Physics Formula

&
Summary E-Book

2023
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 Physics Formula and Important terms 3

Motion
S. no Quantities Description
1 Distance It is the length of the actual path (the line or curve) described by an object
moving through space. Distance is independent of direction. Thus, such
physical quantities that do not require direction for their complete description
are called scalars.

2 Displacement When a body moves from one position to another the shortest distance between
the initial and final position of the body along with its direction is known as
displacement. Displacement has both direction and magnitude for its complete
description and hence such physical quantities are called a vectors.

3 Uniform If a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time

Motion
4 Non Uniform if a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals or equal distances in
Motion unequal intervals
5 Speed It is defined as the total distance travelled by the object in the time interval
during which the motion takes place. SI unit of speed is meter per second.
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Speed is a Scalar quantity

A body is said to have constant or uniform speed if it travels equal distance in
equal intervals of time.

6 Average Speed The ratio of total distance to total time taken by the body gives its average
speed.
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
speed =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
7 velocity It is the rate of change of displacement of a body with respect to the time.
Velocity of an object is measured in meter per second in SI units.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
It is a vector quantity a body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it
covers equal distances in equal intervals of time in a specified direction

8 Average The ratio of total displacement to total time taken by the body gives its average
velocity velocity
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
 Physics Formula and Important terms 4

9 Acceleration It is a measure of the change in the velocity of an object per unit time and
mathematically it is given as
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
● Sl unit of acceleration is 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
● It is a vector quantity
● A body has uniform acceleration if it travels in a straight line and its
velocity increases by equal amount in equal intervals of time for example
freely falling bodies.

Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

First Equation of motion
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Second Equation of motion
1
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
2
Third equation of motion
𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Graphs for Motion

Distance time

Velocity time
 Physics Formula and Important terms 5

Some Important things

Speed Velocity
Speed is the distance travelled by an object in Velocity is the displacement of an object in a
a given interval of time. given interval of time.
Speed = distance / time Velocity = displacement / time
Speed is scalar quantity i.e. it has only Velocity is vector quantity i.e. it has both
magnitude. magnitude as well as direction.

Uniform acceleration Non-uniform acceleration

A body is said to be in uniform acceleration if A body is said to be in non-uniform
it travels in a straight line and its velocity acceleration if the rate of change of its velocity
increases or decreases by equal amounts in is not constant.
equal intervals of time.

Interesting facts about Motion

S.no Points

The fastest possible speed in the universe is the speed of light.The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per second.
1
In physics this number is represented by the letter c.

2 The first scientist to measure speed as distance over time was Galileo

3 The escape velocity of Earth is the speed needed to escape from Earth's gravitational is 25,000 miles per hour.

4 A speedometer is a great example of instantaneous speed.

Average speed tells us how quickly the body travelled the specific distance, but it tells little of what happened
5 during the time that the body was travelling the distance. It doe tell us if there was any speeding up or slowing
down during the time.

6 Motion along a straight line is call is rectilinear and If the line is curved, the motion is curvilinear.

Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points (alternatively
7 "particles",bodies (objects),and systems of bodies without consideratio the masses of those objects nor the
forces that may have caused the motion.

What is force
● When we push or pull anybody we are said to exert force on the body
● Push or pull applied on a body does not exactly define the force in general. We can define force as an influence
causing a body at rest or moving with constant velocity to undergo acceleration
 Physics Formula and Important terms 6

S.no Quantities Description

1 Balanced Forces If the resultant of all forces acting on a then the forces
are called balanced force
2 Unbalanced Forces If the resultant forces acting on a body is not zero, the
forces are called unbalanced forces.
3 Friction Force The force that opposes the relative motion between the
surfaces of two objects in contact and acts along the
surfaces in contact is called the force of friction or
simply friction.
4 Momentum The momentum, p of an object is defined as the
product of its mass, m and velocity, v That is,
Momentum p=mv Momentum has both direction and
magnitude so it is a vector quantity. Its direction is the
same as that of velocity, unit of momentum is
kilogram-meter per second " (kgm /s ).

Newton's Law of Motion

Concept Description
Newton’s First Law of An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a
motion straight line unless compelled to change that state by an applied
force.
Newton's Second Law of The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to
Motion the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force
Newton's second law of motion can be expressed as
�ℎ���� �� ��������
Force ∝
���� �����
This can be written as after some derivation
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The unit of force is 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −2 or Newton, which has the symbol 𝑁𝑁.
The second law of motion gives us a method to measure the force
acting on an object as a product of its mass and acceleration.
Newton's third law of Whenever a body exerts a force on another body, the second body
motion also exerts an of motion equal and opposite force on the first body

Law of Conservation of Momentum

When two or more bodies Intricating each other then their total momentum remains constant provided no external forces
are acting

When this law is applied for a collision between two bodies, the total momentum of the colliding bodies before collision is
equal to the total momentum after collision.

Total initial Momentum = Final Total Momentum

 Physics Formula and Important terms 7

Sone Important point of Note

Before the carpet was shaken, the dust was at rest. When the
Why can dust be removed by shaking
1 carpet was set in motion, the dust tends to remains at rest due to
it, or beating it by a carpet?
inertia. As a result, dust got removed from carpet

When the bus accelerates from rest, the lower part of our body
Why do passengers in the bus tend to comes into motion along with the bus while the upper part of
2
fall back when it starts suddenly? body tends to remain at rest due to inertia of motion and as a
result which we fall backwards.

Water is ejected with a large forward force (action).As we know

Why is it difficult for a fireman to by Newton's third law of motion that every action has an equal
3 hose, which ejects large amount of and opposite reaction so, because of this action fireman
water at a high velocity? experiences a large backward force or reaction. That is why he
feels difficulty in holding the hose.

