Math 352 – Lecture Notes on Chapter 1 – Complex

Numbers

Lecture 1 – §1.1: The Algebra of Complex Numbers

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
nm o
Q= : m, n ∈ Z and n ̸= 0
n

Example
Show that x2 = 2 has no rational solutions.

a
Proof. Suppose, by way of contradiction, that x = b is a rational solution
with gcd(a, b) = 1.
 a 2
=2
b
a2 = 2b2 .

Then 2 | a2 . Since 2 is prime 2 | a. Write a = 2c.

(2c)2 = 2b2
2c2 = b2 .
a
Similarly, 2 | b. So, 2 | a and 2 | b, contradicting the choice of b as a reduced
fraction. So, x2 = 2 has no rational solution.

1
Note
This example illustrates why we define real numbers. There are real
solutions √
± 2 = ±1.41421 . . .
of x2 = 2.

The real numbers are what we get when we topologically complete the
rational numbers as a metric space with respect to the distance function
defined by the absolute value by adjoining to Q all limits of Cauchy
sequences of rational numbers.

Example
The equation
x2 = −1
has no real solution since if x ∈ R, then x2 ≥ 0. This motivates defining
the complex numbers.

Definition
1. A complex number is an expression of the form

a + bi

where a, b ∈ R and i2 = −1.

2. C is the set of all complex numbers.

3. For real a, b, c, d we define a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and

b = d.

2
 Note
1. N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C

2. Addition:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

3. Multiplication:

(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i

4. Division: If c2 + d2 ̸= 0,
  
a + bi a + bi c − di (ac + bd) + (−ad + bc)i
= =
c + di c + di c − di c2 + d2
   
ac + bd −ad + bc
= 2 2
+ i
c +d c2 + d2

Definition
If a, b ∈ R, then

1. The real part of a + bi is Re(a + bi) = a.

2. The imaginary part of a + bi is Im(a + bi) = b (without the i).

§1.2 Point Representation of Complex Numbers

The complex number a + bi is identified with a point (a, b) in the plane.

3
 (imaginary axis)
y

b z = a + bi
b2
+
√ a2

|z |=

θ
x (real axis)
a

Definition
The absolute value or modulus of z = a + bi is
p
|z| := a2 + b2 .

Example
|z1 − z2 | is the distance between the points z1 and z2 .

4
Definition
The complex conjugate of z = a + bi is

z̄ = a + bi := a − bi.

z = a + bi

−θ

z̄ = a − bi

Simple (but useful) Observations

For z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R:

1. |z|2 = a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a − bi) = z z̄

|z|2 = z z̄

z + z̄ z − z̄
2. Re(z) = Im(z) =
2 2i
√
3. |z| = a2 + b2 = |z̄|

Note
It is very often easier to work with |z|2 than with |z|.

5
 Example
Prove that

1. z1 z2 = z̄1 z̄2

2. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |

Proof of 2.

|z1 z2 |2 = z1 z2 z1 z2 = z1 z1 z2 z2 = |z1 |2 |z2 |2 .

6
Examples
Describe the sets of point.

(a) Im(z) = −3

(b) |z − 1 + i| = 3

(c) Re(z) ≥ 4

(d) |z| = Re(z) + 2

Solution. For (d),

p
x2 + y 2 = x + 2
x2 + y 2 = x2 + 4x + 4
y 2 = 4x + 4

-1

-2

7
Lecture 2 – §1.3 Vectors and Polar Form
Last Time
ˆ A complex number z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R, i2 = −1) has a geometric
interpretation as the point (x, y) in the plane.
p
ˆ Absolute value or modulus: |z| = x2 + y 2

ˆ Complex conjugate: z̄ = x − iy

ˆ |z|2 = z z̄

ˆ Distance between z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 is |z1 − z2 |.

ˆ |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Complex numbers as vectors

Interpret z = x + iy as a vector (or arrow) going from (0, 0) to (x, y) in
the plane.

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i
z2 = x2 + iy2

z1 = x1 + ix1

Triangle Inequality
(The most important inequality in all of mathematics.)

