CERTIFICATE IN FOOD PROCESSING AND

PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY
FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION 1
NOTES
PREPARED BY
MADAM CYNTHIA CHEPKOECH NGENY

CHAPTER ONE
 INTRODUCTION
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or greatly slow down
spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritive value) caused or accelerated by micro-organisms.

Food processing is the transformation of agricultural products into food, or of one form of food
into other forms.

Objectives of Food Processing

 To boost the shelf life of food articles.

 To prevent contamination of food.
 For transport and food storage.
 To turn food products into the ones that appeal to customers.

Importance of Food Preservation

Food production and supply does not always tally with the demand or meets of the people. In

some places there is surplus production of a food product, whereas in some other place there is

inadequate supply. Even foods are perishable and semi-perishable like juicy fruits, vegetables,

mangoes, tomato, papaya and many more, which very quickly gets spoilt. It is therefore

important to improve and expand facilities for storage and preservation of food. Food

preservation helps in:

1. Increasing the self-life of foods thus increasing the supply. So many perishable foods can be

preserved for a long time.

2. Making the seasonal food available throughout the year.

3. Adding variety to the diet.

4. Saving time by reducing preparation time and energy, as the food has already been partially

processed.
5. Stabilizing prices of food, as there is less scope of shortage of supply to demand.

6. Decreasing wastage of food by preventing decay or spoilage of food.

7. Improving the nutrition of the population. Preserved foods help people to bring a variety in the

diet, thereby decreasing nutritional inadequacies.

What are the reasons and consequences of food processing?

Makes food edible

Grain crops, for example wheat and corn, are not edible in their natural state. Processing
techniques, such as milling and grinding, turn them into flour, after which they can be made into
breads, cereals, pasta and other edible grain-based products. There are 3 types of flours
depending on the processing level, choose wholegrain when possible. You can learn more about
the journey of grain to bread in our ‘Gain on grain’ infographic.

Safety, shelf life, and preservation

Processing improves or even ensures food safety by removing harmful microorganisms. The
main methods are pasteurisation, air-tight packaging, and the use of preservatives.

Nutritional quality
Food processing can affect the nutritional quality of foods in both ways: it can enhance it, for
instance by adding components that were not present, like vitamin D (through ‘fortification’), or
by lowering fat, salt or sugar. It can also cause some fibre and vitamins and minerals to be lost,
for example through excessive refining, heating or freezing.

Convenience
Processing and packaging technologies help to answer modern day time-constraints by providing
a range of convenient foods: ready meals, bagged salads, sliced and canned fruits and vegetables
that take little time to prepare and can be consumed “on the go”.

Price
Food processing can decrease the cost of foods. For example, frozen vegetables have a similar
nutritional value as fresh ones, but at a lower price, as they have already been prepared, do not
contain inedible parts, can be bought in bulk, and can last longer. This way, processing increases
the shelf life of food, and decreases the amount of waste, reducing thereby the overall costs of
food production
 CHAPTER TWO.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING.
 Raw material processing.
 Raw materials are substances and products that manufacturers and processors use to
create finished goods.
 Food manufacturing companies will purchase raw materials to make foods for human
consumption.
Sources of raw materials for processing.
 Raw Materials of Plant Origin Cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and oil seeds are
among the most important raw materials of plant origin.
 Raw materials of animal origin includes; Meat, Seafood, and Poultry. Products, such as beef,
lamb, shrimp, and chicken, are produced from slaughtered animals. Generally, poultry products
come from chickens and turkey. Seafood is food material that comes from animals that live in
seawater. This includes salmon, lobster, shellfish, and whitefish. Lastly, meat encompasses all
other animals, such as beef, pork, veal, goat, and lamb.
Raw material procurement
Methods of raw material procurement.
 Procurement is the acquisition of goods, services, or works from an external source. It is
favorable that the goods, services, or works are appropriate and that they are procured at
best possible cost to meet the needs of the purchaser in terms of quality and quantity,
time, and location.”

1. The contract procurement process includes the procedures followed by a business

when purchasing services or products. The process starts when company managers
identify a business need that must be fulfilled and ends when the contract is awarded
and signed

Water in food processing.

Water quality

 The food industry is required to have an adequate supply of drinking water (i.e. potable
water) available for use in food production to ensure foods are not contaminated.
 Drinking water is water fit for human consumption (e.g. drinking, cooking and food
preparation) and in principle must be free from microorganisms and other contaminants
that may endanger public health.
Water source.
 Drinking water is supplied to the food industry either publicly by local government
authorities or privately by the food business itself.
 However, the source of the water used to supply the drinking water can come from a
variety of sources including surface water (e.g. streams, rivers, and lakes), groundwater
(e.g. natural springs, wells), rainwater and seawater (treated at a desalination plant).
  It is the source of water which generally determines the quality of the water and if
treatment of the water is required to ensure it meets drinking water standards and is safe
to be used in food production (i.e. safe for human consumption).
Uses of water in food production

 Primary production (e.g. farming),

 Cleaning and sanitation,
 As an ingredient or component of an ingredient,
 Processing operations (e.g. heating, refrigeration).

Main methods of food processing

1. concentration
2. dehydration
3. thermal processing
4. freezing

CHAPTER THREE.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION.
 Food preservation is known “as the science which deals with the process of prevention
of decay or spoilage of food thus allowing it to be stored in a fit condition for future use”.
 Preservation ensures that the quality, edibility and the nutritive value of the food
remains intact.
 Preservation involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms
as well as retarding oxidation of fats to reduce rancidity. The process also ensures that
there is no discoloration or aging. Preservation also involves sealing to prevent re-entry
of microbes.
 Basically food preservation ensures that food remains in a state where it is not
contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals does not lose optimum qualities of
colour, texture, flavor and nutritive value

Methods of food preservation.

Drying is the oldest method of food preservation. This method reduces water activity which
prevents bacterial growth. Drying reduces weight so foods can be carried easily. Sun and wind
are both used for drying as well as modern applications like Bed dryers, Fluidized bed dryers,
Freeze Drying, Shelf dryers, Spray drying and Commercial food dehydrators and Household
oven. Meat and fruits like apples, apricots and grapes are some examples of drying with this
method.
Freezing is keeping prepared food stuffs in cold storages. Potatoes can be stored in dark rooms
but potato preparations need to be frozen.

Smoking is the process that cooks, flavours and preserves food exposing it to the smoke from
burning wood. Smoke is antimicrobial and antioxidant and most often meats and fish are
smoked. Various methods of smoking are used like Hot smoking, Cold smoking, Smoke
roasting and Smoke baking. Smoking as a preservative enhances the risk of cancer.

Vacuum packing creates a vacuum by making bags and bottles airtight. Since there is no
oxygen in the created vacuum bacteria die. Usually used for dry fruit.

Salting and Pickling: Salting also known as curing removes moisture from foods like meat.
Pickling means preserving food in brine (salt solution) or marinating in vinegar (acetic acid) and
in Asia, oil is used to preserve foods. Salt kills and inhibits growth of microorganisms at 20% of
concentration. There are various methods of pickling like chemical pickling and fermentation
pickling. In commercial pickles sodium benzoate or EDTA is added to increase shelf life.

Sugar is used in syrup form to preserve fruits or in crystallized form if the material to be
preserved is cooked in the sugar till crystallization takes place like candied peel and ginger.
Another use is for glazed fruit that gets superficial coating of sugar syrup. Sugar is also used with
alcohol to preserve luxury foods like fruit in brandy.

Lye also known as Sodium hydroxide turns food alkaline and prevents bacterial growth.

Canning and bottling means sealing cooked food in sterile bottles and cans. The container is
boiled and this kills or weakens bacteria. Foods are cooked for various lengths or time. Once the
can or bottle is opened the food is again at risk of spoilage.

Jellying is preserving food by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Fruits are
generally preserved as jelly, marmalade or fruit preserves and the jellying agent is pectin that is
naturally found in fruit. Sugar is also added.

Potting is a traditional British way of preserving meat by placing it in a pot and sealing it with a
layer of fat.

Jugging is preserving meat by stewing it in an earthenware jug or casserole. Brine or wine is

used to stew meat in and sometimes the animal’s blood.

Burial in the ground preserves food as there is lack of light and oxygen and it has cool
temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Used to preserve cabbages and root vegetables.
Pulsed Electric Field Processing is a new method of preservation that uses brief pulses as
strong electric field to process cells. This is still at an experimental stage.

Modified atmosphere preserves food by operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops that
are difficult to preserve are packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the
oxygen concentration and increase the carbon dioxide concentration.

Controlled use of organism is used on cheese, wine and beer as they are preserved for a longer
time. This method uses benign organisms to preserve food by introducing them to food where
they make an environment which is not suitable for harmful pathogens to grow.

High pressure food preservation is a method that presses foods inside a vessel by exerting
70,000 pounds per square inch or more of pressure. This disables microorganisms and prevents
spoilage but food retains its appearance, texture and flavour.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging extends the shelf life of fresh food products. The atmospheric
air inside a package is substituted with a protective gas mix which ensures that the product will
stay fresh for as long as possible

CHAPTER FOUR
DAIRY TECHNOLOGY.
 Dairy industry in Kenya.
 Kenya’s dairy sub sector contributes about 8% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
with an annual milk production of 3.43 billion litres.
 Kenyan milk production is 3% of the 18% global production by Sub Saharan Africa.
Dairy cattle population is estimated at 4.3 million kept under extensive, semi-
intensive and intensive systems of production
 Dairy cattle in Kenya consist of exotic breeds, crosses between exotic and local
breeds and local breeds.
 Although smallholder Dairy farmers make up to 80% of total dairy producers and
produce 56% of total milk in Kenya, they are constrained by low quantity and quality
of feeds, lack of reliable statistical information on milk market outlets, poor rural
infrastructure, lack of collateral for loans, low technical skills on husbandry practices,
reduced access to veterinary and artificial insemination (AI) services.
MILK.
 Milk is the secreted fluid of the mammary glands of female mammals. It contains nearly
all the nutrients necessary to sustain life.
Milk composition
 Milk contains more water than any other element, around 87% for dairy cows. The other
elements are dissolved, colloidally dispersed, and emulsified in water.
 The quantities of the main milk constituents can vary considerably depending on the
individual animal, its breed, stage of lactation, age and health status. Herd management
practices and environmental conditions also influence milk composition. The average
composition of cow’s milk is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Composition of cow’s milk.

Main Range Mean
constituent (%) (%)
Water 85.5 – 89.5 87.0
Total solids 10.5 – 14.5 13.0
Fat 2.5 – 6.0 4.0
Proteins 2.9 – 5.0 3.4
Lactose 3.6 – 5.5 4.8
Minerals 0.6 – 0.9 0.8
1. Milk fat
 About 98% of milk fat is a mixture of triacylglycerols, with much smaller amounts of
free fatty acids, mono-and diacylglycerols, phospholipids, sterols, and hydrocarbons.
 Milk fat also contains pigments (e.g. carotene, which gives butter its yellow colour), and
waxes.
 Milk fat acts as a solvent for the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and also supplies
essential fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic).
2. Milk proteins
 Proteins perform a variety of functions in living organisms ranging from
providing structure to reproduction.
 Milk proteins represent one of the greatest contributions of milk to human
nutrition.
 Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Only 20 different amino acids occur,
regularly in proteins.
 The content and sequence of amino acids in a protein therefore affect its
properties.
 Some proteins contain substances other than amino acids, e.g. lipoproteins contain
fat and protein. Such proteins are called conjugated proteins as phosphoproteins,
 lipoproteins and chromoproteins. The phosphate phosphate is linked chemically
to phosphoproteins, the casein in milk is an example. A combination of lipid and
protein forms the lipoprotein and are excellent emulsifying agents.
Chromoproteins are proteins with a coloured prosthetic group and include
haemoglobin and myoglobin.
The casein
o The casein is a group name for the dominant class of protein in milk. Normal
bovine milk contains about 3.5% protein, ok which casein constitutes about 80%.
Casein is easily separated from milk, either by acid precipitation or by adding
rennin.
o In cheese making most of the casein is recovered with the milk fat. Casein can
also be recovered from skim milk as a separate product.
o Casein is dispersed in milk in the form of micelles. The micelles are stabilised by
the Κ-casein.
o Caseins are hydrophobic but Κ-casein contains a hydrophilic portion known as
the glycomacropeptide and it is this that stabilises the micelles. The structure of
the micelles is not fully understood.
o When the pH of milk is changed, the acidic or basic groups of the proteins will be
neutralised. At the pH at which the positive charge on a protein equals exactly the
negative charge, the net total charge of the protein is zero. This pH is called the
isoelectric point of the protein (pH 4.6 for casein).
o If an acid is added to milk, or if acid-producing bacteria are allowed to grow in
milk, the pH falls. As the pH falls the charge on casein falls and it precipitates.
Hence milk curdles as it sours, or the casein precipitates more completely at low
pH.
The whey proteins
o The whey proteins are also made up of a number of distinct proteins as shown in
the scheme in Figure 1
o . Whey protein comprises the group of proteins in whey during the cheese making
process.
o Whey protein also contains fragments of casein molecules.
o After the fat and casein have been removed from milk, one is left with whey,
which contains the soluble milk salts, milk sugar and the remainder of the milk
proteins.
o Like the proteins in eggs, whey proteins can be coagulated by heat.
o When coagulated, they can be recovered with caseins in the manufacture of acid-
type cheeses.
o The whey proteins are made up of a number of distinct proteins, the most
important of which are b-lactoglobulin and lactoglobulin. b-lactoglobulin
accounts for about 50% of the whey proteins, and has a high content of essential
amino acids. It forms a complex with Κ-casein when milk is heated to more than
 75°C, and this complex affects the functional properties of milk. Denaturation of
b-lactoglobulin causes the cooked flavour of heated milk.
Other milk proteins
o In addition to the major protein fractions outlined, milk contains a number of
enzymes.
o The main enzymes present are lipases, which cause rancidity, particularly in
homogenized milk, and phosphatase enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis of
organic phosphates.
o Measuring the inactivation of alkaline phosphatase is a method of testing the
effectiveness of pasteurization of milk.
o Peroxidase enzymes, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen, are also present.
o Lactoperoxidase can be activated and use is made of this for milk preservation.
o Milk also contains protease enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins,
and lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, the immune globulins and lactoferrin,
which protect the young calf against infection.