Why is it advised to tie a rope on the Bus starts and stop suddenly during the journey and luggage can
4
luggage while you travel by the bus? move because of law of inertia

Why do passengers jumping out of a The passenger's upper portion will remain in motion due to
5 rapidly moving bus fall forward with inertia even on falling on the ground and his lower portion will
his face come to rest. So it will fall forward

Why the cricket player moves his This is to prevent injuries to the hand. The time taken to reduce
6 hand backwards on catching a fast the momentum is increased in this way and less force acts on
cricket ball the hand

if the car is stopped due to emergency braking, then the driver

Cars and passengers are no thrown forward so as to hit the
steering wheel or wind screen
7 What is the use of seat belt in cars
The slightly stretchable seat belts worn by the passengers
increase the time taken by the passengers to fall forward and
thus less stopping force acts on them
 Physics Formula and Important terms 8

Gravitation
What is Gravitation
Gravitation is the force of attraction between the any two bodies having mass

S.no Points

1 Laws of nature are same for earthly and celestial Bodies.

Kepler (1571-1631) Studied the planetary motion in detail and formulated his three laws of planetary motion,
2
which were available Universal law of gravitation.

3 Gravitational force or gravity of earth is responsible for pulling you and keeping you on earth.

Fact that all bodies irrespective of their masses are accelerated towards the earth with a constant acceleration
4
was first recognized by Galileo (1564-1642)

Universal law of Gravitation

As stated by Newton's
Everybody in universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them. The force acts along the line joining the two bodies

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐹𝐹 =−𝐺𝐺
𝑟𝑟 2
● Here 𝐺𝐺 is the constant known as Universal Gravitational constant.
● Sl unit of gravitational constant 𝐺𝐺 is 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−2
● Value of 𝐺𝐺 was first found by Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) and it is 𝐺𝐺 = 6.673 × 10−11 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−2

S.no Points

1 the gravitational force is a central force i.e It acts along the line joining the centers
of two bodies.
2 It is a conservative force. This means that the work done by the gravitational force
in displacing a body from one point to another is only dependent on the initial and
final positions of the body and is independent of the path followed.
3 It is always attractive in nature
4 It is responsible for the motion of planets around the sun, motion of moon around
earth
5 The tides formed by rising and falling of water level in the ocean are due to the
gravitational force exerted by both sun and moon on the earth
6 Artificial satellites revolve around the earth.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 9

Free Fall
The falling of a body (or object) from a height towards the earth under the gravitational force of earth (without other force
acting on it) is called free fall

whenever the objects fall towards earth an acceleration is involved due to earth's gravitational force.

This acceleration due to earth's gravitational force is called acceleration due to gravity which is denoted by ' 𝑔𝑔 ' and its unit
is 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑔𝑔 value on earth surface is around 9.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2

Motion Under Free fall

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 when object is falling downwards
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 when object is thrown upwards
ℎ = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + (1/2)𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
and 𝑣𝑣 2 − 𝑢𝑢2 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ
where ℎ is the height of the object from the ground.

Difference between acceleration due to gravity (g) and universal gravitational

Constant (G)

Acceleration due to gravity(g) Universal gravitational constant(G)

It is the acceleration produced in a freely falling object It is the gravitational force of attraction between two objects
under the action of the earth's gravitational force. of unit masses separated by a unit distance

The value of g is different at different places on the

The value of G remains same everywhere in the universe.
earth as well as other planets.

Interesting facts about Force and Gravitation

S.no Points
1 Unlike the Force, with its dark and light sides, gravity has no dual nature; it only attracts, never repels.
2 Gravity is by far the weakest of the four fundamental forces. The other three are electromagnetism; weak
nuclear force, which governs how atoms decay; and strong nuclear force, which holds atomic nuclei together.
3 Gravity takes time, meaning that if the sun disappeared, Earth would still orbit it for as long as we saw light
from it (about 8 minutes)
4 The gravitational force on the surface of Earth accelerates every object at the same rate, regardless of its weight.
If you drop a big box and a small box in vacuum from a certain height, they would hit the ground at the same
time.
5 Einstein gave a whole new concept of gravity. His general theory of relativity was the first to treat gravity as a
space-time distortion. He described space-time as a "fabric" that physically embodies the universe. Anything
with a mass wraps the space-time around it.
6 A force is a push or a pull. It can make something start to move, slow down or speed up, change direction or
change shape or size.
7 Mass is the measure of inertia. Or in other words Inertia is measure to mass of an object. The larger is the mass,
larger is the inertia and vice-versa
 Physics Formula and Important terms 10

Work and energy

S.no Terms Descriptions

Work done by force acting on an object is equal to the product of force and the
1 Work
displacement of the object in the direction of the force. W=Fd

Work,which is the product of force and displacement, has only magnitude and no
direction.it is a scalar quantity The unit of work is Newton meter N m) or joule
(J) The work done by a force can be either positive or negative or zero.

If a force displaces the object in its direction, then the work done is positive So,
2 Positive work
W=Fd

If the force and the displacement are in opposite directions, then the work is said
3 Negative work
to be negative. W=Fd)

If the directions of force and the displacement are perpendicular to each other,
4 Zero Work
the work done by the force on the object is zero

5 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 If displacement d of any object makes an angle θ with the force F acting on it as
shown below in the figure, then the work done by the force is W=Fd cosθ)

The capacity of an object to do work is called energy of the object. The energy
possessed by an object is measured in terms of its capacity of doing work. The
6 Energy
unit of energy is, therefore, the same as that of work, that is, joule (J). 1 J is the
energy required to do 1 joule of work.

