Indicators:
Indicator Colour in acids Colour in neutral Colour in alkalis

Litmus Blue to Red No change Red to Blue

Methyl orange Red Orange

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Universal indicator :
0-3 4-6 7 8-11 12-14
Strong acid Weak acid Neutral Weak base Strong base

Red Orange Green Blue Violet

Oxidizing agents:

Acidified Potassium manqanate ( VII)

Reducing agent
Mn7+ Mn2+
(Purple) (Colourless)

Reducing agents :
Potassium iodide
oxidising agent
Kl \2
Colourless reddish brown

208
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Colours of salts :
Salt Formula Solid In solution
Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate CuSC> 4 White powder Blue
Hydrated copper (II ) sulfate CUS04.5H2Q Blue crystals Blue
Copper (II) hydroxide CU(OH)2 Blue Insoluble
Copper (II) nitrate CU( NQ3)2 Blue Blue
Copper (II) Chloride CuCI2 Green Green
Copper (II ) carbonate CuCQ3 Green Insoluble
Iron (II) salts Ex: FeSQ4 / Fe( NQ3)2 Pale green Pale green
Iron (III ) salts EX: Fe(NQ3)3 Reddish brown Reddish brown
Iron (II ) oxide FeO Black Insoluble
Mn (IV ) oxide Mn02 Black Insoluble

Burning of metals:

• Magnesium: Mg Burns with bright white flame (used in fireworks)

White solid formed (MgO) dissolves slightly,
turns red litmus paper blue

• Iron: Fe burns with yellow flame

Black solid formed (FeO) that is insoluble in water

• Copper: Cu doesn’t burn but form oxides on their surface

Reddish brown Cu turns into black solid (CuO) which is insoluble in water
stream of
copper turnings
oxygen

Colours of rust: I
heal
2Fe203.H20 is reddish brown flaky solid

Colour of NO 2 produced by thermal decomposition of metal nitrate:

NO2 is a reddish brown gas

Chemical tests for water:

1- turn white anhydrous powder of copper(ll) sulfate into blue hydrated crystals
CuS04 H2O CuS04.5H20

-H2O
2- turn blue anhydrous powder of cobalt (II) chloride into pink hydrated crystals
COCI2 H?Q . COCI2.6H2O

-H2O
209
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Colours of insoluble precipitate :

AgCI is white PPT
AgBr is creamy PPT
Agl is yellow PPT
BaS04 is white PPT
Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 , AI(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 are white PPT
Cr(OH)3 is grey green PPT
CU(OH)2 is blue PPT
Fe(OH)2 is dirty green PPT
Fe(OH)3 is reddish brown PPT

Colours of flame test:

Lithium Li+ Red
Sodium Na+ Yellow
Potassium K + Lilac
Calcium Ca2+ Brick red
Barium Ba2+ Apple green
Copper Cu2+ Blue green
Magnesium Mg2+ No colour

Halogens ( qp VII )
Fluorine (F) Pale yellow gas
Chlorine (Cl) Pale green gas
Bromine (Br) Orange brown liquid
Iodine (I) Dark grey solid
Astatine (At) Black solid

• Iodine forms a dark brown solution when dissolved in water

• Iodine forms a purple solution when dissolved in organic solvent
• Sublimation occurs with Iodine solid forming purple vapour

Sulphur :

• It is a yellow solid

210
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses
Medical uses of radioactive isotopes :
1-Treatment of cancer ( COso)
2- Sterilising equipment (Gamma rays)
3- X ray scanning

Industrial use of radioactive isotopes:

1-Detection of leaks
2- Nuclear fuel for generating electricity (U235)
3-Nuclear weapons
4- Detection of thickness of paper

Uses of diamond
1- Jewellery
2- Cutting
3- Drilling

Uses of graphite
1- Lubricant
2- Pencils
3- Electrodes

Uses of silica
1- making glass
2- making lenses

Application of fractional distillation

1- Various fractions from petroleum
2- Different gases from liquid air
3- Separation of ethanol from water
4- Separation of mixture of alkenes produced by cracking

211
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of Chromatography
1- Used to separate components like the following
> Dyes
> Enzymes / Amino acids
> Carbohydrates
2- Used also to identify food additives like colouring and flavouring substances to check its purity
Application and uses of Electrolysis:
1- Refining of copper
2- Electroplating
3- Extraction of highly reactive metals from its molten compounds
4- Cathodic protection

Uses of Aluminium :
1- Air crafts (Aeroplanes) and used as alloy not pure Aluminium due to:
2- Overhead cables due to:
3- Drinks cans & Windows frames due to:
4- Food containers due to:
5- Cooking utensils

Types of steel and its uses:

Mild steel: used to make
1- Car bodies
2- Machinery
3- Nails

Hard steel: used to make

1- Bridges
2- Railway lines
3- Building constructions
4- Knives
5- Hammers

Stainless steel: used to make

1- Cutlery
2- Kitchen sinks and pipes
3- Surgical tools
4- Chemical plants (factories)

212
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of burning of magnesium :

Mg Burns with bright white flame, used in fireworks

Uses of Zinc:
1- Galvanizing
2- Sacrificial protection
3- Battery (Cell)
4- Coinage
5- Brass alloy

Uses of copper :
1- Electric wires
2- Cooking utensils ( saucepan)
3- Pipes
4- Ornaments
5- Making alloys like

> Brass alloy: made of copper and zinc

used to make musical instruments, doorknobs, door knocker

> Bronze alloy: made of copper and tin

used to make casting and machine parts

Uses of water:
At home we need it for household uses
1- Drinking
2- Cooking
3- Washing things and ourselves
4- Flushing toilet waste away.

