CHEMICAL LEVEL OF

ORGANIZATION
Irish Florain M. Blanco, RPh
How matter is organized…
● All forms of matter (living and non-living) are made up of a limited number of
building blocks called chemical elements.
● In fact, chemicals called nucleotide bases are the foundation of the genetic
code with the instructions on how to build and maintain the human body
from conception through old age.
● Human chemistry includes organic molecules (carbon-based) and
biochemicals (those produced by the body).
● These elements, in turn, can form both the inorganic and organic chemical
compounds important to life, including, for example, water, glucose, and
proteins.
ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
● An element is a pure substance that is distinguished from all other matter by
the fact that it cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical
means.
● Each element is made up of atoms.
○ Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retains the properties and characteristics of the
element.
● Dozens of different subatomic particles compose individual atoms. However,
only three types of subatomic particles are important for understanding the
chemical reactions in the human body.
○ Protons: positively charged; within the nucleus
○ Neutrons: uncharged; within the nucleus
○ Electrons: negatively charged; large space surrounding the nucleus
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
● In the electron cloud model of an atom,
the shading represents the chance of
finding an electron in regions outside the
nucleus.
● In the electron shell model of an atom,
filled circles represent individual
electrons, which are grouped into
concentric circles according to the shells
they occupy.
IONS, MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS
● Atoms of each element have a characteristic way of of losing, gaining, or
sharing their electrons when interacting with other atoms to achieve stability.
● If an atom either gives up or gains an electron, it becomes an ion.
○ An ion is an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of
protons and electrons.
○ Ionization is the process of giving up or gaining electrons.
● When two or more atoms share electrons, the resulting combination is called
a molecule.
IONS, MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS
● A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more different
elements.
● A free radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the
outermost shell, which makes them unstable, highly reactive, and destructive
to nearby molecules.
○ Common example: superoxide
● Clinical connection of free radicals: Many disorders, diseases, and
conditions linked to oxygen-derived free radicals are cancer, atherosclerosis,
Alzheimer’s, emphysema, and rheumatoid arthritis.
○ Consuming anti-oxidants (fights against free radicals) like selenium, zinc, beta-carotene,
vitamins C&E, is thought to slow the pace of damage of free radicals.
CHEMICAL BONDS
● The forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound are
chemical bond.
○ A more or less stable grouping of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds is
called a molecule.
○ When a molecule is made up of two or more atoms of different elements, it is called a
chemical compound.
IONIC BOND
● The force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges is an
ionic bond.
○ Cation: positively charged ion
○ Anion: negatively charged ion
● An ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in
solution is called an electrolyte.
COVALENT BOND
● When a covalent bond forms, two or more atoms share electrons rather
than gaining or losing them.
● Atoms form a covalently bonded molecule by sharing one, two, or three pairs
of valence electrons.
● Most common chemical bonds in the body → usually form most of the
body’s structures.
○ Single Covalent Bond: two atoms share one electron pair
○ Double Covalent Bond: two atoms share two pairs of electron
○ Triple Covalent Bond: two atoms share three pairs of electron
COVALENT BOND
● Nonpolar Bond
○ Two atoms share the electrons equally
● Polar Bond
○ Sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal
HYDROGEN BONDS
● Polar covalent bonds that form between
hydrogen atoms and other atoms.
● A hydrogen bond is formed when a weakly
positive hydrogen atom already bonded to
one electronegative atom (for example, the
oxygen in the water molecule) is attracted to
another electronegative atom from another
molecule.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
● A chemical reaction occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break
between atoms.
● “Foundation of all life processes”
Energy in Chemical Reactions
● Chemical reactions require a sufficient amount of energy to cause the matter
to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be
broken and new ones formed.
● Potential Energy: energy stored by matter due to its position
● Kinetic Energy: energy associated with matter in motion
● Chemical Energy: form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of
compounds and molecules.
Energy Transfer in Chemical Reaction
● Exergonic reactions: release more energy than they absorb
● Endergonic reactions: absorb more energy than they release
Activation Energy & Catalysts
● A chemical reaction’s activation energy is the “threshold” level of energy
needed to break the bonds in the reactants so a reaction can start.
● Catalysts are chemical that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy.