7 Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy of a body moving with a certain velocity is equal to the work done
on it to make it acquire that velocity.
Kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass m and moving with uniform
velocity v is

8 Potential Energy Potential ener4gy is the energy stored in the body or a system by virtue of its
position in field of force or by its configuration.
Potential energy is denoted by letter U.
Potential energy for a body placed height H above from ground is given by
U=mgH

9 Power It is defined as rate of doing work or work done per unit time by an object.

SI unit of power = SI unit of Work done/SI unit of t

= J/s
=watt, W
1W = 1J/1s
Definition of SI unit of power-Power of an object or agent is said to be 1 watt
when it does 1 joule of work in second.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 11

Law of Conservation of energy

Statement 1 - Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another.
Statement 2 - When one form of energy is changed or transformed into other forms of energy, the total energy of an isolated
system remains the same.

Example: Case of Oscillating Pendulum

In case of an oscillating pendulum. When a pendulum moves from its mean position to either of its extreme positions, it
rises through a certain height above the mean level. At this point, the kinetic energy of the bob changes completely into
potential energy. The kinetic energy becomes zero, and the bob possesses only potential energy. As it moves towards point
mean position its potential energy decreases progressively. Accordingly, the kinetic energy increases. As the bob reaches
point Mean position its potential energy becomes zero and the bob possesses only kinetic energy. This process is repeated
as long as the pendulum oscillates.
So
Total energy at Extreme Position = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Total energy at Mean position = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
In between Total energy = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
So total energy remains conserved

Units of Power
1 horse power 746 𝑊𝑊

1 kilowatt 1000 𝑊𝑊

1𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀n 106 𝑊𝑊

Commercial Unit of Energy KWH (Kilo Watt hour)

Definition of 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ
A kilowatt hour is the amount of electric energy used by 1000 𝑊𝑊 electric
appliance when it operates for 1 hour
Relationship between joule (J) and kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ = 3.6 × 106 𝐽𝐽

Forms of energy
Mechanical energy Sum of kinetic and potential energy.

Thermal energy Energy possessed by an object due to its temperature.

Chemical energy Energy released in chemical reactions.

Sound energy Energy of a vibrating object producing sound

Electrical energy Energy of moving electrons in a conductor connected with a battery

Solar energy Energy radiated by the sun.

 Physics Formula and Important terms 12

Interesting Facts about Energy

S.no Points

1 The word energy comes from the Greek word Energeia.

2 Stretched rubber bands and compressed springs are examples of elastic potential energy.

3 During chemical reactions, chemical energy is often transformed into light or heat

4 The mechanical energy of an object is associated with the objects' position and motion

James Joule is the physicist who discovered the relationship between the loss of mechanical energy and the
5 gain of heat.

6 Energy cannot be destroyed or created-only transformed.

7 Albert Einstein defined energy as mass multiplied by the speed of light squared, or 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2

A "watt" is a unit of power that measures the rate of producing or using energy. The term was named after
8 Scottish engineer James Watt (1736-1819),who developed an improved

steam engine. Watt measured his engine's performance in horsepower. One horsepower equaled 746 watts.
Sound
What is sound: It is a form of energy which produces the sensation of hearing in our ears.
S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Sound It is a form of energy which produces the sensation of hearing in our ears.

The movement of the disturbance through a medium due to the repeated periodic motion
2 Wave of the particles of the medium about their mean position is known as wave. Wave transfers
energy and not matter.

Mechanical It is a periodic disturbance which requires a medium (solid, liquid or gas) for its
3
Wave propagation Example Sound waves Two types Transverse and Longitudinal waves

In the case, particles of a medium vibrate or oscillate about theirmean position at right
angles to the direction of the Crest - The point on the elevation of the medium whose
Transverse distance is maximum from the mean position is called crest. Trough - The point on the
4
waves depressed part of the medium whose distance is maximum from the mean position is called
trough. Wevelength: The distance between two successive crests or troughs lt is
renresented bv λ (lambda)
 Physics Formula and Important terms 13

In this case, the particles of the medium vibrate or oscillate to and fro about their mean
position parallel to the the direction of the propagation of the disturbance
When longitudinal waves passes through a medium, the medium is divided into regions
of Compression and Rarefaction
Longitudinal
5 Compression -It is the region of the medium where the density of the medium is high the
waves
particles of the medium are very close to each other.
Rarefaction - It is the region of the medium where the density of the medium is low i.e.
the particles of the medium are far apart from each other.
Wavelength-The distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions

Characteristics of Sound Waves

S.no Terms Descriptions
1 Wavelength The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions
is known as the wavelength. Its 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 unit is metre (𝑚𝑚).

2 Frequency The number of complete oscillations per second is known as the frequency of a sound
wave. It is measured in hertz (𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻).
3 Amplitude The maximum height reached by the crest or trough of a sound wave is called its
amplitude.

4 Relationship Speed, wavelength, and frequency of a sound wave are related by the following
between equation:
frequency, speed Speed (𝑣𝑣) = Wavelength (𝜆𝜆) × Frequency (𝑣𝑣)
and wavelength 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜆𝜆 × 𝑣𝑣

5 Time period The time interval between two successive compressions is equal to the time period of
the wave. This time period is reciprocal of the frequency of the wave and is given by
the relation
𝑇𝑇 = 1 / Frequency
6 Pitch It is the characteristic property of a sound which depends on frequency of the sound
wave
More is the frequency, more is the pitch and vice versa. High pitch is characterized by
a shrill voice.
7 Loudness Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound. The loudness of a sound
is defined by its amplitude. The amplitude of a sound decides its intensity, which in
turn is perceived by the ear as loudness

8 Quality / Timbre Timbre is the quality of sound which allows us to distinguish between different sound
sources producing sound at the same pitch and loudness. The vibration of sound waves
is quite complex; most sounds vibrate at several frequencies simultaneously. The
additional frequencies are called overtones or harmonics. The relative strength of these
overtones helps determine a sound's timbre.

9 Intensity of Intensity of a sound wave is defined as the amount of sound energy passing through a
Sound unit area per second
 Physics Formula and Important terms 14

Range of frequencies
Infrasound It has frequencies less than 20 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.

It has frequencies between 20 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 and

Audible Range
20000 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Ultrasound It has frequencies more than 20,000 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.

