LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY

“For Nation’s Greater Heights”

MODULE 2

The Language of Sets

1. Title: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

2. Topic: The Language of Sets

3. Time Frame: 5 hrs.

4. Introduction

A set in mathematics is a collection of well-defined and distinct objects, considered as an

object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed
at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be
used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. describe sets using the set-roster and set-builder notations;
2. perform the operations involving sets; and
3. solve basic word problems involving sets.

6. Learning Activities

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Georg Cantor, the founder of set theory,
gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beiträge zur Begründung der
transfiniten Mengenlehre:

A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception
and of our thought – which are called elements of the set.

The elements or members of a set can be anything: numbers, people, letters of

the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted with capital
letters. The objects of a set are also separated by commas.

Describing sets

There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set:
1. Rule Method or Semantic Description – presents the elements by stating their
common properties. It is also useful when describing infinite sets. This is otherwise
referred as the set-builder notation.

Illustration:
Set A is the set of counting numbers greater than 8.

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Set Notation: A = 𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 8} where N is the set of counting
numbers. It is read as “The set of all x such that x is a counting number and greater
than 8.”

2. Roster/Listing Method – listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is

denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:

Illustration:
Set A is the set of counting numbers less than 8.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Every element of a set must be unique; no two members may be identical. The order
in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant. For instance,

the set {6, 11} can also be written as {11, 6}.

For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For
instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified as:

{1, 2, 3, …, 1000}

where the ellipsis ("...") indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses may also
be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus, the set of positive even numbers
can be written as

{2, 4, 6, 8, ... }.

The notation with braces may also be used in an intentional specification of a set. In this
usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all ...".

A more general form of this is set-builder notation, through which, for instance, the set F of
the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect squares can be denoted:

F = {n2 – 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19}.

In this notation, the colon (":") means "such that", and the description can be interpreted as "F
is the set of all numbers of the form n2 − 4, such that n is a whole number in the range
from 0 to 19 inclusive." Sometimes the vertical bar ("|") is used instead of the colon.

Example 1: Using Set-Roster Notation

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, b = {3, 1, 2} and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements of A, B
and C? How A, B and C are related?
2. Is {0} = 0?
3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
4. For each nonnegative integer n, let 𝑈𝑛 = {𝑛, −𝑛}. Find 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , and 𝑈0 .

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“For Nation’s Greater Heights”

Solution
1. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore, A , B, and
C are simply different ways to represent the same set.
2. {𝟎} ≠ 𝟎 because {0} is a set with one element, namely, 0, whereas 0 is just the symbol
that represents the number zero.
3. The set {1, {1} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1.
4. 𝑈1 = {1, −1}, 𝑈2 = {2, −2}, 𝑈0 = {0, −0} = {0, 0} = {0}

Example 2: Using Set-Builder Notation

Given that 𝑹 denotes the set of all real numbers, 𝑍 the set of all integers, and 𝑍 + the set of all
positive integers, describe each of the following sets:
1. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}
2. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}
3. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 + | − 2 < 𝑥 < 5}
Solution
1. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} is the open interval of real numbers (strictly) between -2 and 5,
denoted by (-2, 5).
2. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍| − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
3. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 + | − 2 < 𝑥 < 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Membership
The key relation between sets is membership – when one set is an element of another.
If a is a member of B, this is denoted a ∈ B, while if c is not a member of B then c ∉ B.

For example, with respect to the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {blue, white, red}, and F = {n2
− 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤19}, we say, that

4 ∈ A and 285 ∈ F; but 9 ∉ F and green ∉ B.

Equal and Equivalent Sets

Set A is equal to set B, denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B have exactly

the same elements.

Example: A = {m, a, t, h}
B = {t, a, h, m}

Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ B, if and only if A and B have the

same numbers of elements. The cardinality of the two sets is the same.

Example: A = {l, o, v, e}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4}

The sets C = {a, b, c} and D = {4, 5, 6} are equivalent sets. Also, {2} ~ {Ø}.
Equal sets are equivalent, but not vice versa.

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Subsets
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B,
written A ⊆ B (also pronounced A is contained in B).

Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes A, or B

contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called inclusion or containment.

If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of B, written A
⊊ B (A is a proper subset of B) or B ⊋ A (B is a proper superset of A).

Note that the expressions A ⊂ B and B ⊃ A are used differently by different authors;
some authors use them to mean the same as A ⊆ B (respectively B ⊇ A), whereas other use
them to mean the same as A ⊊ B (respectively B ⊋ A).

Illustration:
1. The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
2. {1, 3} ⊊ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
3. {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
∅ ⊆ A.
A ⊆ A.

An obvious but useful identity, which can often be used to show that two seemingly
different sets are equal:
A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that every element x in S

is in exactly one of these subsets.

Example 3: Subsets

Let 𝐴 = 𝑍 + , 𝐵 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍|0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100} and 𝐶 = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}. Evaluate the truth
and falsity of each of the following statements.
1. 𝐵 ⊆ A
2. 𝐶 ⊊ A
3. C and B have at least one element in common
4. 𝐶 ⊆ B
5. 𝐶 ⊆ C

Solution
1. False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus, zero is in B but not in A, and so B is not a
subset of A.
2. True. Each element in C and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in A that are not
in C. For instance, 1 is in A and not in C.
3. True. For example, 100 is in both C and B.
4. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.

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5. True. Every element in C is in C. In general, the definition of subset implies that all sets
are subsets of themselves.