3. Milk carbohydrates

o Lactose is the major carbohydrate

fraction in milk. It is made up of
two sugars, glucose and galactose
(Figure 2).
o The average lactose content of
milk varies between 4.7 and 4.9%,
though milk from individual cows
may vary more.
o Mastitis reduces lactose secretion. Figure 2. Structure of a lactose
molecule.
o Lactose is a source of energy for the young calf, and provides 4 calories/g of lactose
metabolized.
o It is less soluble in water than sucrose and is also less sweet.
o It can be broken down to glucose and galactose by bacteria that have the enzyme b-
galactosidase.
o The glucose and galactose can then be fermented to lactic acid. This occurs when milk
goes sour.
o Under controlled conditions they can also be fermented to other acids to give a desired
flavor, such as propionic acid fermentation in Swiss-cheese manufacture.
o Lactose is present in milk in molecular solution.
o In cheese making lactose remains in the whey fraction.
o It has been recovered from whey for use in the pharmaceutical industry, where its low
solubility in water makes it suitable for coating tablets.
o It is used to fortify baby-food formula.
o Lactose can be sprayed on silage to increase the rate of acid development in silage
fermentation.
o It can be converted into ethanol using certain strains of yeast, and the yeast biomass
recovered and used as animal feed.
o Heating milk to above 100oC causes lactose to combine irreversibly with the milk
proteins. This reduces the nutritional value of the milk and also turns it brown.
Because lactose is not as soluble in water as sucrose, adding sucrose to milk forces
lactose out of solution and it crystallizes. This causes sandiness in such products as ice
cream. Special processing is required to crystallize lactose when manufacturing products
such as instant skim milk powders.
o Some people are unable to metabolize lactose and suffer from an allergy as a result. Pre-
treatment of milk with lactase enzyme breaks down the lactose and helps overcome this
difficulty.
o In addition to lactose, milk contains traces of glucose and galactose.
o Carbohydrates are also present in association with protein. Κ-casein, which stabilizes the
casein system, is a carbohydrate-containing protein.
4. Milk salts
o Milk salts are mainly chlorides, phosphates and citrates of sodium, calcium and
magnesium.
o Although salts comprise less than 1 % of the milk they influence its rate of
coagulation and other functional properties.
o Some salts are present in true solution.
o The physical state of other salts is not fully understood. Calcium, magnesium,
phosphorous and citrate are distributed between the soluble and colloidal phases
(Table 2).
o Their equilibria are altered by heating, cooling and by a change in pH.
o In addition to the major salts, milk also contains trace elements. Some elements
come to the milk from feeds, but milking utensils and equipment are important
sources of such elements as copper, iron, nickel and zinc.
Table 2. Distribution of milk salts between the soluble and colloidal phases.
Total Dissolved Colloidal
(mg/100 ml of milk)
Calcium 1320.1 51.8 80.3
Magnesium 10.8 7.9 2.9
Total phosphorus 95.8 36.3 59.6
Citrate 156.6 141.6 15.0
5. Milk vitamins
Milk contains the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K in association with the fat fraction
and water-soluble vitamins B complex and C in association with the water phase.
Vitamins are unstable and processing can therefore reduce the effective vitamin content
of milk.
Factors affecting milk composition
The various factors that affect the composition of milk include:
1. Species: Each species of animal yields milk of different compositions. Breeds: High
yielding animals produce milk with lower fat percentage e.g. Friesian vs. Jersey cows.
2. Individual variation: There is variation between individual animals. Season:
Variations are evident during the course of the year (especially fats being highest
during dry seasons).
3. Age: The fat percentage increases up to 3rd lactation and afterwards decreases.
Milking interval: With longer intervals between milking, the yield is greater with a
corresponding decrease in fat content and vice versa.
4. Milking interval: With longer intervals between milking, the yield is greater with a
corresponding decrease in fat content and vice versa
5. Completeness of milking: First milk contains less fat and last milk contains high fat.
If the milking is not complete, the milk tests for less fat.
6. Irregularity in milking: Frequent changes in the milking timings, and frequent
changes in milking intervals results less fat
7. Yield: With increase in yield per milking the percentage of lactose increases, while
fat decreases. Lactose effect: The first secretion after parturition (colostrum) has high
globules and chlorides and low lactose content. The yield increases and attains
maximum within 2-4 weeks and then slowly decreases.
8. Exercise: More exercise increases fat in milk as body fat is metabolized
9. Excitement: Sexual excitement or fear causes decrease in fat content.
10. Hormones: Prolactin and thyroid hormones are essential for milk production
andincrease fat percentage. Oestrogen decreases it.
11. Udder diseases: Mastitis and other diseases cause low lactose and casein percentage
as well as low chloride content.
12. Physiological condition: Time of parturition has an effect on fat content.
13. Pasture feeding: Pasture feeding increases fat content (unsaturated fatty acids) in
milk. Feeding: Supplementation with feeding oils increases fat content
Factors affecting milk yield.
1. Breed
2. Parity
3. Season of calving
4. Geographic region
5. Management factors (nutrition, frequency of milking)
1. Breed
Different cow breeds naturally produce different quantities (and qualities) of milk.
2. Dry period
Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next calving. This rest period is
necessary to maximize milk production in subsequent lactation. Milk yield is usually reduced
when the dry period is less than 40-60 days (25-40% less milk). Dry period longer than 60 days
in length does not result in a significant increase in milk production. Long dry periods decrease
the average annual production of the cow by extending the calving interval beyond the normal
13-14 month interval and causing a decrease in the lifetime production of the dairy cow. Part of
the dry period effect is related to body condition of the cow at calving. Cows in good body
condition at calving produce higher milk yield during the following lactation than in cows in thin
body condition at calving.
3. Age and body weight at calving
The amount of milk produced by the cow increases with advancing lactations (age). Thisis due in
part to an increase in body weight, which results in a larger digestive system and larger
mammary gland for the secretion of milk. Another reason for increased milk production with age
is due to the effects of recurring pregnancies and lactations. Data on milk production with cows
suggest that 20% of the increase in milk production is due to increased body weight and 80% to
the effects of recurring pregnancy and lactations. Recurring pregnancies and lactation can result
in increases of 30% in milk production from the first to the fifth lactation.
4. Lactation number
Milk production increases with lactation number and is maximized in the fourth or the fifth
lactation. This is a result of the increasing development and size of the udder and the increasing
body size over that of the first lactation animal. The expected mature yield (mature equivalent) of
a primiparous cow calving at two years of age can be estimated by multiplying yield of first
lactation by 1.3.
5. Pregnancy
Pregnancy has an inhibitory effect on milk yield. Most of the reduction in milk yield occurs after
the fifth month of pregnancy. By the 8th month of pregnancy, milk yield may be 20% less for
that month compared with non-pregnant cow. The inhibitory effect of pregnancy is not likely due
to fetal requirement, which does not increase considerably until the last two months of
pregnancy. It is believed that the increase in estrogen and progesterone level as pregnancy
progresses, inhibits milk secretion. Some studies with mice indicated that progesterone inhibits
the activity of a-lactalbumin.
6. Season of calving
The effect of season of calving on milk yield is confounded by breed, the stage of lactation, and
climatic condition. Cows calving in late fall to spring produce more milk (up to 8% more) than
cows calving in the summer. This is likely due to an interaction between day light and ambient
temperature. Seasonal differences have become less significant because of better feeding and
management of the dairy cow.
7. Disease
The main disease that affect milk yield of dairy cows is mastitis. It impairs the ability of
secretory tissue synthesize milk components and destroys the secretory tissues and consequently
lowering milk yield. A decrease in production persists after the disappearance of the clinical
signs of mastitis due to a destruction in the secretory tissues.
FLUID MILK TEST.

a) Methylene Blue Reduction Test

 Methylene blue reduction test is commonly used to determine number of viable organisms
in raw milk.
 In this method, methylene blue is mixed with raw milk or incubated.
 Microorganisms present in milk reduce methylene blue to form leucomethylene blue so
that milk becomes blue to colorless.
 The time of decolorization of milk is indicative of number of viable organisms.
 If number of organisms are higher it is decolorized in shorter time and vice-versa.
 In this method microbial quality of milk assessed by reduction time.

b) Resazurin Test
Resazurin test is the most widely used test for hygiene and the potential keeping quality of raw
milk. Resazurin is a dye indicator. Under specified conditions Resazurin is dissolved in distilled
boiled water. The Resazurin solution can later be used to test the microbial activity in given milk
sample.
Resazurin can be carried out as:
i. 10 min test.
ii. 1 hr test.
iii. 3 hr test.
The 10 min Resazurin test is useful and rapid, screening test used at the milk platform.
The 1 hr test and 3 hr tests provide more accurate information about the milk quality, but after a
fairy long time. They are usually carried out in the laboratory.
c) Organoleptic Tests
The organoleptic test permits rapid segregation of poor quality milk at the milk receiving
platform. No equipment is required, but the milk grader must have good sense of sight, smell and
taste. The result of the test is obtained instantly, and the cost of the test are low. Milk which
cannot be adequately judged organoleptically must be subjected to other more sensitive and
objective tests.
Protocol
1. Open the can/ container of milk.
2. Immediately smell the milk.
3. Observe the appearance of the milk.
4. If still unable to make a clear judgment, taste the milk, but do not swallow it. Spit the milk
sample into a bucket provided for that purpose or into a drain basin, flush with water.
5. Look at the can lid and the milk can to check cleanliness.
Observations/Judgment
 Abnormal smell and taste may be caused by:
 Atmospheric taint (e.g. barny/ cowy odour).
 Physiological taints (hormonal imbalance, cows in late lactation- spontaneous rancidity).
 Bacterial taints.
 Chemical taints or discolouring.
 Advanced acidification (pH < 6.4).
b) Indicator Test
The acidity developed in milk due to bacterial activity is measured in terms of pH value as
indicated by special indicator dyes, e.g. brom thymol blue and brom-cresol purple.
c) Sediment Test
Milk is passed through a funnel containing a filter disc and the amount of dirt and dust collected
is compared visually or by weight. The test indicates the gross impurities and dirt in milk as a
result of unhygienic conditions of production.

d) Clot on Boiling (C.O.B) Test

The test is quick and simple. It is one of the old tests for too developed acid in milk (pH
< 5.8) or abnormal milk (e.g. colostral or mastitis milk). If a milk forms clot on raising the milk
temperature to boiling indicate the increasing the acidity of milk or abnormal milk composition
(colostral milk). Such milk cannot be heat processed and must therefore be rejected.
e) Alcohol Test
The test is quick and simple. It is based on instability of the milk proteins when the levels of acid
and/or rennet are increased and acted upon by the alcohol. Also increased levels of albumen
(colostrum milk) and salt concentrates (mastitis) results in a positive test i.e. coagulation of milk
upon mixing with alcohol
f) Measurement of Titratable Acidity (% Lactic Acid)
Bacteria that normally develop in raw milk produce more or less of lactic acid. In the acidity test
the acid is neutralised with 1/9 N NaOH. The amount (ml) of alkali is measured and titratable
acidity is calculated (% lactic acid). Fresh milk contains in this test also “natural acidity” which
is due to the natural ability to resist pH changes .The natural acidity of milk is 0.16 - 0.18%.
Higher acidity signifies developed acidity due to the action of bacteria
g) Gerber Fat Test
The fat content of milk and cream is the most important single factor in determining the price to
be paid for milk supplied by farmers in many countries.
Also, in order to calculate the correct amount of feed ration for high yielding dairy cows, it is
important to know the butterfat percentage as well as well as the yield of the milk produced.
Furthermore the butterfat percentage in the milk of individual animals must be known in many
breeding programmes.
Butterfat tests are also done on milk and milk products in order to make accurate adjustments of
the butterfat percentage in standardised milk and milk products.
3) Sensory evaluation
Five primary senses are used in the sensory evaluation of dairy products: sight, taste, smell,
touch and sound. The greatest emphasis, however, is placed on appearance (colour e.tc.), taste
and flavour.
Soon after milk is received on the platform of dairy the lid of can is opened and milk is stirred up
with a plunger to test for smell whether pleasant or unpleasant. Then it is tested for appearance
(colour e.tc.), taste and flavour.
a) Colour
Observe the colour of the milk. If abnormal in colour, it should be held over for subjection
to confirmatory tests.
b) Odour and Taints
Smell the milk in the container immediately after removing the lid. In case of foul or abnormal
smell, hold over the milk for subjection to confirmatory tests.
The sense of taste
Taste buds, or receptors, are chiefly on the upper surface of the tongue, but may also be present
in the cheek and soft palates of young people. These buds, about 900 in number, must make
contact with the flavouring agent before a taste sensation occurs.
Saliva, of course, is essential in aiding this contact. There are four different types of nerve
endings on the tongue which detect the four basic “mouth” flavours -sweet, salt, sour, and bitter.
Samples must, therefore, be spread around in the mouth in order to make positive flavour
identification. In addition to these basic tastes, the mouth also allows us to get such reactions as
coolness, warmth, sweetness, astringency, etc.
The sense of smell
We are much more perceptive to the sense of smell than we are to taste. For instance, it is
possible for an odouriferous material such as mercaptain to be detected in 20 billion parts of air.
The centres of olfaction are located chiefly in the uppermost part of the nasal cavity. To be
detectable by smell, a substance must dissolve at body temperature and be soluble in fat solvents.
Note: The sense of both taste and smell may become fatigued during steady use. A good judge
does not try to examine more than one sample per minute. Rinsing the mouth with water between
samples may help to restore sensitivity.
B) Lactometer test
Milk has a specific gravity (1.028 -1.032). When it is adulterated with water, the specific gravity
of milk is shifted from its normal value. The lactometer test is designed to detect the change in
specific gravity of such adulterated milk.
 Mix the milk sample gently and pour it gently into a measuring cylinder (300-500).
 Let the Lactometer sink slowly into the milk. Read and record the last Lactometer degree
(ºL) just above the surface of the milk.
 If the temperature of the milk is different from the calibration temperature (Calibration
temperature may be 20°C) of the lactometer, calculate the temperature correction.
 For each ºC above the calibration temperature add 0.2ºL; for each ºC below calibration
temperature subtract 0.2 ºL from the recorded lactometer reading.
 Milk has specific gravity of 1.026 -1.032 and lactometer reading range of 26.0 -32.0ºL.
 Reading consistently lower than expected indicates the adulterated milk.
C) Freezing Point Determination
Freezing point is the most constant of all measurable properties of milk. Small change in milk
composition (adulteration of milk with water) will shift the freezing point of milk from its
normal values (-0.54ºC). In case milk is adulterated with water the fat and total solids in milk are
reduced causing a rise in freezing point. This can be determined by use of standardized apparatus
Hortvet cryoscope.
l00 (T -T 1) Water added (%) in milk = —————— T
T and T1 is freezing point of pure and adulterated milk

FLUID MILK PROCESSING.