Reflection of sound
When a sound waves travelling in a medium bounce back to the same medium after striking the second medium (a solid),
reflection of sound wave is said to take place.

Laws of reflection
(1) The angle of incidence of sound wave is equal to the angle of incidence of the sound wave.
(2) The incident direction of sound, reflected direction of sound and the normal to the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.

Echo in sound
It is the repetition of sound due to the reflection of original sound by a large and hard obstacle.
Condition for echo
i) To hear a distinct echo, the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1 𝑠𝑠.
This is because we can hear two sounds distinctly when the time gap between two sound is more than 0.1 𝑠𝑠 as our persistence
of hearing is 1/10 th of a second i.e. 0.1 𝑠𝑠. It means that the impression of a sound remains for 0.1 𝑠𝑠 in our brain.
(ii) For hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be 17.2 𝑚𝑚.

Reverberation
It is the repeated reflection of sound which results in persistence of sound for a long time after the source of sound has
stopped producing sound and its gradual fading away until it is no longer audible.
Reverberation time - The time during which the audible sound persists after the production of sound.

Ultrasonic Sounds
The term "ultrasonic" applied to sound refers to anything above the frequencies of audible sound, and nominally includes
anything over 20,000 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. Frequencies used for medical diagnostic ultrasound scans extend to 10𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 and beyond.
1. Sounds in the range 20 − 100𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 are commonly used for communication and navigation by bats, dolphins, and
some other species.
2. Much higher frequencies, in the range 1 − 20𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, are used for medical ultrasound.
3. Bats produce high-pitched ultrasonic squeaks. These high-pitched squeaks are reflected by objects such as preys
and returned to the bat's ear. This allows a bat to know the distance of his prey.
4. It is also used in diagnosing diseases in human body, to kill bacteria in liquids like milk, to detect faults and cracks

Practical Application of Sounds

1. Reflection of sound is used to measure the distance and speed of underwater objects. This method is known as
SONAR.
2. Working of a stethoscope is also based on reflection of sound. In a stethoscope, the sound of the patient's heartbeat
reaches the doctor's ear by multiple reflection of sound.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 15

Interesting facts about Sounds

S.no Points

Our ears vibrate in a similar way to the original source of the vibration, allowing us to hear
1 many different sounds.

Dogs can hear sound at a higher frequency than humans, allowing them to hear noises that
2 we can't.

Sound is used by many animals to detect danger, warning them of possible attacks before
3 they happen.

4 Sound can't travel through a vacuum (an area empty of matter) through air.

When traveling though water, sound moves around four times faster than when it travels
5
through air.

6 The scientific study of sound waves is known as acoustics.

7 the loudest natural sound on Earth is that of an erupting volcano

The sound of thunder is produced by rapidly heated air surrounding lightning which expands
8
faster than the speed of sound.

SI units
Physical Quantity Symbol Name Unit

Mass 𝑚𝑚, 𝑀𝑀 kilogram 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Linear position 𝑥𝑥, 𝑟𝑟 meter 𝑚𝑚

Length, Distance 𝑙𝑙, 𝑑𝑑

Radius 𝑅𝑅

Time 𝑡𝑡, 𝜏𝜏 second 𝑠𝑠

Area 𝐴𝐴 - 𝑚𝑚2

Volume 𝑉𝑉 - 𝑚𝑚3

Density 𝜌𝜌 - 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

Linear velocity 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢, 𝑐𝑐 - 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

Linear momentum 𝑝𝑝 - 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚∗ /𝑠𝑠

Linear acceleration 𝑎𝑎 - 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2

Force 𝐹𝐹 newton 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2

 Physics Formula and Important terms 16

Impulse 𝐼𝐼 - 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 𝑠𝑠

Work 𝑊𝑊 joule 𝐽𝐽 = 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 𝑚𝑚

Energy 𝐸𝐸 joule 𝐽𝐽

Power 𝑃𝑃 watt J/s

Reflection of Light
The process of sending back light rays which falls on the surface of an object is called REFLECTION of light

Laws of Reflection of light

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces

Important Terms
S.no Quantities Description
Real images are formed when rays of light that comes from an
object (or source) meets at a point after reflection from a mirror
1 Real Images
(or refraction from a lens). Real images can be
formed on a screen and can be seen with the eyes
Virtual image is an image in which the outgoing rays from an
object do not meet at a point. It will appear to meet at a point in
or behind the optical device (i.e., a mirror) but they do not
2 Virtual images
actually meet after reflection from a mirror (or refraction from
a lens). A plane mirror always forms virtual
images
If an object is placed in front of the mirror, then the right side
of the object appears to be the left side and left side of the object
3 Lateral inversion appears to be the right side of this image. This change of sides
of an object and its mirror image is called
lateral inversion.
(a) Images formed by mirrors are always virtual and erect
(b) Size of image is always equal to the size of the object
Characteristics of
4 and the image is laterally inverted.
Plane Mirror
(c) The images formed by the plane mirror are as far
behind the mirror as the object in front of the mirror.
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved
5 Spherical Mirror
inwards or outwards.
Physics Formula and Important terms 17

6 Concave Mirror Reflection of light takes place at the concave surface or

bent-in surface
7 Convex Mirror Reflection of light takes place at the convex surface or bent out
surface

8 Center of The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a

Curvature sphere. This sphere has a centre. This point is called the centre
of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is represented by the
letter C
9 Radius of The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a
curvature spherical mirror forms a part, is called the radius of curvature
of the mirror. It is represented by the letter R
10 Pole The center of a spherical mirror is called its pole and is
represented by letter P
11 Principal Axis Straight line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature of a spherical mirror is called principle axis of the
mirror.
12 Principal Focus The principal focus of the concave mirror is the point on the
principal axis from which Light rays that are parallel to the
principal axis converge after reflecting from the mirror.