In industry
1- Used as solvent
2- Used as coolant to keep hot reaction tanks cool
3- Manufacture of ethanol
4- Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid (contact process)
5- Manufacture of hydrogen in ammonia manufacture (Haber process)

213
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of nitrogen:
1- Liquid nitrogen used in cryogenics ( storage of living tissues at very low temperature)
2- Filling bags of crisps (chips) as it is unreactive and to keep air (oxygen) away to avoid rancidity.
3- Making of ammonia and fertilisers (Haber process)

Uses of oxygen:
1- Production of steel from cast iron
2- Cutting and welding of metals (high temperature Oxyacetylene)
3- Breathing of sick people (not respiration)
4- Combustion of petrol to produce energy (EX: react with methane in a Bunsen burner)

Uses of Carbon dioxide:

1- In fizzy drinks
2- Fire extinguisher

Uses of halogens:
Fluorine (F) Fluoride in toothpaste - PTFE (non-stick coating of pans)
Chlorine (Cl) Water treatment - bleaching - Plastic pipes
Bromine (Br) Photographic films
Iodine (I) Photographic films - Antiseptic

Uses of the noble gases :

1- Helium is used to fill balloons as
2- Argon is used as a filler in tungsten light bulbs
3- Neon is used in advertising signs

Uses of limestone:
1- Used to make cement (with clay) and concrete
2- Making pig iron from iron ore
3- Neutralise acidity in soil and lakes
4- Making of lime through thermal decomposition in rotary kiln

214
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of lime and slaked lime:

1- Flue gas desulfurization

2- Neutralise acidity of soil and lakes

Uses of sulfur:
1- Matches
2- Fireworks
3- Medicines and sterilizing agents
4- Added to rubber to increase its elasticity and toughen it

Uses of sulfur dioxide:

1- Bleaching of wood pulp for manufacture of paper
2- Food preservative in juices and wine as it kills bacteria
3- Fumigant & refrigerant

Uses of dilute sulfuric acid :

1- Acid in car battery
2- Laboratory reagent
3- Paints, dyes and fibres
4- Fertilizer
5- Detergents
6- Tanning leather

Uses of concentrated sulfuric acid :

1- Dehydrating agents removes water from compounds
2- Drying agent as it removes water from mixture
3- Oxidising agent
4- Catalyst

Uses of Ammonia :
1- Making of fertilizers
2-Making of nitric acid
3- Making hair dyes

215
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of fertilizers:
1- Increase soil fertility
2- Promote plant growth
3- Increase the crop yield

Uses of alkanes :
1- Methane is the main component of natural gas, used as a fuel
2- Butane is used in the bottled gas

Uses of ethene:
1- Manufacture of polymers like polyethene
2- Making ethanol
3- Ripening fruits

Uses of ethanol:
1- Biofuel
2- Solvent
3- Making perfumes
4- To make esters
5- To make vinegar (ethanoic acid)
6- Antiseptic

Uses of esters:
1- added to perfumes and soaps for their smells
2- added to foods as flavourings

216
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of fractions of crude oil :

cool Name of Number of What fraction is used for

(25° C)
fraction carbon atoms
refinery gas C , toCd bottled gases for cooking and
heating
gasoline (petrol) ,
C to C6 fuel for cars

naphtha C6 toC10 starting point or feedstock for

many chemicals and plastics
paraffin Cm to C 15 fuel for aircraft, oil stoves,
(kerosene) and lamps increase
diesel oil (gas oil) C,5 to C 20 fuel for diesel engines

fuel oil CJO to CJO fuel for power stations, ships, and
for home heating systems
lubricating CM to CJO oil for car engines and machinery;
fraction waxes and polishes
bitumen CJO upwards for road surfaces and roofs
(over 400° C )
i
Uses of products of cracking:
• Shortened alkanes
> Blended with gasoline to enrich the petrol
> Used as a solvent

• Alkene
> Useful materials for several important products like polymers
> Used as a solvent
> Used to make alcohols

• Source of Hydrogen
> Making Ammonia
> Fuel cell
> Margarine manufacture

217
 PEFFINITIONS & EQUATIONS & USES & COLOURS BY : PR / PETER POULES

Uses of addition polymers:

Polymer Use
Poly (ethene) Plastic bags
Poly (propene) Plastic ropes
Poly (chloroethene) / PVC Pipes & insulator cover for electric wire
Poly (tetrafluoroethene) / Teflon Non-stick frying pans
Poly (phenylethene) / Styrene Thermal insulation & packing (foams)

Uses of nylon:
1- Fishing lines
2- Umbrella
3- Parachutes
4-Raincoat
5- Dental floss
6- Seat belt

Uses of terylene:
1- in fabrics
2- Bottles, packaging and bags

218
 The Periodic Table of Elements
Group
I IV V VI VII VIII
1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1 4
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10

.i Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
ium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
la Mg Al Si P s Cl Ar
lium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
!3 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

<
ssium
Ca
calcium
Sc
scandium
Ti
titanium
V
vanadium
Cr
chromium
Mn
manganese
Fe
iron
Co
cobalt
Ni
nickel
Cu
copper
Zn
zinc
Ga
gallium
Ge
germanium
As
arsenic
Se
selenium
Br
bromine
Kr
krypton
19 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
I7 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
!b Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
dium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
I5 88 89 91 93 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
i5 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
)s Ba lanthanoids
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TZ Pb Bi Po At Rn
sium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
33 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
17 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116
:r Ra actinoids
Rf Db sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn FZ Lv
dum radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
hanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
noids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium ameridum curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
232 231 238

! volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).
 L
lith

1
l\
soc
2
1

pola
2
2
F
rubi
£
£
c
cae
1
£
F
fran

lant

acti

The