 Processing of raw milk includes several operations to be given to it, in order to make it

Safe for human consumption and to meet the legal requirements.

Processing also improves the Physico-chemical and microbiological quality of the product.
These operations include
 1. MILK RECEPTION
 The milk reception operation includes unloading, grading, sampling, weighing and
testing of milk.
Unloading
 Once the milk filled cans and tanker enters in to the dairy premises the primary objective
is to unload the cans and tankers to avoid any delay in receiving operation.
 The milk cans are assembled in definite order according to each supplier.
 If a milk tanker is being used, it is first properly positioned so that connections can be
made conveniently.
Grading
 This refers to the classification of milk on the basis of quality.
 Milk of poor grade has to be rejected.
 Grading also helps in price fixing of milk.
 The grading is based on organoleptic or sensory tests such as smell, taste, colour and
appearance, acidity and sediment test.
 These are included under platform tests.
 Platform tests are those tests which are performed to check the quality of the incoming
milk on the receiving platform so as to make a quick decision regarding acceptance or
rejection of milk at the dock.
Sampling
 Drawing of accurate and representative sample of milk for subsequent chemical and
bacteriological is very important. While strict precautions regarding sterility of stirrer,
sampler, container etc., are required for obtaining a bacteriological sample, dryness and
cleanliness of the above equipment should suffice for a chemical sample.
 The prerequisite of sampling is thorough mixing of the milk with plunger or stirrer,
which can be operated manually or mechanically in the milk in cans or tankers of milk in
can a representative sample may also be drawn after quick dumping of the milk in to the
weigh tank, whereby it gets mixed so thoroughly that a representative sample may be
taken without further mixing in labeled sample bottle.
1. MILK RECEPTION AND STORAGE
 Raw milk brought into the facility is stored in one of two 25,000 gallon (~95,000 L)
refrigerated silo tanks.
 Before entering the silo tanks, the milk may be cooled to a low temperature, 3.3ºC.
 The number and size of silo tanks are determined by the raw milk delivery schedules and
volume of each delivery.
 In the model, these silo tanks are sized to hold sufficient raw milk for 16 hours of
processing.
 The float-controlled inlet valve regulates the flow of milk and maintains a constant level
in the balance tank. If the supply of milk is interrupted, the level will drop and trigger the
flow diversion valve to return the product to the balance tank.
2. Standardization
 Cold milk from the balance tank is drawn by the timing pump to the first regeneration
section of the pasteurizer, the pre-heating section where it is heated to 64°C by the
pasteurized milk.
 It may then proceed to the expansion vessel for vacuum deaeration treatment.
 The pressure in the expansion vessel is adjusted to a level equivalent to a boiling point
about 8°C below the pre-heating temperature.
 In our case, the temperature of the deaerated milk will drop to 56°C.
 The drop in pressure expels the dissolved air which is removed from the vessel by the
vacuum pump. The temperature drop in the expansion vessel is modeled by the cooling
block, in our simulation.
 The milk is introduced to the centrifugal separator to separate the fat globules from the
milk according to density.
 The cream, i.e. the fat globules, has a lower density than the skim milk and therefore
moves inwards in the channels of the centrifuge and discharges through the cream outlet.
 The fat content in the cream is set at 40% in our model which leaves the skim milk with a
fat content of 0.05%.
 The separator ejects waste solids on an hourly basis which are directed to the waste
management section of the plant.
Example 1.
200 kg milk testing 7.2% fat is to be standardized to 4.5% fat by addition of skim milk testing
0.1% fat. Calculate the amount of skim milk required?

A = Fat in whole milk = 7.2%

B = Fat in skim milk = 0.1%
C = A – E = 7.2 – 4.5 = 2.7 kg skim milk
D = E – B = 4.5 – 0.1 = 4.4 kg whole milk
E = Fat percentage of standardized milk, 4.5%

Solution

Here,

fat % of given milk A = 7.2

Fat % of skim milk B = 0.1%
Fat % of standardized product E = 4.5%
So, C = A – E = 7.2 – 4.5 = 2.7 kg of skim milk
D = E – B = 4.5 – 0.1 = 4.4 kg of whole milk
So, here standardized milk is prepared by mixing whole milk and skim milk
E = C + D = 2.7 + 4.4 = 7.1 kg of standardized milk.
To prepare 7.1 kg of standardized milk, given whole milk required is 4.4 kg.
So, to prepare 200 kg of standardized milk, it requires (4.4/7.1) x 200 = 123.94 kg whole milk.
7.1 kg of standardized milk requires 2.7 kg skim milk.
So, to prepare 200 kg of standardized milk, it requires (2.7/7.1) x 200 = 76.00 kg skim milk.
The required quantity of skim milk is 76.00 kg for preparation of 200 kg of standardized milk
testing 4.5% fat.
Example 2
How much whole milk with 3.9% fat and skimmed milk with 0.04% fat content will you need to
produce 2000 kg of standardized milk with 2.5% fat?
Solution:
Using mass balance method:
TMB: W + S = 2000
FMB: 0.039W + 0.0004S = 0.025*2000
Solving for W = 1274.6 kg and S = 725.4 kg
Using Pearson’s Square method:

Proportion of the whole milk = 2.46/3.86

Amount of whole milk required = (2.46/3.86)2000 = 1274.6 kg Proportion of skimmed milk =
1.4/3.86 Amount of skimmed milk required = (1.4/3.86)2000 = 725.4 kg (or 2000 – 1274.6)
3. Homogenization
 The standardized milk is sent to the high pressure homogenizer to reduce the size of the
fat globules. Homogenization temperatures normally applied are in the range 55-80°C,
and homogenization pressures are between 100 and 250 bar. During homogenization,
part of the pressure energy is released as heat; every 40 bar drop in pressure will give a
temperature rise of 1°C. In our simulation, milk entered the homogenizer at 59°C and
with a pressure drop of 198 bar, milk leaves the homogenizer at 64°C.
4. Pasteurization
 After homogenization, milk returns to the pasteurizer which completes the regenerative
pre-heating in the second section.
 Final heating to an assumed pasteurization temperature of 77°C (171 °F) takes place in
the heating
 . Milk is heated by hot water at 83°C and held for an assumed time of 22 seconds in the
external holding tube.
 Steam is used to heat water which in turn heats the milk to pasteurization temperature.
 The pasteurized milk is then used to heat the cold incoming raw milk in the pre-heating
section.
 The cold milk also serves to cool the pasteurized milk. The temperature profile of the
three heat exchangers is shown in
 . The heat transfer load from the first two heat exchangers is regenerative heat. Hence,
the regeneration efficiency (R) can be calculated by:
 Q1+Q 2
R= ×100 %
Q 1+Q 2+ Q3
Or
R = temperature (t) increase caused by regeneration/total temperature change in milk =
(T after regeneration – Tfeed)/(Tpasteurization – Tfeed)
where Q1, Q2 and Q3 are the computed heat transfer duties in the three heat exchangers
respectively. According to the temperature profile in the model, the calculated regeneration
efficiency is 93%.
The efficiency of the heat exchangers (pasteurizers) can be lowered because of surface fouling
by milk residues. To account for the decrease in efficiency, the correction factor under the Oper.
Cond’s tab in the “Heat-exchanger” operation dialog can be used. This adjusts the heat transfer
coefficient and hence the calculated heat transfer area. Decreasing the correction factor will
increase the calculated heat transfer area. If fouling is observed in all heat exchangers, the
correction factor in each of the heat exchangers will have to be adjusted according to the
performance specifications.
Pasteurization requires that the milk is held for a specified time. The appropriate length for the
holding tube can be calculated by the flow rate (Q) of milk and the diameter (D) of the holding
tube using the formula:
Q× holding time
Length of holding tube , L= 2
πD Where an efficiency factor, η, of 0.85 is used in the
×η
4
model.
5. Cream pasteurization
 Surplus cream is first heated by hot pasteurized cream in the regenerator section of the
cream pasteurizer to approximately 85°C.
 It is then passed through the heater section where hot water on opposite sides of the plates
heats the cream to a temperature of at least 90°C.
 The cream flows through the holding tube where it is held for a calculated time of 15
seconds.
6. Cooling
The cold incoming milk cools the pasteurized milk to about 7°C in the regenerative sections.
The pasteurized milk then proceeds to a chiller (B-HX-115) where it is chilled with a glycol
solution to 1.7°C.
Holding / Storage
After cooling, the milk is pumped to one of the two buffer storage tanks (F-TK-104) and from
there to filling. If filling is interrupted, the processed milk is buffered in the tank until operation
can be resumed. A buffer capacity corresponding to 1.5 hours of normal operation; i.e., 16,000 L
(4000 gal) is used in the simulation.
Blow molding
The blow molding operation (F-BM-201) is modeled as a unit operation in the simulation. We
assume that only high density polyethylene (HDPE) gallon jugs are produced in this facility and
are used solely for milk packaging. Paper containers are purchased for cream packaging. We
have found that most of the fluid milk processing plants in U.S. manufacture their milk plastic
containers in-house, especially gallon jugs and ½ gallon jugs. The majority of processed milk is
packaged in gallon jugs.
The number of jugs produced per hour of blow mold operation is calculated based on the amount
of milk processed. No excess jugs are produced in the facility. Fifty-eight grams of resin are
required to produce one plastic gallon jug. The average utility for blow molding is assigned as
0.045 kWh per jug.

Filling / Packaging
Plastic jugs produced by blow molding in the facility are used to package the processed milk.
The plastic jugs are filled and packaged with the processed milk (F-FL-203) at a rate of 2479
units per hour. An electrical power of 0.01 kW per bottle is assigned for the fillers.
Cream is packaged in purchased paper pint containers. The containers are filled in the cream
filler (G-FL-214) with electrical power of 0.01 kW per container.
Cold Storage
In order to capture the utility consumption associated with refrigeration of milk and cream after
packaging, a cold storage unit block (K-DSR-204) is included in the model. It allows us to enter
the size of the cold storage area and the refrigeration energy consumption. A 650 sq. m (7,000
sq. ft.) cold storage area is assumed in our base model, with the capacity to store about 1.5 days
of processed milk. For larger plants, we have assumed cold storage areas as large as 4,600 sq. m,
although users may enter their own value.
With respect to the refrigeration energy consumption, different scenarios may be examined. An
electrical energy consumption of 13.5 kWh per sq. m per day (1.25 kWh per square foot per day)
may be assigned to take into account storage that occurs at the plant, at a distribution center and
in the retail case. The refrigeration energy consumption may also be assigned a much lower
value of 0.840 kWh per sq. m per day (0.078 kWh sq. ft per day). This value is specific for
refrigerated warehouses (ASHRAE Handbook, Heating, Ventilating, and Air-conditioning
Applications, 2007). Users may assign their own value.
A significant amount of water is used by the ultrasonic case washers in the cold storage area. It
is assumed that 6,000 L per day of water is used for case washing.
Heat processing of fluid milk
1. Thermisation
  It is the most commonly used method used for milk preservation by heating the milk at a
mild temperature at 57 – 68 °C for 15 – 20 seconds and rapidly cooling at <6 °C.
 This method is effective against spoilage-causing bacteria however it doesn’t eliminate
the pathogens such as L. monocytogenes.
 The main objective of thermisation is to reduce the growth of psychrotrophic bacteria and
extend the shelf-life of milk.
2. Pasteurization
 Pasteurization is a method of heating milk that involves the application of heat, usually
below 100° at a certain time.
 It aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens and spoilage-causing microorganisms
(e.g., Coxiella burnettii, Brucella abortis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis) to extend the
shelf-life of milk without harming the milk quality.
 In milk, thermoduric species such as Micrococcus spp., Enterococcus faecium and
Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, and certain lactobacilli. are
killed by the process of pasteurization.

Four common types of milk pasteurization vary with temperature and time the milk is held at that
temperature.

 Vat Pasteurization/Low temperature, long-time pasteurization in which the milk is

heated at 63°C for 30 min.
 High Temperature/Short Time (HTST) in which, the milk is heated at 72°C for 15 s.
 Ultra-pasteurization (UP) in which the milk is heated at 138°to 150° C for one or two
seconds
Ultra-High-Temperature (UHT) in which the milk is heated at 280° F for only two seconds.
The objective of pasteurization are:

To destroy pathogenic organisms present in milk.