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | (∗)

8
Variations
1. Replace z2 with −z2 in (∗) to get

|z1 − z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | since |−z2 | = |z2 |

2. Replace z2 with z2 − z1 in (∗) to get

|z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 − z1 |

|z2 | − |z1 | ≤ |z2 − z1 |. (∗∗)

Interchange z1 and z2 to get

|z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 |. (∗ ∗ ∗)

Combining (∗∗) and (∗ ∗ ∗) gives

|z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 |

9
Polar Coordinates

}
2
y
2 +
p x

{z
|= y = r sin θ
|z
r= θ

|
x
| {z }
x = r cos θ

z = x + iy (rectangular form)
= r cos θ + ir sin θ (polar form, NOT rectangular form)
= r(cos θ + i sin θ) (polar form)

Going back and forth:

p
x = r cos θ r = x2 + y 2
−1 y
 
y = r sin θ θ = tan
x

10
Note
In polar coordinates, the angle θ is NOT unique.

θ θ + 2π

Definitions
1. In complex analysis, an angle θ such that

z = |z|(cos θ + i sin θ)

is called an argument or phase of z.

2. The set of all arguments of z is

arg(z) (infinite set)

| {z }
lower case a

3. The principal argument of z, denoted by

Arg(z) (This is just one value)

| {z }
capital A

is the unique argument of z in the interval (−π, π].

4. argτ (z) is the unique argument of z in the interval (τ, τ + 2π].

11
Note
(a) Arg(z) = arg−π (z)

(b) If θ0 is an argument of z, then

arg(z) = {θ0 + 2kπ : k ∈ Z}.

Example
−1 − i
z= √ |z| = 1
2

5π
θ0 = 4

−1−i circle |z| = 1

√
2

   
5π 21π
arg(z) = + 2kπ : k ∈ Z = + 2ℓπ : ℓ ∈ Z
4 4
3π
Arg(z) = −
4
5π
argπ (z) =
4
13π
arg2π (z) =
4

12
Multiplication in Polar Form

z1 = r1 [cos(θ1 ) + i sin(θ1 )] z2 = r2 [cos(θ2 ) + i sin(θ2 )]

h i
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )
 
= r1 r2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )

z1 z2

θ1 + θ2

z2 z1
θ2
θ1

In the product z1 z2

ˆ Lengths multiply: |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

ˆ Arguments add: arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

13
Division

z1 r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )

= ·
z2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) (cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
r1
= (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
r2
r1 h i
= (cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(− cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )
r2
r1  
= cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )
r2
z1
With division z2

|z1 |
ˆ Lengths divide: | zz12 | = |z2 |

ˆ Arguments subtract: arg z1

z2 = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ).

Question
1
Where are z and z̄?

z
circle |z| = 1

1
z
−θ

z̄

14
1.3 #11
Using (1 + i)(5 − i)4 derive
   
π 1 1
= 4 tan−1 − tan−1 .
4 5 239

Solution.

(1 + i)(5 − i)4 = 956 − 4i

arg(1 + i) + 4 arg(5 − i) = arg(956 − 4i)
   
π −1 −4
+ 4 tan−1 = tan−1 + 2πk, for some k ∈ Z
4 5 956
   
π −1 1 −1 1
= 4 tan − tan + |{z}
2kπ
4 5 239
|{z} | {z } | {z } ⇒ k=0
≈0.785 ≈0.789 ≈0.004

15
Lecture 3 – §1.4 The Complex Exponential
Goal:
For complex z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R) define

ez

in a reasonable way.

Considerations:
1. ex1 +x2 = ex1 ex2 for x1 , x2 ∈ R
∞
x
X xn
2. e = for x ∈ R
n=0
n!

d x
3. (e ) = ex for x ∈ R
dx

1. If ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 for complex z1 , z2 ∈ C, then

ex+iy = ex
|{z} eiy
already defined

Thus we try to make a good definition for eiy when y ∈ R.

