Lesson 1: What is Research What is scientific rigor?

— The implementation of the highest

standards and best practices of science
Fredrick Kerlinger
— Defines research as the systematic, - According to B.R. Hergenhahn,
controlled, empirical investigation of science came into existence as a way of
hypothetical propositions about answering questions about nature by
presumed relations among natural examining nature directly, rather than
phenomena. by depending on church dogmas, past
authorities, superstition, or abstract
Oxford Encyclopedia English Dictionary thought process alone.
— “the systematic investigation into the
study of materials, sources etc. in order — From science’s inception, its ultimate
to establish facts and reach new authority has been empirical
conclusions” observations, that is, the direct
observation of nature.
Paul Leedy
— Defines research in a more utilitarian — According to Hergenhahn: There is
manner. more to science than simply observing
— Research is a procedure by which we nature
attempt to find systematically, and with - For observations to be useful they
the support of demonstrable fact, the must be organized or categorized in
answer to a question or the resolution some way, and the ways in which they
of a problem. are similar to or different from other
observations must be noted.
Scholars have come up with a working - After noting similarities and
definition of research differences among observations, many
— Research is defined as the scientific scientist take the additional step of
investigation of a problem or gap, attempting to explain what they have
which aims at the discovery or observed.
interpretation of a new facts.
— may lead to a revision or even rejection Karl Popper (famous philosopher)
of accepted theories or laws in the light — Science is the systematic attempt to
of new facts. rationally categorize or explain
empirical investigations.
Research makes use of the rigorous and — Science is a way of testing rigorously
questioning techniques of scientific inquiry. the proposed solutions to a problem.

Research employs a scientific method

- specific term, which necessarily involves a
scientific rigor Chapter 1: What is Research?

Any type if inquiry that does not involve a — a “systematic inquiry that uses disciplined
scientific rigor cannot be called “research in the methods to answer questions or solve problems”
strict sense of the word
- Someone may say she wants to go to the — “the continuing discovery and exploration of
library to do further research on the the unknown”
meaning, nature and dynamics of
earthquakes (lacks scientific rigor) — “a diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation
to validate and refine existing knowledge and
generate new knowledge”
 Characteristics of Research field like education, management, business,
engineering, and other areas of endeavor.
1. Systematic
— Macro system (the composition in an Research develops tools for assessing the
organized, logical, & scientific manner) effectiveness of any practice and operation.
— Micro system (formulation of the
detailed content of each chapter) Research provides solutions to problems
concerning almost all issues encountered in the
2. Objective different areas of work.
— A researcher looks at the bases on
which the work founded. The results Research advances the personal and professional
after being determined should be qualifications of a practitioner.
verified & validated. No biases.

3. Feasible
— in settings like community, school or Type of Research
workplace, unusual phenomena
happen and turn into potential 1. Basic or Pure Research.
problems. — This type of research is primarily
concerned with generating new
4. Empirical knowledge.
— The researcher must present evidence — It investigates the basic reasons and
for details. Referencing of facts & principle behind the occurance of a
information. All sources should be particular phenomenon or event.
properly cited. — Driven by pure curiosity and the desire
to expand one’s knowledge on a
5. Clear specific subject-matter or discipline.
— The choice of variables used should be
explained by enriching the RRL or by Characteristics:
discussing different theories. 1. Based on the belief knowledge for
knowledge’ sake
2. Involves collection and analysis of data
to develop or enhance theory
Roles of Researcher 3. Leads to advancement of knowledge
4. Explanatory in nature
1. Principal Investigator
2. Member of A Research Team Examples:
3. Identifier of Researchable Problems  How did the universe begin?
4. Evaluator of Research Findings  What are protons, neutrons, and
5. User of Research Findings electrons composed of?
6. Patient/Client Advocate During Study  How do slime moulds reproduce
 What is the specific generic code of the
fruit fly?