To ensure the quality of milk and milk products.
To destroy the unwanted organisms present in milk and milk products.
3. Sterilization or UHT
Sterilization is a method of heating milk that involves the application of heat, usually more than
100° at a certain time to kill almost all bacteria followed by packaging in air-tight containers
either before or after heat treatment. The sterilized milk can be stored at room temperature for a
longer period.
There are two methods of sterilization.

Conventional method / In-bottle sterilization method in which the product is packed before
heat treatment and the packed product is heated at 105-110°C for 30-45 min.
UHT method / Aseptic method in which the product is heated at 135-150°C for 1-20 seconds
followed by instant aseptic filling into sterile containers.
The objective of sterilization are:

To ensure the quality of milk and milk products at room temperature without refrigerated storage
making it safe for human consumption.
To ensure the destruction of microorganisms (pathogenic and spoilage-causing microorganisms,
vegetative and spore forms, viruses).

PRODUCTION OF SPECIFIC DAIRY PRODUCTS

Cheese making.

The hundreds of varieties differ very much in size, shape, color, hardness, texture,
odour and taste. However, all cheeses, irrespective of country of origin and method of
manufacture possess certain common characteristic steps as follow:

1. They are made from the milk (or derivatives of milk) of certain mammals
derivatives

2. Souring

3. Clotting by rennet or a similar enzyme preparations

4. Cutting or breaking up of the coagulum to release the whey

5. Consolidation or matting of the curd

6. Maturing

The above traits are common to all cheeses, but the conditions vary considerably. The
chief factors responsible for differences in the final cheese are:
1. Type of milk used

2. Degree of souring and type of souring organisms added

3. Temperature of renneting and subsequent cooking or scalding of the curd in the

whey

4. Milling and salting of the curd before putting in the hoop or mould

5. Pressure applied to the green cheese

6. Time, temperature and relative humidity of ripening

7. Special treatments such as stabbing the cheese, bathing in the brine and surface
treatment to produce a certain type of coat.

General protocol for cheese manufacture

1. Selection of Milk

 The quality of milk has a profound effect on the quality of cheese made from it.
 The composition of cheese is strongly influenced by the composition of the
milk, especially the content of fat, protein, calcium and pH.
 The constituents and composition of milk are influenced by several factors,
including species, breed, individual variations, nutritional status, health and
stage of lactation of milk-producing animals.
 Many world famous cheeses are produced from sheep’s milk, e.g. Roquefort
and Feta and Romano; traditional Mozzarella is made from buffalo milk.

 The milk should be of good microbiological quality, as contaminating bacteria

are concentrated in the curd and may cause defects or public health problems.
 However, cheese milk is usually pasteurized or subjected to alternate
treatments to render it free of pathogenic, food poisoning and/or spoilage
bacteria.

2. Inhibitory Substances in Milk

 All cheeses depend on the growth of lactococci and all matured cheese depends
on the development of lactobacilli.
 It has been known for a long time that milks behave differently in the way
lactic acid bacteria grow in them.
  Most important in cheese making is the slow growth of Lactococcus
lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris in some milk,
especially raw milks.
 One of the factors may be the presence of a group of inhibitory substances
naturally occurring in milk. It has been reported that a substance called lactenin
found in milk may inhibit the growth of certain streptococci. Lactenin has been
shown to have two components, L1 and L2. L1 is present in colostrum and is
inactivated by heating to 70°C for 20 min and L2 present in mid-lactation milk
and is inactivated by heating to 70°C for 20 min.
 Preservatives like formalin, hypochlorite, quaternary ammonium compounds
and other disinfectants present in milk may inhibit the growth of starter
organisms.

3. Storage of Chilled Milk

In modern commercial practice, particularly in Western countries milk for cheese is

normally chilled to 4-5°C immediately after milking and may be held at about this
temperature for several days on the farm and at the factory. Apart from the
development of an undesirable psychrotrophic microflora, cold storage causes
physicochemical changes (e.g. shift in calcium phosphate equilibrium and dissociation
of some micellar caseins), which have undesirable effects on cheese making
properties of milk.

4. Standardization of Milk

 The composition of cheese is prescribed in ‘Standards of Identity’ with respect

to moisture and fat in dry matter, which in effect defines protein:fat ratio. Fat
and casein together with moisture left in the curd control cheese yield, but fat
also has a marked influence on appearance and feel of the curd and cheese.
 When ratio of casein to fat is high, the curd is more leathery and the final
cheese does not acquire the mellow, velvetiness of a whole milk cheese.
 Skim milk cheeses are usually consumed ‘green’. In general, the casein:fat ratio
(C/F ratio) in milk should be about 0.7 for good quality cheese. Depending on
the ratio required, it can be modified by:

• Removing some fat by natural creaming or centrifugation,

• Adding skim milk,

• Adding cream,
• Adding milk powder, evaporated milk or ultrafiltration retentate.

Such additions also increase the total solids content of the milk and hence
increase the yield of cheese curd per unit volume.

5. Heat Treatment of Milk

 Thermization of cheese milk is fairly widely practised on receipt at the factory
to reduce the microbial load and extend the storage period.
 Pasteurization of cheese milk became widespread about 1940, primarily from
public health reasons, but also to provide a milk supply of more uniform
bacteriological quality.
 Although a considerable amount of cheese is still produced from raw milk,
especially in Southern Europe (including such famous varieties as Swiss and
Emmental) pasteurized milk is generally used, especially in large factories.
 Pasteurization alters the indigenous microflora and facilitates the manufacture
of cheese of more uniform quality, but unless due care is exercised, it may
damage the rennet coagulability and curd-forming properties of milk.
 Even when properly pasteurized, Cheddar cheese (and probably other varieties)
made from pasteurized milk develops a less intense flavor and ripens more
slowly than raw milk cheese.
 Several heat induced changes, e.g. inactivation of indigenous milk enzymes,
killing of indigenous microorganisms, denaturation of whey proteins and their
interaction with micellar қ-casein, perhaps even shifts in salt equilibria and
destruction of vitamins, could be responsible for these changes. Until now it
has not been possible to establish which of these factors was principally
responsible for the differences in quality between raw and pasteurized milk
cheese.

6. Ripening of Milk (Acidification)

 The increase in acidity in the milk to be used for cheese making known as
‘ripening’ is usually brought about by starter culture.
 Acidity developed inhibits the growth of undesirable organisms and influences
the rate of coagulation.
 When the desired acidity (0.01% increase) is reached, most varieties of cheese
require the addition of rennet to the ripened milk in order to obtain a curd of the
desired characteristics.
 Acidification is normally via in situ production of lactic acid, although
preformed acid or acidogen (gluconic acid-δ-lactone) are now used to directly
acidify curd for some varieties, e.g. Mozzarella cheese, UF Feta and Cottage.
  Until recently, the indigenous microflora of milk was relied upon for acid
production.
 Since this was probably a mixed microflora, the rate of acid production was
unpredictable and the growth of undesirable bacteria led to the production of
gas and off-flavors.
 It is now almost universal practice to add a culture (starter) of selected lactic
acid bacteria to pasteurized cheese milk to achieve a uniform and predictable
rate of acid production. For cheese varieties that are cooked to not more than
40°C, a starter consisting of Lactococcus
lactis subsp. lactis and/or Lc. lactis subsp. cremoris is normally used while a
mixed culture Streptococcus salivarus var. thermophilus, Lactobacillus spp. (L.
bulgaricus, L. helveticus, L. casei) or lactobacillus culture alone is used for
varieties that are ‘cooked’ to higher temperature, e.g. Swiss, hard Italian
varieties.

7. Coagulation

 The essential step in the manufacture of all cheese varieties involves

coagulation of casein of milk to form a gel, which entraps the fat, if present.
Coagulation may be achieved by:
• Limited proteolysis by selected proteinases (rennets)

• Acidification to pH 4.6

• Acidification to pH 5.2 and heating to 90°C.

 Most cheese varieties, and about 75% of total production, are produced by
rennet coagulation but some acid coagulated varieties, e.g. Quark and Cottage
cheese, are of major importance.
 The acid/ heat coagulated cheeses are relatively minor varieties which are
usually produced from rennet cheese whey and a blend of whey and skim milk
and evolved as a means for recovering the nutritionally valuable whey proteins;
they are usually used as food ingredients.
 Important varieties are Ricotta (Italy), Anari (Cyprus) and Manouri (Greece). A
fourth minor group of cheese is produced not by coagulation, but by thermal
evaporation of water from a mixture of whey and skim milk, whole milk or
cream and crystallization of lactose (e.g. Mysost).
 Rennin is milk-curdling enzyme, which is usually obtained from the fourth
stomach (abomasum) of suckling calves.
 In other animals, the proteolytic enzyme, pepsin, substitutes rennin.
 Rennin is prepared commercially for use in cheese making as a salt extract of
dried calf stomach. Such an extract containing the enzyme is called rennet or
 rennet extract.

Rennin is an extremely powerful clotting enzyme; one part of pure rennin can
clot more than five million parts of milk. The optimum pH for rennin action on
milk is 5.4 and for pepsin it is 2.0. However, it can function very powerfully as
a clotting agent at almost neutral pH (6.2-6.4). The ratio of clotting to
proteolytic power is very high in case of rennin, but is lower in case of pepsin
and other proteolytic enzymes tried in cheesemaking. The latter type of
enzymes result in a bitter product. For hard cheese such as Cheddar, usually
about 2.5 g of commercial rennet powder is used for 100 l of milk. In case of
Meito rennet it is 1.65 g/100 l milk.
 The formation of curd depends upon the coagulation of the casein in milk.
 With rennet this occurs in two steps. The calcium caseinate in milk is first
changed to the paracasein, which then combines with the calcium ions present
in the milk to form an insoluble curd.
 This curd is elastic and when heated or pressed it will shrink, squeezing out
most of the retained whey.
 Slow development of curd may be due to too little rennet or to the use of
overheated milk.
 In the latter case, the addition of small amount (0.02%) of calcium chloride to
the milk usually will restore the calcium ion balance and permit the normal
functioning of rennin.
 No satisfactory substitute for rennin has been found but at times other milk
clotting enzymes, such as pepsin, papain, and microbial and recombinant
rennets have been used.

 Rennet extract is diluted up to 20-30 times with clean potable water before
added to the cheese milk.
 After addition of rennet, the milk is stirred for about two minutes to distribute
the rennet thoroughly, and then currents are stopped in the milk with a paddle
or rake
 . Vibration of the vat must be prevented during setting. Steam leakage into the
jacket of the vat during setting should be avoided. The milk is then left
undisturbed for the curd to form, and this becomes apparent in about 15 min.
After about 30 min the milk is ‘set’ with a firm curd.

8. Post-Coagulation Processing Operations

One of the main reasons for the great interest in studying rennet coagulation is to
optimize the gel cutting time. When the gel (coagulum) is firm enough, it is cut by
mechanical knives in both the horizontal and vertical directions to produce curd
particles. In cheese making, the cutting range between 20 and 50 min, depending on:

1. Concentration of rennet used, e.g. 20 ml of single strength rennet per 100 l milk,
although this depends on the strength of the rennet used and the other coagulation
conditions.

2. Whether CaCl2 is added, as this accelerates clotting (the maximum legal level in
many countries is 0.2%)

3. Coagulation temperature (coagulation occurs faster at higher temperature)

4. pH (the activity of chymosin decreases with an increase in pH)

5. Seasonal changes in milk composition; e.g. late-lactation milk can be slow to clot
due to its high pH and hydrolysis of caseins within the mammary gland by plasmin.
Low levels of plasmin hydrolysis reduce RCT and increase the initial rate of
aggregation of rennet-altered micelles although final gel strength is reduced.

6. The quality of the dilution water used to make the rennet solution prior to the
addition of cheese vat, as both excessive chlorine and a high level of water hardness
can adversely affect activity.

9. Cutting the Coagulum

 The rennet gel is quite stable if maintained under quiescent conditions but if it
is cut or broken, syneresis occurs rapidly, expelling whey.
 Syneresis concentrates the fat and casein of milk by a factor of about 6.012,
depending upon the variety.
 The rate and extent of syneresis are influenced by milk composition, especially
Ca++ and casein, pH of the whey, size of cutting of cubes, cooking
temperature, rate of stirring of the curd-whey mixture and time.
 The composition of the finished cheese is to a large degree determined by the
extent of syneresis and since this is readily under the control of the
cheesemaker, it is here that the differentiation of the individual cheese varieties
really begins, although, the composition of cheese milk, the amount and type of
starter and the amount and type of rennet are also equally significant.
 The coagulum is ready to cut after a period of from 25 min to 2 h, as defined by
the recipe.
 The determination of exact time of cutting is very critical for the quality of
cheese.
 However, the cheese makers’ attempts to judge the exact point of cutting are
fraught with difficulties.
 The surface layer of coagulum is often some degree colder than the coagulum
underneath and is, therefore, softer.
 To judge firmness of curd on the surface, therefore, has little meaning.

The main method employed by cheesemakers is to plunge the hand, rod or

thermometer stem below the surface layer and to lift the coagulum causing it to
break in a cleavage line. A clear cleavage with green whey at the base of the
cleft indicates that the curd is ready to cut. A soft irregular cleavage with white
whey indicates that the curd is too soft. The sides of the cleft show the quality
of the curd. Granular curds indicate that the curd is too firm. A rule used by
some cheesemakers is that the curd should be cut earlier rather than later, and
once cut; the curd should be left to complete its forming process in the warmer
whey which rises over it. If the coagulum becomes too firm, knives or curd
breakers crush the curd rather than cut it cleanly. When curd is ready for
cutting, it is first cut horizontally and then vertically. This sequence is essential
to follow because if the curd is cut vertically first, slabs so made will not have
sufficient strength to stand and thus, will shatter.