2. Formally manipulate power series in item 2 evaluated at iy.
∞
iy proposed definition
X (iy)n (iy) (iy)2 (iy)3 (iy)4
e = =1+ + + + + ···
n=0
n! 1! 2! 3! 4!
2
y4 y3 y5
   
y
= 1− + − ··· + i y − + − ···
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos(y) + i sin(y).
Maybe we should try eiy := cos(y) + i sin(y).
d z
3. If dz (e ) = ez makes sense for complex z, consider
d iy not proved yet iy
(e ) = ie
dy
16
 d2 iy
2
(e ) = i2 eiy = −eiy .
dy
Thus g(y) = eiy is a solution of the differential equation
d2 g
+g =0 (∗)
dy 2
It can be shown that every solution of (∗) is of the form g(y) = A cos(y)+
B sin(y) where A, B are constants. Solve for A, B.

g(0) = ei0 = e0 = 1 = A cos(0) + B sin(0) ⇒ A = 1

g ′ (0) = ieiy = −A sin(y) + B cos(y)
g ′ (0) = iei0 = i = −A sin(0) + B cos(0) ⇒ B = i.

So, the equality

g(y) = eiy = cos(y) + i sin(y) (Euler’s Equation)

seems likely to be a good definition.

Definition
If z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R)

ez := ex cos y + i sin y

With this definition, the three items hold true:

1. ez1 +z2 = ez1 + ez2 all z1 , z1 ∈ C

2. Prove later.

3. Prove later.

Example

e2πi = 1

17
Cosine and sine

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

e−iθ = cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) = cos θ − i sin θ
eiθ + e−iθ
iθ
cos θ = Re(e ) =
2
eiθ − e−iθ
iθ
sin θ = Im(e ) =
2i

Multiplication and division

z1 z2 = r1 eiθ1 r1 eiθ2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 )

z1 r1 eiθ1 r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )

= = e
z2 r2 eiθ2 r2

z̄ = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r(cos θ − i sin θ)

= r cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) = re−iθ

Example

2 + 2i |2 + 2i|ei(π/4)
√ = √ Arg(2 + 2i) = π/4
− 3 + i | − 3 + i|ei(5π/6)
√
2 2 i(π/4−5π/6) √ √
= e Arg(− 3 + i) = arctan(−1/ 3) + π
√2
= 2e−7πi/12 = 5π/6
√
= 2e5πi/12

18
 De Moivre’s Formula

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ), n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Proof.
(eiθ )n = e|iθ eiθ{z· · · eiθ} = eiθ+···+iθ = einθ .
n-times

Example
A way to derive trig identities:

cos(3θ) + i sin(3θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ)3

= (cos θ)3 + 3(cos θ)2 (i sin θ) + 3(cos θ)(i sin θ)2 + (i sin θ)3
= cos3 −3 cos θ sin2 θ + i 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ
   

⇒ cos(3θ) = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ

sin(3θ) = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ

Example
We can use complex exponentials to reproduce a common identity:
ˆ 2π ˆ 2π  iθ −iθ 2
 ˆ 2π  2iθ −2iθ

e + e e + 2 + e
cos2 θ dθ = dθ = dθ
0 0 2 0 4
ˆ 2π  
1 cos(2θ)
= + dθ
0 2 2
= π.

19
Example

√
(−1 + 3i)100 = (2e2πi/3 )100
= 2100 e100·2πi/3
= 2100 e(33+1/3)·2πi
= 2100 e2πi/3
= 2100 cos( 2π 2π


3 ) + i sin( 3 )
 √ 
= 2100 −12 +i 2
3

√
= 299 (−1 + 3i)

√
2 √ 2 cos( 2π 2π −1 3
3 3 ) + i sin( 3 ) = 2 +i 2
2π/3

−1
| {z }
2

20
Lecture 4 – §1.5 Powers and Roots
Powers
If z = reiθ and n ∈ Z, we already know that

z n = (reiθ )n = rn einθ (De Moivre’s Formula)

Example

95
√
 
1+i
(1 + i)95 = 2 √
2
√ 95
= 2eπi/4 = 295/2 e95πi/4 = 295/2 e(96/4−1/4)πi
= 295/2 e(24−1/4)πi = 295/2 e−πi/4
 
95/2 1 − i
=2 √ = 295/2−1/2 (1 − i)
2
47
= 2 (1 − i).