The principal focus of a convex mirror is the point on the

principal Axis from which all the incident rays parallel to
principal Axis appear to come after reflection from the
convex mirror
13 Focal Length The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a
spherical mirror is called the focal length. It is represented by
the letter f.

14 Relationship R=2f
between f and R
 Physics Formula and Important terms 18

Image formation by Concave Mirror

Position of the Position of the Nature of the
object image Size of the image image
Highly diminished, point
At infinity At focus 𝐹𝐹 sized Real and inverted

Beyond C Between 𝐹𝐹 and 𝐶𝐶 Diminished Real and inverted

At 𝐶𝐶 At C Same size Real and inverted
Between 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐹𝐹 Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At 𝐹𝐹 At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between 𝑃𝑃 and 𝐹𝐹 Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Image formation by Convex Mirror

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖
Anywhere between P Virtual and
Behind the mirror between P and F Diminished
and infinity erect
Highly Virtual and
At infinity Behind the mirror at focus Diminished erect

Formula Used in Spherical Mirror

Mirror formula
It gives the relationship between image distance (𝑣𝑣), object distance (𝑢𝑢) and the focal length (𝑓𝑓) of the mirror and is written
as
1 1 1
+ =
𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓

Where 𝑣𝑣 is the distance of image from the mirror, 𝑢𝑢 is the distance of object from the mirror and 𝑓𝑓 is the focal length of the
mirror. This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.

Magnification
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is magnified with
respect to the object size. It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually
represented by the letter 𝑚𝑚.
So,
ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (ℎ1 )
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 =
ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (ℎ2 )

or,
ℎ1
𝑚𝑚 =
ℎ2

The magnification 𝑚𝑚 is also related to the object distance (𝑢𝑢) and image distance (𝑣𝑣) and is given as
 Physics Formula and Important terms 19

ℎ1 −𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚 = =
ℎ2 𝑢𝑢

Sign Convention
Reflection of light by spherical mirrors follow a set of sign conventions called the New Cartesian Sign Convention. In this
convention, the pole (𝑃𝑃) of the mirror is taken as the origin. The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the 𝑥𝑥-axis of the
coordinate system. The conventions are as follows
● The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls on the mirror from
the left-hand side.
● All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
● All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along +𝑥𝑥-axis) are taken as positive while those measured to the
left of the origin (along - 𝑥𝑥-axis) are taken as negative.
● Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along +𝑦𝑦-axis) are taken as positive.
● Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along -y-axis) are taken as negative.

Refraction of Light
Refraction of Light
When light ray is made to travel from one medium to another say from air to glass medium then light rays bend at the
boundary between the two mediums. This bending of light when it passes from one medium to another is called Refraction
of light.
The refraction of light takes place on going from one medium to another because the speed of light is different in two media.
Medium in which speed of light is more is called optically rarer medium and medium in which speed of light is less is
known as optically denser medium. For example, glass is an optically denser medium than air and water.
When light goes from rarer medium to denser medium it bends towards the normal and when it goes from denser medium
to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.

Laws of Refraction of Light

Laws of refraction of light are
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all
lie in the same plane.
2) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given color and
for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell's law of refraction.
3) If 𝑖𝑖 is the angle of incidence and 𝑟𝑟 is the angle of refraction then
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖
= 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 20

Important Terms
S.no Quantities Description
1 Refractive Index The refractive index is related to an important physical
quantity that is relative speed of propagation of light in
different media as light propagates with different speeds
in different media
The refractive index of medium 1 with respect to
medium 2 is represented as n12. It is given by

2 Absolute Refractive Index If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index
of medium 2 is considered with respect to vacuum. This
is called the absolute refractive index of the medium.

If c is the speed of light in the air and v is the speed of

light in any medium, then refractive index nm of the
medium

would
3 Characteristics of Plane Slab 1) Angle of incidence and angle of emergence are
equal as emergent ray and incident ray are parallel
to each other.
2) When a light ray is incident normally to the
interface of two media then there is no bending of
light ray and it goes straight through the medium.
4 Spherical Lens A lens is a piece of transparent glass bound by two
spherical surfaces.

5 Concave Lens A concave lens bulges inward and is thinner in the

middle and thicker at the edges. Such lenses diverge
light rays

Concave lenses are called diverging lenses.

 Physics Formula and Important terms 21

6 Convex Lens A convex lens bulges outward and is thick at the center
and thinner at the edges. Convex lens converges the light
rays

convex lenses are called converging lenses.

7 Center of Curvature A lens, whether it is a convex lens or a concave lens, has
two spherical surfaces which form a part of a sphere. The
centers of these spheres are called centers of curvature
of the lens usually represented by the letter C.
Since there are two centers of curvature, we may
represent them as C1 and C2
8 Optical Center The central point of a lens is its optical centre. It is
usually represented by the letter O.

9 Principal Axis An imaginary straight line passing through the two

centers
of curvature of a lens is called its principal axis
10 Principal Focus When several rays of light parallel to the principal axis
are falling on a convex lens. These rays, after refraction
from the lens, are converging to a point on the principal
axis. This point on the principal axis is called the
principal focus of the lens.

When several rays of light parallel to the principal axis

are falling on a concave lens. These rays, after refraction
from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a point on
the principal axis. This point on the principal axis is
called the principal focus of the concave lens
11 Focal Length The distance of the principal focus from the optical
centre
of a lens is called its focal length represented by letter f

Image formation by Concave Lens

Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At focus F Highly diminished, point-sized Virtual and erect
Between infinity and optical Between F1 and optical
Diminished Virtual and erect
center O of the lens center O
 Physics Formula and Important terms 22

Image formation by Convex Lens

Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image
Infinity At focus 𝐹𝐹2 Highly diminished, point Real and inverted
sized
Beyond 2F1 Between 𝐹𝐹2 and 2𝐹𝐹2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2𝐹𝐹1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2 𝐹𝐹2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus 2𝐹𝐹1 At infinity Infinitely large or highly Real and inverted
enlarged
Between F1 and optical On the same side of the lens as the Enlarged Virtual and erect
center O object
Physics Formula and Important terms 23
 Physics Formula and Important terms 24

Formula Used in Spherical Lens

Lens Formula
Its gives the relationship between object distance (u), image image-distance (𝑣𝑣) and the focal length (f) and is expressed as
1 1 1
= −
𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢
This formula is valid in all situations for any spherical lens.