The curds, which have been cut cleanly, will ‘heal’ or join up the cut fibrils on
the new curd surfaces and thus prevent loss of fat and other milk components.
Surface-active materials such as phospholipids and whey proteins accumulate
on the cut surface and form a thin osmotic membrane. This membrane controls
the whey expulsion during cooking.

The fat globules are held in the matrix of the casein network, partly by physical
enclosure and party by loose bonding of the globule membrane and protein. Fat
globules near the cut surfaces leak away. Such fat although only 0.2-0.3% in
the whey, is really 10% of the original fat in the milk and leads to loss of
cheese yield. The whey from the cut curds carries water-soluble components
including lactose, whey proteins, salts, peptides and other non-protein
nitrogenous substances.

The size of the curds after cutting depends on type of cheese to be

manufactured. Thus curds, which need to be scalded to higher temperatures, are
cut into smaller pieces, while those curds, which are scalded to lower
temperatures, can be left in large pieces unless the curds are very acid.

Curved-wire-strung, harp-like curd breakers are used manually in the smaller

cheese dairies. The larger installations use multibladed, hand held steel knives.
The blades vary from 6-18 mm apart and 76 cm long. Some cutters are
 composed of wires strung on steel frames.

Mechanically operated curd knives are larger than the manual knives and use
either blades or wires. It is very important that the edges of the blades are kept
sharp enough to cut cleanly. Heavy gauge wires tend to tear the curd more than
steel knives, and some cheesemakers cut slightly earlier with wires than the
knives.

Cutting the coagulum lengthwise once manually in the long rectangular vats
normally cut by mechanically operated knives prevents crushing of the soft
curds during the first mechanical cutting. The rotating knives in round or oval
vats do not crush the curd against the vat sides. Even so, the speed of rotation in
some equipment can be controlled. The angle of the blade presented to the curd
is such that if the rotation of the knife is reversed it stirs rather than cuts the
curd.

10. Cooking

 The curd, when first cut, is soft and the coat surrounding the particles is open.
Stirring the curd gently until the first flush of whey has left the curd particles is
necessary to prevent undue crushing and loss of fat and curd dust.
 Once the curd coat becomes more membrane-like the agitation rate can be
increased.
 Cooking or scalding the curd causes the protein matrix to shrink and expel
more whey.
 The increase in temperature also speeds up the metabolism of bacteria enclosed
within the curd.
 Lactic acid production increases, pH declines, and acidity assists in shrinking
the particles to express more whey.

 Since the whey has, in solution, lactose and salts, the amount of these
substances retained in the cheese is proportional to the amount of moisture in
the curd. The calcium phosphate associated with the casein and in colloidal
state, will gradually become solubilized as the pH falls. Thus, high acid curds
(i.e. blue veined cheese curds) lose more calcium (92%) than low acid curds
such as Edam (35%).

Lactose is the main metabolite of the lactic acid bacteria in the curd for the
production of lactic acid. Since lactose must cross the cell wall membrane, it is
not only the presence of lactose but also the strength of the lactose solution,
 which is a controlling factor in the metabolism of the bacteria. Thus, once the
lactose concentration has decreased to a certain point, then much smaller
decreases have greater effect on the growth of bacteria and on the production of
lactic acid. The cheese maker has control over lactose in the curd, and,
therefore, the amount of lactic acid formed, through the size of the curd
particles, scald temperature and the rate of rise of temperature of the curds.
There are two methods of reducing the amount of lactose in the cheese curds:
1. Shrinkage of the curds brought about by heat and lowering of the pH owing to
development of lactic acid in the curd.

2. The addition of water to the whey, which increases the osmotic effect across the
curd membranes and thus extracts the lactose from the curd moisture into the diluted
whey.

3. The addition of hot water to the whey/ curd mixture is used as a method of scalding
(heating) the curd in the washed curd cheese processes.

The aim of scalding the curd is to shrink the curd to expel moisture and so firm up the
curd to a state ready for texture formation, pressing or salting. This state provides the
dividing between four main groups of cheese (excluding soft cheese, some of which
may be scalded).

1. The textured cheese like Cheddar, Cheshire.

2. The pasta filata types or kneaded cheese.

3. The cheese untextured in the vat stage, like Edam and Gouda cheese, and also those
which acquire texture later, like Tilsiter, Emmental, etc.

4. Blue veined cheese.

The variation of scalding rates is carried out according to the acidity produced and is
under the control of cheesemaker. This is a further point in the recipe where previous
experience aids in interpretation. A high rate of scald will shrink the coat of the curd
particles so much that the membrane is so firm that moisture is locked in the curd. The
resultant cheese is acid, harsh texture, crumbly and eventually dry.

Low rates of scald may be necessary for curds in which the bacteria are slow to
produce acid. Alternatively, curd shrinkage may be by acid alone without the use of
scald. The recipe determines the maximum scald temperature but it is important to
note that the normal lactic starter bacteria will be inhibited, if not destroyed, if the
scald temperature is too high (i.e. temperature beyond 40°C). Scald temperatures
higher than normal need the inclusion of high-temperature-enduring starter bacteria
(i.e. S. thermophilus, L. bulgaricus, etc.). Although lactose, being soluble tends to
leave the curds to be concentrated in the whey, there may be reverse movement back
into the curd if the curd and whey acidities are too different.

The cheesemaker has a decision to make in respect of when to cease stirring the whey
curd mixture; this is not often included in the recipe. The cessation of the stirring is
called the ‘pitching’ point when the curd sinks down to the bottom of the vat.

Normally, fast acid curds are stirred until the whey is removed. With very slowly
developing curds, the stirring ceases altogether and the curd is ‘pitched’, or
sometimes, to prevent excessive ‘matting’ of the curd into lumps, the curds are stirred
at intervals.

5.13 Curd Treatment

The manner in which the curd is handled varies in some degree according to the kind
of cheese to be made. The acidity of the curd continues to increase and its body
becomes firmer owing to a decrease in its content of whey. Heating the curd favors
these reactions. If a soft high moisture cheese is made, the curd is removed from the
vat quickly and the whey is drained. For some varieties of cheese, the curd is cut and
stirred in the whey while it is being heated. For Cheddar type cheese, the curd is
heated in the whey and allowed to form continuous mass, which is then cut and milled
into small pieces before further processing.

The manner in which the whey is drained from the curd varies with the kind of
cheese:

1. Cream cheese, for example, is prepared by placing the curd on cloths which allow
the whey to drain away.

2. Sometimes the curd is placed in forms or hoops put on mats or coarsely woven
screens which allow the whey to drain as in the manufacture of Brick cheese,

3. In the making of Cheddar cheese, curd is allowed to sink in the vat and the
supernatant whey is drawn off,

4. In making Swiss cheese, the curd is separated by placing a cloth under the curd and
lifting it out of the vat or kettle.

The rate at which the whey is allowed to drain away is determined by the kind of
cheese being made. Acid continues to develop in the curd as long as appreciable
amounts of whey are present. With the increase in acidity the curd becomes elastic
and can be stretched or, if heated, it can be drawn out into silky strings. This is the
basis of practical test used by makers of Cheddar cheese. A hot iron rod is touched to
the curd, and as it is drawn away, the length of the curd fibers at their breaking point
is noted, the higher the acidity the longer the threads.

5.14 Pressing

The last portion of the whey is removed from the curd by pressing. This operation is
also used to mould some varieties of cheese in their conventional shape. The degree of
pressure used varies with the kind of cheese.

The curd is composed of a matrix of protein enclosing fat globules, moisture, lactose,
salts, non-protein nitrogenous substances, as well as peptides. The curd also contains
air and some gas (CO2) so that while it is warm it is springy, elastic and soft. The fat is
also mainly in the liquid state. Salt (NaCl) may or may not have been applied and salt
will dissolve some of the casein surfaces, and also releases water. Thus the surface
layer of casein may be rendered hard and horny if the salt is not allowed to dissolve
freely into the warm curd.

Pressing the curd should, therefore, be gradual at first, because high pressure at first
compresses the surface layer of the cheese and can lock moisture into pockets in the
body of the cheese. The temperature of the curd before pressing should be below the
liquid fat temperature, i.e. 23.9°C in summer and 26°C in winter. Otherwise, fat will
leak from the curd and be lost in the whey, or will fill spaces in between the curds and
give a greasy cheese. The pressure applied to the cheese should be per unit area of the
cheese and not per cheese, which may vary with size. Table 5.1 shows the pressure,
traditionally applied and a comparison with pressures applied to 18 kg block cheese.

Since the cheese curd holds a volume of air before pressing, those cheeses requiring
very closed curds (e.g. Cheddar) have been pressed under a vacuum of 85-95
kN/m2 (25-28 in Hg). The vacuum applied for only a short time (2-3 h), also assists in
cooling the curd.

Pressures have been traditionally applied for 2-3 days to Cheddar cheese, but the more
recent ‘block cheese’ pressing has been limited to 24-36 h, and with vacuum pressing,
10-15 h. This has enabled the cheese mould to be washed and reused the following
days.

Cheese presses are either spring, dead weight, pneumatically or hydraulically

operated. Recently, the larger ‘ton’ or ‘box’ presses have been used. The presses have
vacuum cylinders so that the curd can be pressed under vacuum.
One of the requirements of the pressed cheese is that the outside (rind) surface is
close, smooth and with no crevices for mold penetration. The traditional methods used
coarse Hessian cloths to assist in closing up the holes in the curd. Sometimes, the
cheese was immersed in hot water at 48.9°C to plasticize the coat and the cheese was
then repressed in stiff Calico cloth to obtain a close finish.

These systems were highly labour intensive, and textured synthetic films have
replaced the cloths previously used. Traditional cheesemakers and certain cheese
buyers still prefer the older methods of cheese preparation, especially for the texture
cheese varieties such as Cheddar, Cheshire etc.

Table 5.1 Pressures applied to cheese of various sizes

5.15 Treatment of Rind

The manner in which the surface of the cheese is treated also influences its
characteristics, for example, frequently cleaning the rind, for Cheddar.

1. Cheddar and Swiss cheeses are given a smooth and uniform surface or rind by
pressing the curd while it still is warm, and curing the cheese under conditions that
allow the moisture to evaporate from the surface

2. The activity of organisms on the surface is prevented in Swiss cheese by frequently

cleaning the rind. For Cheddar cheese, this is done by coating the cheese with paraffin
wax and holding it in a cool room with low humidity,

3. Holding them in cool, moist environment encourages the growth of mold on

Camembert and Roquefort type cheeses, and the growth of yeasts and bacteria on
Brick and Limburger cheeses.

The soft types of cheese acquire a rind during ripening, often as a result of the growth
of molds and bacteria. Later, the evaporation of moisture hardens the rind so that it is
more rigid to handle. In many instances the rind is kept clean by repeated washing
with a salt impregnated cloth (e.g. Emmental) or repeated brushing to remove mould
growth (e.g. Cantal). When these cheeses are ripe and ready for sale, the rind is
simply coated with vegetable (olive) oil, which may be colored brown or black (e.g.
Parmesan, Romano).
Smoking of cheese also gives the coat a fatty layer and has a preservative effect, due
to phenolic compounds from the smoke. Spices are also used on the coats of some
cheese to impart a flavor to the curd, but mainly the spices are included in the curd.
Feta and similar cheeses are packed in casks or drums filled with brine or salted whey.

Gorgonzola has also been coated with Plaster of Paris as a protective coat inside a
woven basket. The plaster is not completely airtight and allows the cheese to ‘breath’
and mold to remain blue.

The larger hard-pressed cheeses, like Cheddar, Emmental, etc. have in recent years
been produced in block shapes for two main reasons:

1. The packing of cheese in retail markets for consumer sale in small portions has
accelerated the use of block cheese shapes. These cheese blocks range from 10 to 20
kg in weight, are rectangular and can be cut mechanically without waste into
consumer portions.

2. The second reason is with respect to mold or cheese mite damage, which has
caused serious loss in traditional round-shaped cheese.

Attempts to overcome these defects first employed, and still use, chemical treatments,
i.e. sorbic acid and its salts, or pimaricin to stop mold growth, and/or waxing or
resinous coating of the cheese rind to prevent both mould growth and mite infestation.

Waxing of cheese, like Cheddar, Cheshire, etc. over the bandage requires that the
bandage is completely dry (2-3 days drying). If the bandage is not dry the wax coat
eels away and is not effective as mold preventive. The waxes used are available with
different melting points, from 49-82°C, for either temperate or tropical usage. The
application of wax is usually by dipping the cheese in a bath of melted wax for up to
30 s and then allowing it to cool quickly. It may be necessary to dip twice if the
cheese is not totally covered on the first occasion.

5.16 Salting

Salting of perishable foods is among the most ancient and widely practiced techniques
of food preservation. Salt has achieved universal acceptance as a mineral of great
importance in trade and industry, and, in view of its preservative qualities, it has
become a peculiarly appropriate symbol of fidelity in many cultures. It is, therefore,
no surprise that salting is a key element in that combination of techniques that has
evolved for preserving the solids of milk in the form of cheese.

Common salt (NaCl) is an ingredient of practically every variety of cheese. It may be

added to subdivide cheese curds, as is the case with Cheddar and related types, or
apply by immersion of the formed cheese in brine, as for Gouda, Swiss, Feta and
related types. For some cheeses, the salt is rubbed on the surface after moulding is
complete and, for a few types (e.g. Domiati), some or all of the salt is added to the
cheese milk before curd production commences. The presence of salt in cheese and
the manner of its incorporation has a significant impact on the course of the cheese
fermentation, and on the final characteristics of the cheese as consumed.

The salt in cheese:

• Draws the whey out of the curd,

• Suppresses the proliferation of unwanted microorganisms, including pathogens,

• Regulates the growth of desirable organisms, including lactic acid bacteria (acidity,
oxygen tension and temperature also regulate the growth of these organisms),

• Promotes physical and chemical changes in the maturing cheese,

• Directly modifies taste, and

• Serves as a factor in control of acidity.