Purpose of Research 2. Applied Research

— It is concerned with using knowledge
Research provides a scientific basis for any to give immediate solutions to a problem.
practice or methodology in any field or discipline. A proposed intervention is a usual
contribution of this type of research.
Research is undertaken for continuous Characteristics:
development of and for further productivity in any
 1. Solution-specific and addresses The Research Process
practical questions
2. Involves collection and analysis of data 1. Problem Identification
to examine the usefulness of theory in 2. Review of Related Literature
solving practical educational problems 3. Objectives Formulation
3. Explanatory but usually descriptive. 4. Formulation of hypotheses and Assumptions
5.Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Examples: Construction
 Improve agricultural crop production. 6. Research Design Selection
 Treat or cure a specific disease. 7. Data Collection and Processing
 Improve the energy efficiency of 8. Data Analysis and Interpretation
homes, offices, or modes of 9. Report Writing
transportation.
 To diagnose the very low use of a
certain collection in a library.

Goals in Conducting Research

1. To produce evidence-based practice

Effective and efficient practices or
operations are products of research.

2. To Establish Credibility in the Profession

Research is essential for a profession to
produce new procedures, programs, and practices.

3. To Observe Accountability for the profession.

All tasks must be carried out with
circumspect care an awareness that everything has
to be done efficiently.

4. To Promote Cost-effectiveness through

Documentation
The findings of research must be shared
with and utilized by the individuals, group, or
community for which the study was intended.
Lesson 2: Ethics in Research * the experiment resulted in trauma,
disfigurement, permanent disability,
and death.
— provides researchers with ethical principles or
guidelines for the successful conduct of research - sterilization & fertilization experiments
- head injury experiments
What is ethics? - mustard gas experiments
— the morality of a human act - freezing experiments
“rightness” or “wrongness” of human - malaria experiments
act” - experiments on twins
— behaving ethically (doing the right - bones, muscles and nerve transplantation
thing at the right time) experiments
— concerned with what is good for the
people and society as a whole
— provides rules that governs the society Ethical Principles that Guide Research
as a whole
Honesty
In research, Ethics: — Researchers ought to honestly report
— provides guidelines for the responsible data and results of the study, including
conduct of research the methods and procedures employed
— allows researchers and scholars to in data-gathering as well as publication
further educate themselves and monitor status.
their activities in the conduct of — Researchers should NOT falsify,
research (ensure a HIGH ethical fabricate, and misrepresent data and
standard) results.