Magnification Formula
The magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object.
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 (ℎ′ )
𝑚𝑚 =
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (ℎ)
Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance 𝑢𝑢, and the image-distance 𝑣𝑣 and is given by
𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑢𝑢
 Physics Formula and Important terms 25

Power Of lens
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter 𝑃𝑃. The power 𝑃𝑃 of a lens of
focal length 𝑓𝑓 is given by
1
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑓𝑓
Power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
The SI unit of power of a lens is 'dioptre'. It is denoted by the letter D.
1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 meter so, 1𝐷𝐷 = 1 𝑚𝑚−1

Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses

1. All the distances are measured from the optical center of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the same direction as that of incident light are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured against the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
4. The distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principle axis are taken as positive.
5. The distances measured downwards and perpendicular to principle axis is taken as negative.

Some Important things

Reflection of Light Refraction of light

The reverting of light in the When light ray is made to travel from one medium to another say same medium, when
it falls from air to glass medium then light rays bend at the boundary
on the plane, is called between the two mediums. This bending of light when it passes from reflection
one medium to another is called Refraction of light.

light ray falling on the plane the ray falling on the plane travels from one medium to another. returns to the same
medium

the angle of incidence is the angle of incidence is not like the angle of refraction. same as the angle of
reflection

Reflection takes place in Refraction takes place in Lens Mirrors

Mirror Lens
Reflection happens in mirror Refraction happens in Lens
Concave and convex mirror Concave and convex lens
Convex lens produces a real, inverted image below the
Convex mirrors produce virtual, erect and diminished
principal axis when the object distance is greater than the focal
image
length
Concave mirror produces real and inverted images Concave lenses are curved inward and when light goes through
(except when the object is placed between pole and it diverges or spreads out
focus. When the object is placed between F and P,
concave mirror produces
 Physics Formula and Important terms 26

virtual and erect image). But the

convex mirror always produces
virtual and erect images.

Interesting facts about Reflection and Refraction

Points
S.no

Convex mirrors are used as rearview and side-view mirror in vehicles as they
1 cover a wider area of view. Through these mirrors objects appear smaller and
upright.
A magnifying glass is a convex lens which produces a magnified (larger) image
2
of an object.
Concave mirrors are used by dentists, shaving mirrors, headlights of car, solar
3
furnace
Light travels in vacuum with an enormous speed of 3×10 m/s. The speed of light
4
is different in different media.
Many optical instruments consist of several lenses. They are combined to
increase the magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P) of the
5
lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers
P1, P2, P3, … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

Human eye and Colorful World

Human eye
● It is a natural optical instrument which is used to see the objects by human beings. It is like a camera which has lens
and screen system.
● the human eye is the most significant one as it enables us to see the beautiful, colorful world around us

Important Parts in Human eye

S.no Quantities Description

1 Retina It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is

formed. It contains rods and cones.
2 Cornea It is a thin membrane which covers the eye ball. It acts like a
lens which refracts the light entering the eye.
3 Eye lens It is a Convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like
material. Its curvature can be adjusted with the help of
ciliary muscles.
4 Aqueous humour It is fluid which fills the space between cornea and eye lens.

5 Pupil It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye.
It appears black because light falling on it goes into
the eye and does not come back.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 27

6 Ciliary muscles These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and can
modify the shape of eye lens which leads to the
variation in focal lengths
7 Iris Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the
pupil. It controls the amount of light entering the eye by
changing the size of pupil
8 Optical nerve These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in
the form of electrical signals.

Some Important concepts

Concept Description

Accommodation The ability of eye to change the focal length of eye lens with the help of ciliary
power muscles to get the clear view of nearby objects (about 25 cm) and far distant
objects (at infinity)
To see an object comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at about 25 cm from
the eyes. The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly
without strain, is called the least distance of distinct vision. It is also called the
near point of the eye. For a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about
25 cm. The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the
far point of the eye. It is infinity for a normal eye. You may note here a normal
eye can see objects clearly that are between 25 cm and infinity.
Colour blindness Some people do not possess some cone cells that respond to certain specific colors
due to genetic disorder

Cataract Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes hazy or even
opaque. This leads to decrease or loss of vision.
The problem is called cataract. It can be corrected only by surgery

DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

Sometimes the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation. In such conditions, the person cannot see the objects
distinctly and comfortably. The vision becomes blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye. There are mainly three
common refractive defects of vision. These are (i) myopia or near-sightedness, (ii) Hypermetropia or farsightedness, and
(iii) Presbyopia

Some Important concepts

Concept Description

Myopia (Short It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person can see near objects
sightedness) clearly but he cannot see the distant objects clearly. Myopia is due to

(i) excessive curvature of cornea.

(ii) elongation of eye ball. You may note here a normal eye can see objects clearly
that are between 25 cm and infinity.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 28

Corrective Measure

This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power. A concave
lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect
is corrected.
Hypermetropia It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person can see distant objects
(Long properly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly. It happens due to
sightedness) (i) decrease in power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) shortening of eye ball.

Corrective Measure

This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power. Eye-
glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focusing power required for
forming the image on the retina.
Presbyopia It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing. It happens due to
(i) decrease in flexibility of eye lens.
(ii) gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.