The salt in cheese is held in solution in the aqueous phase and its concentration in
solution is a strong determinant of much of the biological and biochemical changes
that occur during cheese maturation. The actual level of salt in cheese varies with the
type, ranging from 0.5% to about 3% (w/w) but this range is amplified by the wide
differences in water content between cheese varieties, such that the concentration of
NaCl in the aqueous phase may range from less than 1% to about 8%. The level of salt
in cheese, the manner of its addition and the joint impact of these factors on the time
needed for equilibration of the salt concentration in the aqueous phase are key
determinants of varietal differences in cheese characteristics.

Within any one cheese, the distribution of salt may vary considerably according to the
method of application. Dry salted cheese, such as Cheddar, should have uniform salt
levels throughout the body within just a few hours after salting, whereas for brine-
salted cheese, there is a marked difference between the salt content of the surface and
the interior, which persists for many days or weeks, dependent on the dimensions of
the cheese. Rapid attainment of salt uniformity within dry salted cheese curds
generally slows or stops fermentation of the residual lactose, leaving a pool of
fermentable carbohydrate to support the growth of the more salt-tolerant strains of the
starter bacteria and/or the growth of the non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB), with
a potentially profound impact on the course of maturation. A low internal salt level in
brine-salted cheese allows for continuation of the fermentation by the added starter
organisms of practically all of the lactose to lactic acid and associated end products,
thus leaving little fermentable carbohydrate to support the growth of NSLAB,
resulting in a different course of maturation and different flavor profiles.

5.16.1 Methods of salting

There are three main techniques for salting of cheese:

• Mixing of dry salt crystals with subdivided cheese curds prior to the
moulding/pressing stage of manufacture,

• Immersion of the moulded cheese in a brine solution,

• Application of dry salt or salt slurry to the surface of the formed cheese.

For a number of varieties, a combination of these techniques is used, and for a few
cheese types, salt is added either to the milk or the whey.

Brined cheeses are formed into their final size and shape prior to being immersed in a
solution for a period ranging from a few hours to a few days in vat containing
circulating or static brine. Static brine systems usually have un-dissolved salt at the
bottom of the vats and stirring must be carried out frequently. Circulating systems
have means for automatically maintaining the strength of the brine. Brine
concentration typically ranges from 15% to 25% (w/w) NaCl in water and temperature
may vary from about 8 to 20°C.

The salting time depends primarily on the desired salt content, and is further
influenced by:

• Brine temperature (Diffusion rate increases with temperature)

• Salt concentration (Higher concentration gives faster salt uptake, but more extreme
variations within the young cheese)
• Cheese dimensions (Smaller and flatter cheeses take up salt more rapidly; spherical
cheeses take up salt more evenly)

• Cheese moisture and pH (Higher moisture and pH both lead to more rapid salt
intake).
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEESE

These can also be classified on the basis of their rheology, and according to the
manner of ripening as shown below:

1) Very hard (grating) - Moisture < 35% on matured cheese and ripened by bacteria,
e.g. Parmesan, Romano.

2) Hard - Moisture < 40%

a) Ripened by bacteria, without eyes: Cheddar

b) Ripened by bacteria, with eyes: Swiss

3) Semi-hard - Moisture 40-47%

a) Ripened principally by bacteria: Brick

b) Ripened by bacteria and surface microorganisms: Limburger

c) Ripened principally by blue mould:

i) External – Camembert

ii) Internal – Gorgonzola, Blue, Roquefort.

4) Soft - Moisture > 47%

a) Unripened – Cottage

b) Ripened – Neufchatel

CHAPTER FIVE
MEAT TECHNOLOGY
Sources of Meat

 The most common sources of meat are domesticated animal species such as
cattle, pigs and poultry and to a lesser extent buffaloes, sheep and goats.
 In some regions other animal species such as camels, yaks, horses, ostriches
and game animals
 The meat derived from cattle is known as beef, meat derived from pigs as pork and from
chickens as poultry. Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world accounting for over
36% of the world meat intake. It is followed by poultry and beef with about 35% and
22% respectively.


Composition of meat
Meat is made of three major components i.e. Water, Protein, Fat and Carbohydrate.

A) Water

About 75% of muscle tissue is made up of water, this is the main reason why there is shrinkage
problem in meat, as the water is lost with time from the meat and it becomes hard and less in
weight which can cause loss of profit to the retailer.

B) Protein

About 20% of the muscle tissue is made of vital and important protein. The coagulation of
protein occurs when it is exposed to heat. Coagulation of protein is related to doneness of meat,
when protein is coagulated to desired temperature, the meat is said to be done as it loses moisture
and becomes firm.

C) Fat

Up to 5% of meat is accounted for fat, as I said earlier that fat is only the reason why sometimes
meat is considered bad for the health because 90% of the fat content is saturated fat which is not
good for health. Nowadays animals are bred and raised with low fat diet in order to keep check
of the fat content of the animal.

Not all fat is bad as some amount of fat is desirable for the body as well as for the meat itself,
following are reason why fat is required by the meat-

a) Juiciness
Fat is the reason why the meat remain juicy and moist after cooking, as it help the meat from
drying up. There are two ways to obtain the desired fat content in meat one is marbling which is
a self-occurring natural way and the other is barding which a process is done manually.

Marbling is the fat deposited within the muscle tissue, which melts once exposed to heat as a
result of which the meat becomes juicy and don’t dry up in the cooking process.

Barding is a process in which fat is added to the outer surface of the meat while grilling or
roasting, this is done as the meat lacks natural surface fat, surface fat is responsible for meat
from getting burnt in the process of roasting as the fat melts it provides a coating around the meat
which helps in cooking.

b) Tenderness

Marbling fat which presents between the muscle fiber, melts in the process of cooking and
providing required tenderness to the meat.

c) Flavor

Fat also gives flavor to the meat as it is the primary source of flavor for any meat.

D) Carbohydrate

Percentage of carbohydrate is very less in meat, however it plays an important part in cooking of
the meat, as it provides desirable appearance and flavor to the meat.

Maillard Reaction, It is a reaction which takes places when meat is browned by the process of
roasting, broiling or sautéing. When proteins are heated to about 310°F (154°C), the amino acids
in the protein chains react with the carbohydrate molecules and undergo a complex chemical
reaction. The result is that they turn brown and develop richer flavors. This reaction is called the
Maillard reaction, the Maillard reaction takes place only on the dry surface of the food. Because
of its water content, the interior of the meat cannot get this hot.

Slaughtering operation.

The slaughter of livestock involves three distinct stages: preslaughter handling, stunning, and
slaughtering.
I. Preslaughter handling
 Preslaughter handling is a major concern to the livestock industry, especially the pork
industry.
  Stress applied to livestock before slaughter can lead to undesirable effects on
the meat produced from these animals, including both PSE and DFD.
 Preslaughter stress can be reduced by preventing the mixing of different groups of
animals, by keeping livestock cool with adequate ventilation, and by avoiding
overcrowding.
 Before slaughter, animals should be allowed access to water but held off feed for 12 to
24 hours to assure complete bleeding and ease of evisceration (the removal of internal
organs).
II. Stunning
 As the slaughter process begins, livestock are restrained in a chute that limits physical
movement of the animal.
 Once restrained, the animal is stunned to ensure a humane end with no pain.
 Stunning also results in decreased stress of the animal and superior meat quality.
 The three most common methods of stunning are
o Mechanical
o electrical,
o Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.
 The end result of each method is to render the animal unconscious.
 Mechanical stunning involves firing a bolt through the skull of the animal using
a pneumatic device or pistol.
 Electrical stunning passes a current of electricity through the brain of the animal.
 CO2 stunning exposes the animal to a mixture of CO2 gas, which acts as an anesthetic.
III. Slaughtering
 After stunning, animals are usually suspended by a hind limb and moved down a
conveyor line for the slaughter procedures.
 They are typically bled (a process called sticking or exsanguination) by the insertion of a
knife into the thoracic cavity and severance of the carotid artery and jugular vein. This
method allows for maximal blood removal from the body. At this point in the process, the
slaughtering procedures begin to differ by species.

Post-Mortem Changes of meat.

 The post-mortem changes that take place when muscle is converted into meat have a
marked effect on the quality of the meat.
 After slaughter the glycogen in the muscle is converted into lactic acid causing a fall in
pH from an initial value of pH 6.8 - 7.3 to about 5.4 - 5.8 at rigor mortis.
 If animals are stressed immediately prior to slaughter as when they are roughly handled
or fight one another the muscle glycogen is released into the blood stream and, after
slaughter, is rapidly broken down to lactic acid while the carcass is still warm. This high
level of acidity causes a partial breakdown of muscle structure which results in pale, soft
and exudative meat (termed PSE) - a condition mostly occurring in pigs. The meat losses
some of its water-binding capacity which is so important in certain types of meat
processing.
 Long-term stress before slaughter or starvation uses up the glycogen so that less lactic
acid is formed after slaughter resulting in an abnormal muscle condition in which it
remains dark purplish-red on exposure to air instead of a bright red colour. This is termed
 dark, firm and dry (DFD) in the case of pigs and "dark cutting" in beef. The condition is
rarer in lambs. Such meat and products made with it have a pH above 6.0 and spoil
quickly since the low acidity flavours rapid bacterial growth.
 PSE and DFD meat are perfectly safe to eat but limited in their processing capacity. PSE
meat has higher drip and cooking losses due to the reduced water-binding capacity
(WBC). As well as the pale colour the meat has less flavour than usual.
 DFD meat has normal or increased WBC and so is suitable for scalded/boiled sausages
and other cooked products but it has poor meat flavour. While there is no remedy for
these defects in the meat, DFD and PSE meats can be blended with normal meat for the
preparation of products of good quality.
 After slaughter as the glycogen in the tissues is exhausted rigor mortis sets in and the
whole carcass become stiff. This is due to the contraction of the muscle fibres when the
actin filaments of the muscle fibres slide inwards between the myosin filaments so
shortening the myofibrils.
 If the meat is cooked when the muscles are still in rigor it is extremely tough. This
condition is prevented by "aging" or "ripening" after slaughter which is achieved by
storing the meat until the muscles gradually recover their extensibility and become more
tender through partial enzymatic breakdown of the muscles fibres. At this stage rigor
mortis is said to be resolved.
 Rigor is completed in cattle after 12-24 hours and is resolved by periods that depend on
the temperature:- 10-13 days at 0°C, 4-5 days at 10°C, 30-40 hours at 20°C and 10-11
hours at 30°C The process is twice as fast in pork as beef or lamb: it is faster in young
animals and slower in "red muscles. that function slowly and continuously in the living
animal. "Aging" also leads to improvement of flavour.
 Obviously if meat has to be sold within a few hours of slaughter it is still in pre-rigor or
rigor, and the tough meat has to be cooked longer with some loss of nutrients.
 If lamb, and to a lesser extent beef, are chilled too rapidly after slaughter the muscles may
undergo extreme contraction or "cold shortening" which results in very tough meat when
cooked. Pork is almost unaffected in this way. Cold shortening does not take place when
the carcass is cooled more slowly - the temperature must not fall below 10°C before the
onset of the rigor. To achieve this the carcass is kept at ambient temperature for some
hours to accelerate rigor and then rapidly chilled or frozen - a process called
"conditioning".
 Old animals, especially old draught animals, have a high content of tough connective
tissue in the muscle and prolonged cooking at a low temperature is needed to soften the
meat by hydrolysis of the connective tissue - a fact not always known to consumers.

Production of meat products.

1. Meat loaf
Step 1: Tools & Ingredients
 Tools:
large mixing bowl
small fry pan
heatproof spatula
knife & cutting board
8x11 inch baking dish
oven

Ingredients:
small handful garlic (~10 cloves or to taste), finely minced
5 large white mushroom caps, stems removed, minced
1 1/2 onions, finely minced
1/2 onion, finely minced
3 Tablespoons cranberry dijon mustard (or regular dijon; this is just what I had)
1/2 cup ketchup
3 Tablespoons mayonnise
1/2 cup grated hard cheese (parmesan, dry jack, aged gouda, etc)
3 Tablespoons cream cheese
1 1/2 teaspoon ancho chili powder
1 1/2 teaspoon smoked paprika
5 cloves garlic, grated on a microplane
1/2 teaspoon oregano
1/2 teaspoon thyme
1/3 cup dried breadcrumbs (I'm trying to use minimal breadcrumbs, but they help keep the loaf
shape; you do need some)
1 Tablespoon Worchestershire sauce
3 eggs
2 pounds ground beef (~85% fat)
1 pound ground pork or mild pork sausage meat
Step 2: Chop & Cook Aromatics
- Chop garlic and mushrooms.
- Sweat the garlic in a bit of butter or lard over medium heat, with a pinch of salt.
- When garlic is soft, add the mushrooms and cook until soft.
- dump into big mixing bowl.

- mince onion
- add a bit more butter/lard to the fry pan, and dump in onion
- add a pinch of salt, and cook until onions are soft
- dump into big mixing bowl

Step 3: Add Other Seasonings

Add everything but the meat & stir together ti mix thoroughly.

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Step 4: Add Meat & Mix

Add the meat, and combine evenly.

Get in there and use your hands! No, really: there's no other way to properly incorporate ground
meat and seasonings adequately. Even a stand mixer is likely to leave unmixed pockets, and will
turn the meat mixture a bit gummy.

Squish everything together, flip it over, and squeeze some more. You really want this slop to be
totally and thoroughly mixed.

Step 5: Form a Loaf

Dump the meat mixture into a pan, and hand-form into a long, flat loaf. The thickness (height)
will determine cooking time, so try not to go more than about 3" tall.

At this point you can cover the meatloaf and store it in the fridge overnight like I've done here.

Step 6: Bake
Bake at 375F for about an hour, until the top just starts to turn crispy brown and the internal
temperature reaches 145F.

Rotate as necessary to assure even cooking (ovens vary), likely once at the 30-45 minute mark.