○ Most important catalysts: enzymes
Catalyst
● A catalyst does not alter the difference in potential energy between the
reactants and the products.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS/ANABOLISM
● When two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and
larger molecules.
● Usually endergonic
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS/CATABOLISM
● Decomposition reaction splits up large molecules into smaller atoms, ions, or
molecules
● Usually exorgonic
EXCHANGE REACTIONS
● Consist of both synthesis and decomposition reaction
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
● product can revert to the original reactants
● Indicated by two half arrows pointing in opposite reactions
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
● Oxidation: loss of electrons
● Reduction: gain of electrons
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic Compounds
● Organic compounds typically consist of groups of carbon atoms covalently
bonded to hydrogen, usually oxygen, and often other elements as well.
● Most organic molecules are relatively large and have unique characteristics
that allow them to carry out complex functions.
Carbon and its functional groups
● Carbon atoms do not complete their valence shells by donating or accepting
four electrons. Instead, they readily share electrons via covalent bonds.
● Due to this, the body can build different organic compounds.
● A functional group is a group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds
and tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit.
CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)
● The term carbohydrate means “hydrated carbon.”
● A carbohydrate is a molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; in
most carbohydrates, hydrogen and oxygen are found in the same two-to-
one relative proportions they have in water.
● In humans and animals, carbohydrates function mainly as a source of
chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions.
LIPIDS
● A lipid is one of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of
hydrocarbons.
● Their nonpolar hydrocarbons make all lipids hydrophobic. As a result, most
lipids are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. To become more soluble
in blood plasma, other lipid molecules joins protein molecules ->
lipoproteins.
PROTEINS
● Proteins are large molecules that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
● A protein is an organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds.
● Enzymes are protein that speed up and most biochemical reactions.
● Proteins are polymers made up of nitrogen-containing monomers called
amino acids.
Peptide Bond
● A peptide bond is a covalent bond between two amino acids that forms by
dehydration synthesis.
Shape of Proteins
Functions of Enzyme
● Enzymatic reactions—chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes—begin when
substrates bind to the enzyme. A substrate is a reactant in an enzymatic
reaction.
NUCLEOTIDES
● A nucleotide is one of a class of organic compounds composed of three
subunits:
○ one or more phosphate groups
○ a pentose sugar: either deoxyribose or ribose
○ a nitrogen-containing base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil
● Nucleotides can be assembled into nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or the energy
compound adenosine triphosphate.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Inorganic Compounds
● A great many inorganic compounds do contain hydrogen atoms, such as
water (H2O) and the hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by your stomach. In
contrast, only a handful of inorganic compounds contain carbon atoms.
Water
● 70 percent of an adult’s body weight
● contained both within the cells and between the cells that make up tissues
and organs.
Water as a Lubricant and Cushion
● Watery fluids help keep food flowing through the digestive tract, and ensure
that the movement of adjacent abdominal organs is friction free.
● Water also protects cells and organs from physical trauma, cushioning the
brain within the skull, for example, and protecting the delicate nerve tissue of
the eyes.
Water as a Heat Sink
● In the body, water absorbs the heat generated by chemical reactions without
greatly increasing in temperature.
○ Example: sweat glands release warm water in sweat. As the water evaporates into the air, it
carries away heat, and then the cooler blood from the periphery circulates back to the body
core.
Water as a Component of Liquid Mixtures
● Water is considered the “universal solvent” and it is believed that life cannot
exist without water because of this.
● For cells in the body to survive, they must be kept moist in a water-based
liquid called a solution.
ACIDS & BASES
● ACIDS: An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
○ Strong acids are compounds that release all of their H+ in solution; that is, they ionize
completely.
○ Weak acids do not ionize completely; that is, some of their hydrogen ions remain bonded
within a compound in solution.
● BASES: A base is a substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH–) in solution,
or one that accepts H+ already present in solution.
○ Strong bases release most or all of their hydroxyl ions;
○ Weak bases release only some hydroxyl ions or absorb only a few H+.
Concept of pH
● The relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution can
be indicated by its pH.
● BUFFERS: resist change in pH
○ A buffer is a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate
base. A buffer can neutralize small amounts of acids or
bases in body fluids.
○ All cells of the body depend on homeostatic regulation
of acid–base balance at a pH of approximately 7.4.
END OF DISCUSSION