Roots
Next we will find the mth roots of a complex number z when m =
1, 2, 3, . . .. Thus, we wish to find w such that

wm = z

Calculation. Write
z = |z|eiθ
w = |w|eiα .
Then

m
z = wm ⇔ |z|eiθ = |w|eiα = |w|m eimα
(
|w| = |w|m and
⇔
αm = θ + 2πk for some k ∈ Z

21
 (
|w| = |z|1/m and
⇔
α = θ+2πk
m for some k ∈ Z
(
|w| = |z|1/m and
⇔
θ+2πk
α= m where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}
1/m i( θ+2πk
m )
⇔ w = |z| e where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}

Theorem
The nonzero complex number z = |z|eiθ has exactly m distinct mth roots.
They are
θ+2πk
w = |z|1/m ei( m ) where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}

Note
(a) The mth roots of 1 are

e2πik/m = cos( 2πk 2πk

m ) + i sin( m ), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1.

(b) If we define ωm := e2πi/m , then the mth roots of 1 are

2 m−1
1, ωm , ωm , . . . , ωm .

(c) If z = |z|eiθ , then one mth root of z is z 1/m = |z|1/m eiθ/m and the
complete set of mth roots is

z 1/m , z 1/m ωm , z 1/m ωm

2
, . . . , z 1/m ωm
m−1
.

22
 Notation
(p.36) The author writes

z 1/m = |z|1/m ei(θ+2kπ)/m , k = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1

for the set of all mth roots. Thus the notation

(5 + 3i)1/2

is a set of two different numbers.

Pictures
3rd roots of 1 3rd roots of 8i = 8eπi/2 4th roots of −1 = eπi

ω3 |z| = 1 |z| = 2
e3πi/4 eπi/4
2e5πi/6 2e πi/6
|z| = 1
1

e5πi/4 e7πi/4
ω32
2e3πi/2 = −2i

Example
Let a, b, c ∈ C with a ̸= 0. Find solutions of

az 2 + bz + c = 0.

Solution. First, multiply by 4a.

4a2 z 2 + 4abz + 4ac = 0
4a2 z 2 + 4abz + b2 = b2 − 4ac
(2az + b)2 = b2 − 4ac
p
2az + b = b2 − 4ac (multivalued)
−b + (b2 − 4ac)1/2
z= (multivalued)
2a
23
 Example – Exercise 1.4.20
Prove that if z ̸= 1, then

2 z n+1 − 1
n
1 + z + z + ··· + z = .
z−1
Use this result and De Moivre’s formula to establish the following identi-
ties:

1 sin (n + 12 )θ


(a) 1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ) = +
2 2 sin(θ/2)


sin(nθ/2) sin (n + 1)θ/2
(b) sin(θ) + sin(2θ) + · · · + sin(nθ) = , where
sin(θ/2)
0 < θ < 2π

Solution. For z = eiθ we have

e(n+1)iθ − 1
1 + eiθ + e2iθ + · · · =
eiθ − 1

[1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ)] + i[sin(θ) + sin(2θ) + · · · + sin(nθ)]

e(n+1)iθ/2 (e(n+1)iθ/2 − e−(n+1)iθ/2 )/(2i)
= ·
eiθ/2 (eiθ/2 − e−iθ/2 )/(2i)
sin((n + 1)θ/2)
= eniθ/2 ·
sin(θ/2)



cos(nθ/2) sin (n + 1)θ/2 sin(nθ/2) sin (n + 1)θ/2
= +i
sin(θ/2) sin(θ/2)
Use complex exponentials to recall a trig identity (which was used in proving
the property of the complex exponential).

eiA eiB = cos(A + B) + i sin(A + B)

= (cos A cos B − sin A sin B) + i(cos A sin B + sin A cos B)

sin(A + B) = cos A sin B + sin A cos B

24
 sin(−A + B) = cos A sin B − sin A cos B

⇒ sin A cos B = 12 [sin(A + B) + sin(−A + B)]

nθ (n+1)θ
1
sin (n + 12 )θ + sin θ




cos 2 sin 2 = 2 2

1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ)

(n+1)θ

cos nθ


2 sin 2
=
sin(θ/2)
sin (n + 12 )θ + sin 2θ



=
2 sin(θ/2)
Hence,

1 sin (n + 12 )θ


1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ) = +
2 2 sin(θ/2)
(n+1)θ

sin nθ


2 sin 2
sin(θ) + sin(2θ) + · · · + sin(nθ) =
sin(θ/2)