As soon as you remove the meatloaf from the oven, baste with the nice greasy pan juices to keep
it super-moist.

Some people like to add a light coating of ketchup or barbecue sauce over the top of the meatloaf
in the last 10 minutes; I prefer to put all the flavor inside the meatloaf. But don't let my
prejudices stop you from tweaking this recipe to fit your tastes.

Step 7: Serve
Let the meatloaf sit for about 10 minutes, or until it's cooled enough to slice nicely and serve. It
goes well with most any vegetable side dish, including a big green salad for super-easy dinners.

If you don't eat it all, refrigerate the rest for some of the best leftovers ever. Cold meatloaf slices
beautifully; just be sure to scoop some sauce over the cold slices before you stick it in the
microwave to keep things moist. Chunk off a bit of the coagulated fat and stick it on top as well
- that's what makes things taste good.

CHAPTER SIX
FATS AND OILS TECHNOLOGY.
 Fats are composed of high amounts of saturated fatty acids which will take a solid
form at room temperature
 Oils are composed of mainly unsaturated fatty acids which will take a liquid form at
room temperature.
SOURCES OF FATS AND OILS
Fats and oil may be of vegetable, animal and marine origin.
1. Vegetable fats
 Include the solid fat cocoa batter and the oils such as corn oil, sun flower oil, soybean oil,
cotton soil, peanut oil, olive oil, canola oil, pumpkin seed oil, safflower oil, grape seed
oil, sesame oil bran oil, argan oil, palm oil, linseed oil, coconut oil.
 Typically common vegetable oils including soybean. Sunflower, safflower, mustard,
olive, rice bran, sesame are low in saturated fats. While palm oil, palm kernel oil, coconut
oil, tallow and butter fat are high in saturated fats
2. Animal fats
 Include lard tallow and butterfat
3. Fish oils include cod liver oil, whale oil and salmon oil.
2. Animal fats
I. Butterfat:
 This is usually obtained from cow's milk.
 It is a mixture of butterfat, water and salt.
 Butter list is an important source of vitamin A and to be lesser extent of vitamin
D.
 It comprised of 29-32% monounsaturated, 2-4% polyunsaturated and (12-32%)
saturated fatty acids
 Its distinct flavor and yellow color are important factors in its popularity.
 It is used as a table spread has decreased while increasing the use of margarine
because of lower price, improves and uniform quality and health Factors.
 Butterfat is a part of many other dairy products such as milk, cheese, ice cream,
coffee cream and whipping cream.
II. Lard
  Lard is a fat rendered from the fatty tissues of pig
 Lard is composed of 46.2% saturated fatty acids. 45.2% monounsaturated fatty acids.
11.0% polyunsaturated fatty acids.
III. Tallow:
 Edible tallow is obtained primarily from beef cattle.
 At room temperature, it is harder and firmer than lard.
 Tallow comprises of 54.9% saturated fully acids. 40.9% unsaturated fatty acids. 4.2%
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
4. Fish oils
 Fish oils can be obtained li'on1 the bodies or livers of several fish including cod fish.
Whale, salmon. etc.
 Fatty acid composition varies not only from species to species, hut often to an even
greater extent from one fish to another of the same species.
Cod liver oil: This is derived from liver of cod fish. As with most fish oils, it has high levels of
the omega-3 fatty acids. Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA). Cod
liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D.
Vegetable oils
Soybean oil: This is obtained from the seed of the soybean plant. It is the oil produced in largest
quantity. It is the dominant edible oil in the United States. It is composed of 61%
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 25% monounsaturated fatty acid and 15% saturated linty acids [5].
The essential fatty acids linolenic and α-linolenic acids account for 89 and 11% of the total
essential fatty acids from this source. Skip to main content
PREPARATION OF OIL SEED FOR OIL EXTRACTION
Various steps are involved in preparation of seed for oil extraction. These are;
1. drying
2. sorting
3. grading
4. cleaning
Extraction of fats and oil
 Oil extraction by traditional methods often requires various preliminary operations, such
as cracking, shelling, dehulling, etc., after which the crop is ground to a paste. The paste,
or the whole fruit, is then boiled with water and stirred until the oil separates and can be
collected. Such traditional methods have a low rate of efficiency, particularly when
performed manually. Oil extracted by pressing without heating is the purest method and
often produces an edible product without refining.
 Modern methods of oil recovery include crushing and pressing, as well as dissolving the
crop in a solvent, most commonly hexane. Extracting oil with a solvent is a more
efficient method than pressing. The residue left after the removal of oil (oilcake or meal)
is used as feedstuff.
 EXTRACTION OF OIL USING VARIOUS METHODS
 extraction of oil using solvent extraction method
Solvent extraction is a chemical oil extraction method to process oil out from vegetables,
oilseeds and nuts by solvent, and Hexane is the preferred choice.
Solvent Extraction Process
Solvent extraction is achieved through the grinding of seed. The ground seed or cake is then
purged or washed with a petroleum distillate (the most common chemical used is hexane) which
releases the oil in the seed. The solvent is then “flashed off” by heating the oil in a sealed
chamber. The oil/solvent blend is next heated to 212º F (100º C) to distill off the solvent.

 Preparation of seeds for extraction which includes pre-pressing for high oil content
seeds.
 Extraction of oil from the prepared material with the aid of food grade solvent.
 Desolventising-toasting of the de-oiled seed /meal- often combined with drying and
cooling of the said meal.
 Distillation, to remove the solvent from the extracted oil.
 Recovery of solvent, which is reused again and again at extractor level.

The extraction system can be generally put into two categories, one is direct solvent
extraction, and the other is a pre-press system followed by solvent extraction.
  In general, a pre-press system followed by solvent extraction may be an option
when the oilseed contains more than about 23% oil.
 This combination combines the best of each system: the pressing operation
removes the higher percentages of oil which are by far the easiest to squeeze out
of the solids, and the solvent extraction process is best at removing oil from about
20% down to near 0.5%.
 It is worth noting that a plant to process rapeseed with prepressing followed by
extraction will often reduce the oil content from about 40% to 20% in the presses
and from 20% to 0.8% in extraction, and that (after adjustments for moisture
changes during the process) the press oil produced may be roughly 25.8% of the
raw seed, while the extraction oil may be about 13.7% of the raw seed. Most of
the oil will be press oil.

MECHANICAL METHOD OF OIL EXTRACTION

 Mechanical extraction of the oil is accomplished by exerting sufficient force on
confined seed.
 Under this condition pressure is high enough to rupture the cells and force oil from the
seed to “escape.”
 Extraction is accomplished by compressing the material in a container that has small
perforations, either round or slotted, that allow the liquid component to leave. This
operation may be done in either a batch process or a continuous process.
Batch Process vs. Continuous Process
 A batch process involves extracting the oil from one batch of seeds completely, before
cleaning out the container and starting over.
 In this operation, the seeds are placed into a container with a moveable surface, most
often the top.
 Then hydraulic pressure is applied to this moveable surface, which compresses the
material, forcing the liquid component of the material to escape, usually through a
perforated section in the bottom.
 In some cases, screw pressure was used instead of hydraulic pressure, as this was
inexpensive and could be worked by people or animals.
 An advantage of a batch operation is that after maximum pressure is reached, it can be
maintained for a short period of time, permitting the last bit of oil to flow through the
medium and out the escape perforations.
 The disadvantage is that the container has to be completely cleaned out before the
process can be started again.
 With a continuous process, the seeds are continuously fed into the machine. As long as
the machine is on, it continues to press oil out of the seeds.

EXTRACTION OF FAT BY RENDERING METHOD

 The rendering process is applied on a large scale to the production of animal fats
such as tallow, lard, bone fat, and whale oil.
 It consists of cutting or chopping the fatty tissue into small pieces that are boiled
in open vats or cooked in steam digesters.
 The fat, gradually liberated from the cells, floats to the surface of the water,
where it is collected by skimming. The membranous matter (greaves) is separated
from the aqueous (gluey) phase by pressing in hydraulic or screw presses;
additional fat is thereby obtained.
TYPES OF RENDERING
(a) Open kettle rendering
This is the oldest technique, involves the heating in open pans of water over the fire.
Melted fat rises while the water and the remaining tissues settle below. Melted fat is then
separated by skimming centrifugal or decanting.

(b) Wet rendering

 This is the simplest and oldest method, which involves cooking the tissues in water.
Using steam under pressure (temperature up to 140 ° C), for 2–3 h, the denatured protein
and other substances settle at the bottom with the fat floating to the top.
The selected finely chopped meat tissues is charged cylinders (vertical) with conical
bases to assist in drawing off H2O after settling steam is blown through the cylinders for
several at pressures of 3.5 – 5 kg /cm2/ 50-70 16/m2.

Excess pressure is vented through a pressure valco

After allowing settlement the floating fat .exhausted animal matter (tankage)
(c) Dry rendering
This is the most modern technique and involves cooking the tissues in their own fat at
about 115–120°C in steam-jacketed vessels that are agitated. No water or steam is added
in this process (hence it is called dry rendering). The cooking time can vary between 2
and 4 h.
The cooked material is then placed on a screen to drain off the free fat by pressing the
high-protein solids, separating the remaining 6–10% residual fat. The accumulated fats
are then centrifuged or filtered.
 Cooking meat tissues to remove moisture under vacuum. Done in large steam heated
tanks under vacuum.
 During heating process, the chopped animal tissue is churned using blades/ agitators
(metal).
 The fat cells rapture allowing molten fat to drain off from the bottom of the tanks.
Animal fat remaining in residue is removed by pressing or solvent extraction.
 This method is cheaper than wet rendering but produces an inferior product and
redistricted to the extraction of non- edible fats.

Refining of fats and oils

The Refining Process

 Refining of crude oil is done to remove unwanted minor components that make oils
unappealing to consumers, while trying to cause the least possible damage to the neutral
oil as well as minimum refining loss.
 The components to be removed are all those glyceridic and nonglyceridic compounds that
are detrimental to the flavour, colour, stability or safety of the refined oils.
  They are primarily phosphoacylglycerols, free fatty acids, pigments, volatiles and
contaminants.
 On the other hand, not all the minor compounds in fats and oils are undesirable. For
example, phytosterols are considered of nutritional interest, and tocopherols with vitamin
E activity, protecting the oil against oxidation are highly appreciated.
 Consequently, to reach the maximum oil quality all the steps of the refining process
should be carried out with the minimum losses of desirable compounds.
 The major steps involved and the main components removed are shown in Table 1.
 As can be observed, alkali (or chemical) and physical refining are the standard processes
used.
 The main difference between the processes is that alkali refining procedure includes
caustic soda treatment to neutralise the oil while, following physical refining, free fatty
acid are eliminated by distillation during deodorization.
 Physical refining reduces the loss of neutral oil, minimises pollution and enables recovery
of high-quality free fatty acids. Nevertheless, not all oils can be physically refined.

Table 1. Basic steps of the refining process

Alkali or chemical Main groups of compounds
refining removed Physical Refining
Degumming Phospholipids Degumming
Neutralization Free fatty acids -
Bleaching Pigments/metals/soaps Bleaching
Winterization Waxes/saturated triacylglycerols Winterization
Deodorization/
Deodorization Volatiles/free fatty acids deacidification

1. Degumming
 The purpose of degumming is to remove phospholipids or gums from the crude oil.
 Two types of phospholipids are present in crude oils according to their level of
hydration, i.e. hydratable and nonhydratable ones, the latter mainly present as calcium
and/or magnesium salts of phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylethanolamine.
 After addition of water (1-3%), most of the phospholipids are hydrated and are insoluble
in the oil. The hydrated compounds can be efficiently separated by filtration or
centrifugation.
 For the elimination of the nonhydratable fraction, the oil is usually treated with
phosphoric acid (0.05 to 1%), which chelates the Ca and Mg converting the phosphatides
into the hydratable forms (the acid treatment has the additional function of chelating trace
prooxidant metals).
 Due to the variable content of phospholipids in crude oils, analysis of phosphorus prior
to acid treatment is necessary to ensure that the acid dosage is correct, especially when
the content of Ca and Mg salts is high.
 Depending on the oil composition, the degumming step can be eliminated as the
phosphatides are also removed along with the soaps during the next step of neutralization.
However, degumming is mandatory for physical refining and the content of phosphorus
after degumming should be lower than 10 mg/kg
2. Neutralization
  In this step, the oil is treated with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and free fatty acids are
converted into insoluble soaps, which can be easily separated by centrifugation.
 Thus, the main objective of this step is the removal of free fatty acids, although, as
commented above, residual phospholipids in degummed oils or all the phospholipids in
the crude oils are also removed as insoluble hydrates.
 Also, caustic neutralization improves significantly the oil colour partly by reacting with
polar compounds (gossypol, sesamol, sterols, hydroxy fatty acids, etc) and partly by
solubilization.
 Alkali refining of oil is compulsory in crude oils of high acidity and pigment contents.
 The free fatty acid content of the oil is the main factor that determines the amount and
concentration of the caustic soda and also its excess (5 to 20%) for a minimum oil loss.
 After a reaction time of around 30 minutes at slow stirring and temperature around 80ºC,
the water phase is eliminated by centrifugation and the oil washed with water to remove
the remaining soap.
3. Bleaching
 In this step, which is common to both physical and alkali refining, the hot oil (around
100ºC) is slurried with acid-activated bleaching earth (1-2%), normally calcium
montmorillonite or natural hydrated aluminium silicate (bentonite).
 Under these conditions adsorption of colour bodies, trace metals and oxidation products
as well as residual soaps and phospholipids remaining after washing neutralized oils takes
place.
 For optimum adsorption of both colour bodies and oxidation products to be achieved, the
reaction time has to exceed 15 minutes and no more than 30 minutes at usual bleaching
temperatures.
 The removal of chlorophyllic pigments is very important since they are not eliminated in
any other stage of refining, as carotenoid compounds are in deodorization.
 On the other hand, final filtration must eliminate completely the activated earths as
residual traces act as prooxidants during oil storage because of their iron content.
 Acid-activated clays are the major adsorbent used, although active carbons and synthetic
silicas are also applied industrially with more specific goals. Thus, active carbons are
used specifically to eliminate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from some oils,
especially fish oils and pomace oils [7], while synthetic silicas are quite efficient in
adsorbing secondary oxidation products, phospholipids and soaps.