Researchers must: Objectivity

— ensure that research subjects are not — Researchers should uphold objectivity
placed in harm’s way and scientific rigor at all times.
— be reminded that they have the moral — Researchers should strive to avoid all
obligation to provide maximum forms of bias in research such as bias
benefits to the participants in experimental design, data analysis
— be guided by ethical principles to and interpretation, peer-review
maintain research integrity and avoid process, grant writing, and other
research misconduct facets of research.
— There are acceptable and unacceptable
conduct of research, especially when Confidentiality
humans and animals are involved. — Researchers should always uphold the
principle of confidentiality.
Example: Nazi Human — One way of effectively doing this is to
Experimentation
protect confidential communications,
* series of medical experiments on a
such as papers or grant submitted for
large number of concentration camp
publications, patient records.
prisoners, including children,
conducted by Nazi Germany
Competence
* Nazi medical doctors forced
— Researchers are supposed to be
concentration camp prisoners to
knowledgeable and experts in their own
participate in the experiment; the
discipline or field of specialization.
prisoners did not willingly volunteer to
— Researchers ought to maintain and
participate; and no consent was given
improve their professional competence
for the producers.
 and expertise through life-long ethnicity, and other factors that are
education and learning. related to their scientific competence
— Researchers ought to take steps to and integrity.
promote competence in science. — Senior researchers need to help
educate, mentor, and advise students;
Integrity they have to promote the welfare of
— Researchers ought to keep their their students and allow them to make
promises and honor agreements, such their own decisions.
as agreements with donors and research
participants. Human Subjects Protection
— Researchers need to strive for — Researchers should respect human
consistency in thought and action. dignity, privacy, and autonomy at all
times.
Legality — When conducting research on human
— Research always has a legal dimension. subjects, researchers should take
— Researchers ought to obey laws and precautionary measures to minimize,
relevant institutional and governmental if not completely avoid, harms and
policies. risks.
— They also need to maximize the
Maturity and Openness benefits that participants may get from
— Knowledge is supposed to be free. the results of the study.
— Researchers must willingly share data, — If a researcher discovers a cure for a
results, ideas, and resources. particular disease through her research
— They must be open to constructive on indigenous plants, a reasonable part
criticisms and new ideas. of the patent should go to the
indigenous community where the
Respect for Intellectual Property plants are located
— Researchers ought to honor copyrights,
patents, and other forms of intellectual Animal Care
property. — In recent years, we have what we call
— Researchers should not use methods, “animal rights”
data, and results owned by other — Researchers should respect animal
researchers or scholars without rights at all times.
permission or proper acknowledgment. — They ought to show utmost care for
— Researchers should avoid plagiarism animals when using them in research.
at all times. — Researchers should NOT conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal
Responsible Publication experiments.
— Researchers need to publish in order to
advance knowledge and scholarships Social Responsibility
and not just to advance one’s own — Researchers should conduct research
career. not only for the advancement of their
— Researchers also need to avoid career but for the good of society as a
wasteful publication, such as whole.
publishing in predatory journals, and — Researchers should strive to promote
duplicative publication. social good and mitigate social harms.
Importance of Ethics in Research
Non-Discrimination
— Researchers ought to avoid all forms of 1. Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge and
discrimination against colleagues and truth and avoidance of error.
students on the basis of sex, race,
2. Many of the ethical norms help ensure the * Including a colleague as an author of a paper in
researchers are held accountable to the public. return for a favor even though he/she did not
contribute to it.
3. Adherence to ethical principles also helps build
public support for research. People are more likely * Discussing with your colleagues data from the
to fund researches that promote a variety of paper your are reviewing for a journal.
important moral and social values such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, * Trimming outlines from a data set without
health, and safety. providing sufficient justification.

* Using inappropriate statistical techniques in

Ethical Codes and Policies for Research order to obtain favorable results and enhance the
significance of one’s research.
Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of
research, may professional associations, * Making the results of the study publicly known
government agencies, and universities have come without first giving peers the opportunity to review
up with the following codes and policies for the work.
research:
* Failing to acknowledge the contributions of
1. Honesty other people in the field (This includes relevant
2. Objectivity prior work in the review of related literature and
3. Integrity studies.)
4. Care
5. Openness * Making derogatory comments and personal
6. Confidentiality attacks in your review of author’s submitted work.
7. Responsible Publication
8. Responsible Mentoring * Injudicious and inhumane use of animals in
9. Respect for Colleagues research.
10. Social responsibility
11. Non-discrimination
12. Competence
13. Legality
14. Human subject’s protection
Lesson 3: The Research Title, Sources and
Considerations
Rights of Research Participants

 Voluntary Participation The Research Title (Amadeo P. Cristobal, Jr.