25
Lecture 5 – §1.5 Roots (continued)

Recall
w = |w|eiθ wn = |w|n einθ , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Let z ̸= 0 and z = |z|eiθ0 , where θ0 ∈ arg(z).
w is nth root of z ⇔ wn = z
⇔ |w|n einθ = |z|eiθ0
⇔ |w|n = |z| and nθ = θ0 + 2πk, k ∈ Z
θ0 +2πk
⇔ |w| = |z|1/n and θ = n ,k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}

Theorem
There are exactly n distinct nth roots of the complex number z ̸= 0. If
z = |z|eiθ0 , they are
  
1/n θ0 + 2πk
|z| exp i k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
n
where θ0 = Arg(z).

Example
Fourth roots of z = |z|eiθ0

iθ0 πi


|z|1/4 exp 4 + 2

iθ0


|z|1/4 exp 4

iθ0


|z|1/4 exp 4 + πi

iθ0 3πi


|z|1/4 exp 4 + 2

26
 Example
Show computer demonstration of nth roots.

Example
Discuss the roots of (z + 1)100 = (z − 1)100

Step 1. All roots are purely imaginary.

Proof. Let z = x + iy be a root of (z + 1)100 = (z − 1)100 .

|(z + 1)|100 = |(z − 1)|100

50
50
|z + 1|2 = |z − 1|2
|z + 1|2 = |z − 1|2
(x + 1)2 + y 2 = (x − 1)2 + y 2
(x + 1)2 = (x − 1)2
x2 + 2x + 1 = x2 − 2x + 1
4x = 0
x=0
Im(z) = 0

Step 2. Find a formula for all of the roots.

Solution.

Note: We are actually solving for the roots of a polynomial of degree 99 not
100. We expect 99 complex roots.

Note: z = 1 is not a root.

27
 z is a root of (z + 1)100 = (z − 1)100
z+1 100


⇔ z is a root of z−1 =1
⇔ w100 = 1 where w = z+1
z−1

Note that w = 1 is not a possibility.

For z ̸= 1,
z+1
w= z−1 ⇔ (z − 1)w = z + 1
⇔ zw − w = z + 1
⇔ zw − z = w + 1
⇔ z(w − 1) = w + 1
w+1
⇔z= w−1

w100 = 1 but w ̸= 1 2πki

⇔ w = exp 100 k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , 99}
The 99 roots of (z − 1)100 = (z + 1)100 are

exp 2πki


100 + 1
z= k = 1, 2, . . . , 99
exp 2πki


100 − 1
exp 100 exp πki
πki πki




100 + exp − 100 /(2i)
=
exp πki exp πki πki




100 100 − exp − 100 /(2i)
πk


1 cos 100
= · πk


i sin 100
πk


= −i cot 100 k = 1, 2, . . . , 99

§1.6 Planar Sets

ˆ Dρ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < ρ} is the open disk of radius ρ centered at

z0 .

28
 y

ρ
z

z0

ˆ If S ⊆ C, a complex number z0 is an interior point of S if there exists

some ρ > 0 such that
z0 ∈ Dρ (z0 ) ⊆ S.
y
interior point

boundary point

ˆ A subset S of C is open if every point of S is an interior point.

ˆ The open disk Dϵ (z0 ) is the open ϵ-neighborhood of z0 .

29
Example
Bρ (z0 ) is open.

z0

Example
S = {z = x + iy : − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1} is not open.

i
The point 1 + 2 is not an interior point.

ˆ For points w1 , w2 , . . . , wn+1 , let ℓk be the line segment from wk to wk+1 .

ˆ The continuous chain consisting of ℓ1 , ℓ2 , . . . , ℓn is called a polygonal

path.

30
Picture
Polygonal path joining w1 , . . . , w6 .

w6 w5

w2
w4

w3
w1

ˆ An open set S is connected if every pair of points z1 , z2 ∈ S can be

joined by a polygonal path that lies entirely in S.

Picture

z2

z1 hole
hole

ˆ An open connected set is called a domain.

31
Theorem
Suppose u(x, y) is a real-valued function defined in a domain D. If the
first partial derivatives of u(x, y) satisfy
∂u ∂u
= =0
∂x ∂y
at all points of D, then u(x, y) is constant in D.

32