This is a critical step to obtain high-quality oils, because two types of adsorption occur between
the compounds to be adsorbed and the absorbent: on one hand, reversible physical adsorption
based on intermolecular forces of low strength and, on the other hand, irreversible chemisorption
with a strong interaction, which causes chemical reactions.

Chemical changes taking place at this stage have been well studied in olive oil, because of the
need to control the presence of refined oils in virgin oils [8]. The two main reactions found
extensively in all the vegetable oils are the following:

 Decomposition of hydroperoxides. Previous steps do not modify the peroxide value and it
may even increase if air is available in the earlier stages. However, during bleaching,
hydroperoxides decompose to form volatiles and oxidized triacylglycerols containing keto
 and hydroxy functions. After bleaching, peroxide value should be zero or close to zero, but
the presence of aldehydes and ketones is clearly detected by the significant increase in the
anisidine value.
 Dehydration of alcohols. Hydroxy acids formed from hydroperoxides undergo a partial
dehydration by earth catalysis. As the function is at an allylic position, a rapid increase in
UV absorption at 232 nm is observed because of the formation of conjugated dienes from
oleic acid hydroperoxides and in UV absorption at 268 nm due to formation of conjugated
trienes from linoleic acid hydroperoxides. Also, sterols undergo significant dehydration and
the formation of the hydrocarbon 3,5-stigmastadiene from the major sterol (β-sitosterol) is
considered a proof of the presence of refined oil in virgin olive oil [9].
4. Winterization
 This step, also called dewaxing, is only applied when the oil is not clear at room
temperature because of the presence of waxes or saturated triacylglycerols.
 It is important to note that these compounds do not affect negatively the oil performance
or functionality, but the appearance of the oil is not acceptable to consumers.
 Thus, the objective of this step is the removal of high temperature melting components
present in small quantities.
 The crystallization process normally used consists of cooling the oil down gradually to
temperatures of 5 to 8ºC in a maturing tank.
 After increasing the crystal size at this temperature for 24 to 48 h, the solids are
separated by centrifugation at 15-16ºC. This treatment ensures excellent clarity of oils
when stored at either room or refrigeration temperatures.
5. Deodorization/deacidification
 Deodorization of fats and oils normally consists of steam distillation at elevated
temperature under reduced pressure, although nitrogen has also been used.
 The purpose of this step is to remove volatile compounds (mainly ketones and aldehydes)
contributing to oil taste and odour, total free fatty acids in physical refining and the
residual free fatty acids from neutralized bleached oils.
 The deodorization conditions also contribute to the removal of contaminants (light PAH,
pesticides, etc.) and to the reduction of colour of the oil due to the breakdown of the
remaining carotenes at high temperature. The efficiency of deodorization is a function of
pressure (1 to 5 torr), temperature (200 to 260ºC), residence time (0.5 to 3 h) and volume
of stripping gas (1 to 3%). However, differences in the deodorization equipment used
also have a major impact on efficiency. After the deodorization, the oil is cooled and
addition of citric acid (100 mg/kg of 20% citric acid) is recommended to chelate metal
traces and increase its stability during storage.

Apart from the physical changes, chemical reactions taking place in the triacylglycerols due to
the drastic conditions of this step have been studied in detail and are summarized as follows:

 Decomposition of oxidation compounds. Even if hydroperoxides were destroyed during

bleaching, some new primary and secondary oxidation products formed decompose during
heat treatment to form volatile and nonvolatile compounds.
 Dimerization of triacylglycerols. Acyclic dimers of triacylglycerols, i.e. nonpolar dimers
(C–C bridges) as well as oxygenated dimers (C–O–C), are detected in significant amounts,
 which may involve the formation of alkyl and alkoxyl radicals at high temperature even in
the absence of oxygen [10].
 Geometrical and positional isomers induced by heat are also formed in this step. Thus,
more trans isomers and also more dienoic conjugation are found [11]. However, in oils
containing linolenic acid, a decrease in the trienoic conjugation is observed, which is
attributed to the formation of cyclic fatty acids and the concurrent elimination of double
bonds.
 Finally, an interesterification reaction is detected in vegetable oils deodorized at
temperatures above 240ºC by an increase in saturated fatty acids in the 2-position of the
triacylglycerols [11].
The importance of these reactions is higher, as expected, as the temperature and the
deodorization time increases [12], being dramatic in highly unsaturated oils [13]. It is also
remarkable that hydrolytic reactions have not been observed as the content of diacylglycerols
remains unchanged, not only in this step but throughout the complete process [14].

Finally, it is important to take into account that long deodorization times and/or too high
temperatures can have a devastating effect on the quality of the oil due not only to the chemical
changes commented above but also to the distillation of a significant part of the natural
tocopherols (20 to 40%), which would decrease the stability of the refined oil [15]. In this
respect, the by-product obtained from the deodorization, i.e. deodorizer distillate, contains
significant amounts of compounds of high-added value like tocopherols, sterols and
hydrocarbons, and a great effort is being made for their recovery [16].

MODIFICATION OF OIL

 All oil modification processes involve a substantial change of the physical behaviours
and structural properties of an oil.
 There are three main modification technologies available in the edible oils industry at
present:
a) Hydrogenation,
b) interesterification
c) Fractionation.

1. hydrogenation
 In the presence of a catalyst (usually nickel) the double bonds in a liquid oil can react
with hydrogen in two ways.
 Either a hydrogen molecule can react with the carbon atoms in an unsaturated bond to
convert it into a saturated single bond.
 This has a higher melting point and so a liquid oil can be converted into a solid fat.
 The other way it can react is to convert the cis double bond into a trans double bonds.
 As trans fatty acids are higher melting than the corresponding cis unsaturated acids the
liquid oil is again converted into a higher melting fat.
 Apart from the natural occurrence of low levels of trans fatty acids in some milk and
meat fats, trans fatty acids are only produced by the industrial process of hydrogenation
(or by gross thermal mistreatment of oils).
 Hydrogenation, therefore, converts liquid oils into potentially more functional solid fats
and changes the fatty acid composition of the starting mix of oils significantly.

2. Fractionation
 is another modification process in which harder, higher melting fats can be
produced
 In this case a fat is held at a temperature at which it is partially liquid and
partially solid.
 The solid crystals are separated by filtration to give a solid stearin fraction which
is higher melting than the starting oil and a liquid olein fraction which is lower
melting than the starting oil.
 Generally, only fats that melt over a wide temperature range are suitable for
fractionation.
 The most commonly fractionated fats are palm oil, palm kernel oil, butterfat and
shea butter, although coconut oil and cocoa butter are also occasionally
fractionated.
 In most cases, the oil is fractionated once to give the two fractions mentioned –
stearin and olein. Palm oil, though, can be fractionated twice to give three
fractions – a very high melting (>50°C) stearin or top-fraction, a middle melting
(about 34°C) fraction and a low-melting, liquid at room temperature, olein
fraction
 Oils are normally fractionated in one of two ways (
 ‘Dry’ fractionation involves simply holding the oil at the required temperature to
obtain both solid and liquid fractions.
 ‘Wet’ fractionation uses a solvent, usually acetone, to dissolve the whole of the
fat. This solution is then chilled to the point that the stearin fraction crystallises
out. The benefits of dry fractionation are that it is cheaper, has no requirements
for flameproof processing and gives a very good quality olein. Wet fractionation,
on the other hand, is used where the quality of the stearin or, in the case of palm
oil, the mid-fraction is of paramount importance. It does, though, require a
flameproof plant and good solvent recovery processing, which makes it a
significantly more expensive process.
3. Interesterification
 . In this an oil or a blend of oils is held at an elevated temperature in the
presence of either a chemical catalyst or, more commonly these days, an
enzyme catalyst.
 Under these conditions, the ester linkages between the glycerol backbone of a
triacylglycerol and the fatty acids that are present break and then re-form.
 During this, the fatty acid groups can move around in the reaction mix so that
they do not necessarily re-form the linkage in the place where it was broken.
 Hence a randomisation of the positions of the fatty acids on the triacylglycerol
molecules occurs.
  As melting and crystallization functionalities of fats are dependent on fatty
acid position as well as on fatty acid type, the physical characteristics of the
end fat are completely different - but predictably so - from that of the starting
blend.
 Interesterification does not alter the overall fatty acid composition, only the
positions of the fatty acids on the glycerol backbone.
 In a further modification of the interesterification process, some enzyme
catalysts have the ability to break only the linkages between the glycerol
backbone of the triacylglycerol and those fatty acids in the outside 1- and 3-
positions, leaving any fatty acids esterified in the central 2-position alone.
This enables so-called structured triacylglycerols to be produced for specific
properties and functionalities
Production of fats and oil products.
Steps Salad Dressing
Dressing is one simple way to transform seemingly monotonous vegetables into enticing side
dishes that pleasantly enhance the rest of your meal. Making salad dressings at home can allow
for even more customization in your salad or vegetable dish flavor variety. Heck, you could
customize a new salad dressing for each night of the week! Not to worry however, the same
homemade dressing can last all week in your fridge for multiple meals if making just one is
enough creativity for your week.

Step One: Vinegar and Oil

For the simplest version of homemade dressing, all you need is:

1-3 parts oil: Try grapeseed, avocado oil, almond oil, or olive oil. The darker or more coloured
oils usually have more pungent or robust flavor versus more transparent, mild oils.
1 part vinegar or acid: Choose your favourite, or look at what you have in the pantry. E.g. red or
white wine vinegar, rice wine vinegar, balsamic, rice wine vinegar, lemon juice, lime juice,
grapefruit, orange juice, etc.
Salt to taste (or no salt –this is up to your taste preference).
You may need to add more oil or more vinegar depending on how mild or tangy you prefer your
dressing. Vigorously shake everything together in a sealed mason jar or whisk together in a small
bowl.

Step Two: Add an Emulsifier

If you find it frustrating that your simple oil and vinegar dressing keeps separating, try adding an
emulsifier. Emulsification is when the oil molecules evenly disperse themselves with the vinegar
molecules and are held there evenly dispersed by an emulsifying agent, such as Dijon mustard or
powdered mustard.

Tip: Grainy Dijon mustard adds both flavor texture and turns the mixture into a thicker, more
luxurious dressing where all ingredients are more evenly dispersed in each drizzle.
 Step 3: Add Sweetness
Like adding more oil, adding in a touch of sweetness also helps to balance out the acidity of the
dressing. If you prefer less oil in your salad dressing, try adding in a teaspoon of honey, maple
syrup, or brown sugar to the mix. This will mellow out the tangy vinegar or citrus without having
to add in more oil.

Tip: Molasses gives a deep rich subtle sweetness to your homemade dressing.

Step 4: Add Shallot and Garlic

Finely chop or mince fresh garlic or shallot and add a tablespoon or so into your dressing. Add
one or both! These ingredients inject more aromatic flavor to your dressing. Be careful not to add
too much for these fresh ingredients—a little goes a long way.

Step 5: Add Herbs and Spices

To customize your dressing further, add in freshly chopped or dried herbs and ground spices to
compliment other flavours planned in your meal. For dried herbs, start with ½ tsp. and add more
to taste (dried oregano, parsley, rosemary, thyme). For fresh chopped herbs, start with 1 tbsp. and
add more to taste (fresh cilantro, basil, dill, mint).

Add small amounts of ground spices to taste: red pepper flakes, ground cumin, ground coriander,
curry powder, paprika, etc
Mayonnaise Recipe
Ingredients

 3 large egg yolks, at room temperature

1 teaspoon freshly squeezed lemon juice, plus more to taste

¼ teaspoon salt, plus more to taste

¼ teaspoon dijon mustard (optional)


 1½ cups oil, either avocado oil or a combination of neutral vegetable oil and extra-virgin olive
oil

1. Warm a 3-quart glass or stainless steel bowl, or the bowl of a stand mixer fitted with the
whisk attachment, in hot water and thoroughly dry with a clean kitchen towel. If mixing by
hand, stabilize the bowl by wrapping a kitchen towel around the bottom or nestling it in a pot
or baking dish; if using a stand mixer, secure your bowl into the appliance.
2. Add the egg yolks and lightly whisk until combined and just thickened. Then add the lemon
juice and salt (and mustard, if using) and whisk until incorporated. Add the oil, no more than
a teaspoonful at a time, while whisking continuously. Pause every once in a while and just
whisk, to make sure the oil is fully incorporating. After you’ve added ⅓ to ½ cup oil, the
sauce should look opaque. It’s emulsified—congratulations!
3. Once the sauce has emulsified, continue to add oil, in a slow dribble—no more than a
tablespoon at a time. If the mayonnaise becomes too stiff, add a little lemon juice or water to
thin out. Season to taste with lemon juice, salt, and mustard.

MARGARINE PRODUCTION
Introduction

4. Margarine is an emulsion of edible oils and fats with water. Physical properties of
margarine are similar to butter. It shall be free from mineral oil and animal body fats. It
may contain common salt not exceeding 2.0 per cent, permitted emulsifying and
stabilizing agents, BHA or TBHQ upto a maximum limit of 0.02 per cent.
5.
33.2 Definition of Margarine

6. According to FSSR-2011, margarine is classified as Table margarine and Industrial

margarine. Table margarine means an emulsion of edible oils and fats with water. It shall
be free from rancidity, mineral oil and animal body fats. It may contain common salt not
exceeding 2.5%, skimmed milk powder not exceeding 2%. It shall conform to the
following specifications, give below in table.