 Informed Consent 2013)
 Confidentiality
 Anonymity Generally, the title:
1. Should summarize the main idea of the
paper;
Unethical Activities
2. Should be a concise statement of the aim
topic;
* Publishing the same paper in two different
3. Must include the major variables/s;
journals without informing the editor/s.
4. Should show the relationship of the main
* Failing to inform a collaborator of one’s intent
variables under study; and,
to file a patent in order to become the sole
5. Must be self-explanatory
inventor.
Reminders to Researchers: * Show the relationship of the main variable
 Avoid using words that serve no useful under study
purpose and mislead indexers. * Include the major task of the researcher
 The general problem or the specific * Mention the participants and setting in general
question that the researcher intends to
answer, when re written in statement
form, can serve as title. Sources of Research Problems
 The title must have 10-15 words.
Research problems are commonly found in places
where there is/are:
Writing Your Research Title
1. A feeling of discomfort;
1. Think of Broader Topics (Education, Politics, 2. Perceived difficulties in the management
Science, Culture, Business, Sports, etc.) and leadership system;
3. Gap between the theory and practice;
2. Think of Sub-topic that you are knowledgeable 4. Daily experiences of a person that require
at and interested in. (Education: students, further inquiry, especially if improvements
teachers, academic performance, reading, are required; and/or
English, teaching strategy, or teaching methods) 5. A procedure that requires technologically
advanced equipment which need to
3. Read articles, write write-ups to gain function properly.
knowledge and background of the topic

4. Take note of the Important words in your Consideration in Formulating a

initial readings Research Problem

5. Formulate title from those words External Criteria

 Novelty
 Availability of subjects
 Administrative Support
 Availability and Adequacy of facilities
(libraries) and equipment (devices such as
Other way to write a title: computers, printers)
1. Read published articles or previously  Ethical Considerations
conducted studies and look for Blind Spot &
Blank Spot Internal Criteria
 Experience, training and professional
Blind Spot – refers to a research gap qualifications of researcher
Blank Spot – things that are not yet covered  Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity,
by the studies and perceptiveness of the researcher
 Time factor
 Cost and returns
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2  Hazards, penalties and handicaps
AMEDEO PANGILINAN CRISTOBAL (2017)

Characteristics of a Research Title

* Summarize the main idea of the paper

* Be a concise statement of the topic
* Include major variables
Lesson 4: The Introduction the researcher clarity of the terms or variables used
in the study. The terms and variables must be clear
to the researcher so that he/she can make his/her
— The introduction is very important in reader understands them. A background assists
establishing the cognitive setting of the research the investigator in determining the boundaries of
which involves: the study. This part is derived from different
(a) rationalizing why there is a need to literature sources. The use of various references is
research the problem; highly called for
(b) clarifying the important terminologies in this part of Chapter 1.
for the reader to easily understand what the
research is all about; and 4. How serious is the chosen research problem?
(c) establishing the degree of seriousness of —Why is there a need to look for a solution
the problem which prompts the researcher to look to the problem? In this aspect, the investigator is
for solutions. tasked to see the intensity and magnitude of the
problem. When the gravity of the problem has
been established already, the investigator may take
The following questions aid the researcher action to work on the problem. Mostly, the
in formulating the introduction: researcher at this juncture looks for statistical
quantitative evidence to assess the weight of the
1. What is the rationale of the problem? problem.
— This question is answered by sharing with the
beneficiaries the reason why the researcher has 5. What is the general objective of the problem?
been persuaded to look for solutions to the —This is derived from the general
problem. A narration of the researcher’s statement of the problem and should also be the
experience that led him/her to conduct the study is basis of the enumerated statements of the specific
commonly done. problems.

Examples are personal experience, an 6. What is the overall purpose of the problem?
article read, a scene witnessed, news heard, a —It is very significant to note that the
theory that needs to be clarified, etc. The researcher must be totally aware of the purpose of
proponent should describe the existing and the research problem. He/She must ask how it will
prevailing problem situation based on his/her help his/her colleagues, or in this case, students of
experience. The scope may be local, national, or various disciplines.
international.

2. What is the setting of the problem?

—The setting forms part of the delimitation
of the study, as it defines the geographic
boundaries of the study and implies certain
demographic characteristics. This describes to the
reader the place where the research was
conducted, as the setting has a significant bearing
on the variables being studied.

3. What is the basic literature foundation of the

study?
—This is different from the review of
related theories, conceptual literature, and
research literature. This part purports to provide