Power sets
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, including S itself and the empty
set. The number of elements in a power set is determined using the formula 2n, where n is
the number of elements in a given set. For example, the number of elements in the power
set of the set S = {1, 2, 3} is: 2𝑛 = 23 = 8 .

That is, the power set of a set S, written as P(S), has 8 elements: {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1,
3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, and ∅. This power set is written as:

P(S) = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅}.

Remarks:
1. The power set of an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set is always uncountable.
2. The power set of a set is always strictly "bigger" than the original set in the sense that
there is no way to pair the elements of a set S with the elements of its power set P(S) such
that every element of S set is paired with exactly one element of P(S), and every element
of P(S) is paired with exactly one element of S.
3. Every partition of a set S is a subset of the power set of S.

Cardinality
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by | S |, is "the number of members of S."

Example: If B = {blue, white, red}, then | B | = 3.

There is a unique set with no members and zero cardinality, which is called the empty
set (or the null set) and is denoted by the symbol ∅ or { }. For example, the set of all three-
sided squares has zero members and thus is the empty set.

Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for instance, is
infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For instance, the set of real
numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers.

Basic operations
There are several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from given sets.

1. Unions. Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and B, denoted
by A ∪ B, is the set of all things which are members of either A or B.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} ∪ {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white}
2. {1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} ={1, 2, red, white, green}
3. {1, 2} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2}

Some basic properties of unions:

1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A

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2. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
3. A ⊆ (A ∪ B)
4. A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = B
5. A∪A=A
6. A∪∅=A

2. Intersections. A new set can also be constructed by determining which

members two sets have "in common". The intersection of A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things which are members of both A and
B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅.
2. {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}
3. {1, 2} ∩ {1, 2} = {1, 2}

Some basic properties of intersections:

1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
3. A ∩ B ⊆ A
4. A ∩ A = A
5. A ∩ ∅ = ∅
6. A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A

3. Complements. Two sets can also be "subtracted". The relative complement

of B in A (also called the set-theoretic difference of A and B), denoted by A \
B (or A − B), is the set of all elements which are members of A but not
members of B.

Note that it is valid to "subtract" members of a set that are not in the set,
such as removing the element green from the set {1, 2, 3}; doing so has no
effect. In certain settings, all sets under discussion are considered to be
subsets of a given universal set U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute
complement or simply complement of A, and is denoted by A′.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2}
2. {1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2}
3. {1, 2} \ {1, 2} = ∅
4. {1, 2, 3, 4} \ {1, 3} = {2, 4}
5. If U is the set of integers, E is the set of even integers, and O is the set of odd integers,
then U \ E = E′ = O.

Some basic properties of complements:

1. A \ B ≠ B \ A for A ≠ B
2. A ∪ A′ = U
3. A ∩ A′ = ∅

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4. (A′)′ = A
5. A\A=∅
6. U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U
7. A \ B = A ∩ B′

An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A, B as:
AB  ( A \ B)  ( B \ A)

For example, the symmetric difference of {7,8,9,10} and {9,10,11,12} is the set {7,8,11,12}.

4. Cartesian product. A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one
set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted
by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of A and b is a
member of B.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} × {red, white} = {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}
2. {1, 2, green} × {red, white, green} = {(1, red), (1, white), (1, green), (2, red), (2,
white), (2, green), (green, red), (green, white), (green, green)}
3. {1, 2} × {1, 2} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.

Some basic properties of cartesian products:

1. A × ∅ = ∅
2. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
3. (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)
4. Let A and B be finite sets. Then | A × B | = | B × A | = | A | × | B

Application
1. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94 had
taken chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken mathematics
and physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22 had
taken chemistry and physics course, and 14 had taken all the three courses. Find how
many had taken one course only.

Solution:

Let M, C, P represent sets of students who had taken mathematics, chemistry and physics
respectively

Step 1 :
Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

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 LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
“For Nation’s Greater Heights”
Step 2 :
From the Venn diagram above, we have
No. of students who had taken only math = 24
No. of students who had taken only chemistry = 60
No. of students who had taken only physics = 22

Step 3 :
Total no. of students who had taken only one course = 24 + 60 + 22 = 106

Hence, the total number of students who had taken only one course is
106.

2. In a group of students, 65 play football, 45 play hide and seek, 42 play chess, 20 play
football and hide and seek, 25 play football and chess, 15 play hide and seek and chess
and 8 play all the three games. Find the total number of students in the group (Assume
that each student in the group plays at least one game).

Solution:

Let F, H and C represent the set of students who play football, hide and seek and chess
respectively.

Step 1 :

Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

Step 2 :

Total number of students in the group :

= 28 + 12 + 18 + 7 + 10 + 17 + 8

= 100

So, the total number of students in the group is 100.

3. In a college, 60 students enrolled in chemistry, 40 in physics, 30 in biology, 15 in chemistry

and physics,10 in physics and biology, 5 in biology and chemistry. No one enrolled in all
the three. Find how many are enrolled in at least one of the subjects.

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Solution:

Let C, P and B represents the subjects Chemistry, Physics and Biology respectively.

The number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects :

= 40 + 15 + 15 + 15 + 5 + 10 + 0
= 100

So, the number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects is 100.

References:

Mathematics in the Modern World (2018). Rex Book Store, Inc.

Ben-Shlomo Y, Brookes S, Hickman M. 2013. Lecture Notes: Epidemiology, Evidence-based Medicine and
Public Health (6th ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1a-epidemiology/methods-of-
sampling-population

http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/steps/glossary/sampling.html

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