Refraction of light through Prism

What is Glass Prism
A Glass Prism is a five-sided solid with a triangle cross-section. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral
surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism

Refraction of Light through Prism

We know that when a light pass through transparent rectangular slab with parallel faces, the emergent rays gets displaced
parallel to itself.

Now when light rays fall on the prism, there is net deviation in the path of the ray of a light. The total angle through which
ray's deviates is called the angle of deviation. Higher the refractive index of the prism, higher the is the angle of deviation
 Physics Formula and Important terms 29

Some Important concepts

Concept Description
It is mixture of light of different colour (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.)
White light
present in a definite Proportion
Monochromatic light Light consisting of single colour or wavelength is called monochromatic light, e.g., sodium light
Polychromatic light Light consisting of more than two colors or wavelengths is called polychromatic light
The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its seven constituent colors when it passes
through a glass prism is called dispersion of white light. The various colors seen are Violet,
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The sequence of colors remembers as
VIBGYOR. The band of seven colors is called spectrum.

Dispersion of white Why do we get these colors?

light by a glass prism
Different colors of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they
pass through a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most. Thus, the rays of
each colour emerge along different paths and thus become distinct. It is the band of distinct
colors that we see in a spectrum.

The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then
Formation of rainbow reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the
dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colors reach the observer’s eye
Recombination of Newton found that when an inverted prism be placed in the path of
white light dispersed light then after passing through prism, they recombine to form white light.
Earth is surrounded by a layer of air and Density of air varies in the
atmosphere. It is the generally at the greatest at the earth surface and goes on decreasing as we
move higher. The refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere (having air layers of
Atmospheric
varying optical densities) is called atmospheric refraction.
Refraction
Since the physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not
stationary, the apparent position of the object, as seen through the hot air, fluctuates.
The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight, on entering
the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the earth. The
atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index. Since the
atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly
different from its actual position. The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position
Twinkling of stars when viewed near the horizon (Further, this apparent position of the star is not stationary, but
keeps on changing slightly, since the physical conditions of the earth’s atmosphere are not
stationary. Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized sources of light. As the
path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the
star fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers – the star sometimes appears
brighter, and at some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
Why, the duration of
Actual sun rise happens when it is below
day becomes
approximately 4
the horizon in the morning. The rays of light from the sun below the horizon reach our eyes
minutes shorter if
because of refraction of light. Similarly, the sun can be seen about few minutes after the actual
there is no
sun set. Thus, the duration of, day time will increase by 4 minutes.
atmosphere on earth
 Physics Formula and Important terms 30

It is the phenomenon in which a part of light incident on the particle is redirect in different
Scattering of light
directions
This happens because of scattering of light by molecule of air and other particles in the
Why is the colour of
atmosphere. Since blue-light has shorter wavelength, they are scattered in the sky and when this
sky blue
scattered light enters the eye, we see the blue sky. If there is no atmosphere, sky will look dark

At noon, the light of sun travels relatively shorter distance through earth’s atmosphere thus
Colour of the Sun at
appears white as only a little of blue and violet colors are scattered. Near the horizon, most of
sunrise and sunset
the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered and sun appears red.

Electricity
Electricity
Physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge is known as electricity

Static or Fractional Electricity

Static (or fractional) electricity is caused by the buildup of electrical charges on the surface of objects The fractional
electricity produced have been found to be of two types i.e., positive electricity (charge) and negative electricity (charge).
The two substances rubbed together acquire equal and opposite charges.

Current Electricity
current electricity is a phenomenon involving the flow of electrons along a conductor.

S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Electric Charge Electric charge is a fundamental property like mass; length etc. associated with
elementary particles for example electron, proton and many more
Charges are of two kinds
1.negative charge
2.positive charge

Electrons are negatively charged particles and protons, of which nucleus is made of,
are positively charged particles.

All free charges are integral multiples of a unit of charge e,

where e = -1.602 × 10 -19 C i. e., charge on an electron or proton.
Charge q on a body is always denoted by q = ne
where n = any integer positive or negative

SI unit of charge is Coulomb written as C.

 Physics Formula and Important terms 31

2 Electric Potential The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the
and Potential amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another
difference point. So,

The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V) The potential difference
between two points is said to be one Volt if 1 Joule of work is done in moving 1
Coulomb of electric charge from one point to another. Thus

The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.

The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measure

3 Electric current The flow of charge in metallic wire due to the potential difference between two
conductors used is called electric current.
Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular
area in unit time.
If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the
current I, through the cross-section is

The S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere (A)

Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. It is always connected in series
in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.

4 Electric Circuit Electric circuit is a continuous path consisting of cell (or a battery), a plug key,
electrical component(s), and connecting wires.

5 Circuit Diagram A diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit must be connected
by using symbols for different electric components is called a circuit diagram.

6 Ohm’s Law Ohm's law is the relation between the potential difference applied to the ends of the
conductor and current flowing through the conductor

V=IR

where constant of proportionality R is called the electric resistance or simply

resistance of the conductor
 Physics Formula and Important terms 32

7 Electric Resistance Electric resistance of a conductor is the obstruction offered by the conductor to the
flow of the current through it.
Electric resistance is the ratio of potential difference across the two ends of conductor
and amount of current flowing through the conductor.
Resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (l)
and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A)

Where
ρ is the constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the
material of the conductor.

SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω) where 1 Ohm=1 volt/1 Ampere or 1Ω=1VA-1. Bigger
units of resistance are Kilo-Ohm and Mega- Ohm
8 Resistance of system
of resistors in Series

R=R1 + R2 +R3

Current is same across all the resistors

V=V1 + V2 + V3
9 Resistance of system
of resistors in
Parallel

Potential difference is same across all the resistors

I=I1 + I2 + I3
 Physics Formula and Important terms 33

Heating effect of Electric current

When electric current passes through a high resistance wire, the wire becomes and produces heat.
This is called heating effect of current.
Heat Produced
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
This is known as Joule's Law of heating
According to Joule's Law of Heating, Heat produced in a resistor is
(a) Directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistor.
(b) Directly proportional to resistance of a given resistor.
(c) Directly proportional to time for which current flows through the resistor.
Electric Power
The rate at which electric work is done or the rate at which electric energy is consumed is called electric power
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

SI unit of power = SI unit of Work done /𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 unit of 𝑡𝑡

= 𝐽𝐽/𝑆𝑆
= watt, 𝑊𝑊
1 𝑊𝑊 = 1 𝐽𝐽/1 𝑠𝑠
Definition of SI unit of power - Power of an object or agent is said to be 1 watt when it does 1 joule of work in 1 second.
Electric Power can be expressed as
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 2 /𝑅𝑅
Units of Power
1 horse power 746 𝑊𝑊
1 kilowatt 1000 𝑊𝑊
1𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 106 W

Commercial Unit of Energy KWH (Kilo Watt hour)

Definition of 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ
A kilowatt hour is the amount of electric energy used by 1000 𝑊𝑊 electric
appliance when it operates for 1 hour

Relationship between joule (J) and kilowatt-hour (kWh)

1kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
Forms of energy
Mechanical energy Sum of kinetic and potential energy.
Thermal energy Energy possessed by an object due to its temperature.
Chemical energy Energy released in chemical reactions.
Sound energy Energy of a vibrating object producing sound
Electrical energy Energy of moving electrons in a conductor connected with a battery
Solar energy Energy radiated by the sun.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 34

Interesting Facts about Energy

S.no Points
1 The word energy comes from the Greek word Energeia.
2 Stretched rubber bands and compressed springs are examples of elastic potential energy.
3 During chemical reactions, chemical energy is often transformed into light or heat
4 The mechanical energy of an object is associated with the objects' position and motion
James Joule is the physicist who discovered the relationship between the loss of mechanical energy and the gain
5
of heat.
6 Energy cannot be destroyed or created-only transformed.
7 Albert Einstein defined energy as mass multiplied by the speed of light squared, or 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
A "watt" is a unit of power that measures the rate of producing or using energy. The term was named after
8 Scottish engineer James Watt (1736-1819), who developed an improved steam engine. Watt measured his
engine's performance in horsepower. One horsepower equaled 746 watts.

Magnetic effect of Current

Magnetism
what is a magnet
The substances which have the property of attracting small pieces of iron, nickel and cobalt etc. are called magnets and this
property of attraction is called magnetism
What are magnetic poles?
Magnetic poles refer to the two areas of a magnet where the magnetic effects are the strongest. The poles are generally
termed as the north and south poles
What is magnetic Field?
The space around a magnet in which the force of attraction and repulsion due to the magnet can be detected is called the
magnetic field.
Important Concepts
S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Compass The simplest compass is a magnetized metal needle mounted in such a way that it
can spin freely
Needle of a compass is a small bar magnet. This is the reason it gets deflected
when we place it in the field of another magnet.

2 Earth Magnetism 1) The earth has a magnetic field which we call as the earth’s magnetic field.
2) The magnetic field is tilted slightly from the Earth’s axis.
3) The core of earth is filled with molten iron (Fe) which give Earth its very own
magnetic field.
4) The region surrounding Earth where its magnetic field is located is termed as
the Magnetosphere.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 35

3 Magnetic Field Lines Magnetic field surrounding the magnet and the force it exerts are depicted using
imaginary curved lines with arrow called magnetic field lines.

4 Properties of Magnetic 1) All field lines are closed curves.

Field Lines 2) Outside the magnet field lines emerge from North Pole and merge at South
Pole.
3) Inside a magnet, the direction of field lines is from South Pole to its north pole.
4) Field lines never intersect each other.
5) The field is stronger where the field lines are more closely spaced. So, the field
is stronger near the poles then at other points

Magnetic Effect of Current

what is a magnetic effect of Current?

Electricity and Magnetism are related phenomenon. When an electric current is passed through metallic conductor, it
generates a magnetic field around it.

Magnetic Field due to current through straight Conductor

Electric current through a straight Conductor generates magnetic field around it.
Magnetic Field intensity increases on the increasing the current in the conductor
Magnetic field decrease as the distance increase from the conductor
Magnetic Field direction can be find using Right Hand Thumb Rule

What is Right Hand Thumb rule?

When you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb points towards the
direction of current. Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic
field
 Physics Formula and Important terms 36

S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Magnetic Field due to a) As with straight conductor, the magnetic field lines would be in the form
a Current through a of concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the conductor.
Circular Loop b) The magnetic field would be stronger near the periphery of the loop as
magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near the conductor.
c) The magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when we move
towards the centre of the current carrying loop. At the centre, the arcs of big circles
would appear as straight lines.

2 Magnetic Field due to We know that the magnetic field produced by a current- carrying wire at a given
current through a coil point depends directly on the current passing through it and the current in each
having number of circular turn has the same direction
turns
Therefore, Magnitude of magnetic field gets summed up with increase in the
number of turns of coil. If there are ‘n’ turns of coil, magnitude of magnetic field
will be ‘n’ times of magnetic field in case of a single turn of coil.

3 Solenoid A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape
of a cylinder is called a solenoid

4 Magnetic Effect of A current carrying solenoid produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar
Current carrying magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the north pole and another end behaves
Solenoid as the south pole. Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid; like a bar
magnet; which shows that magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid

5 Electromagnet When a piece of magnetic material, like soft iron is placed inside a solenoid,the
strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid magnetise the soft iron and it
behaves like strong magnet. The magnetism in the soft iron is temporary and it
becomes when the current is switched off. This type of magnet is called
Electromagnets

Force on a current carrying conductor in a Magnetic Field

When a current carrying, conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experienced a force. The direction of force depends on
the direction of the current and direction of the Magnetic Field. The direction of the force can be found using Fleming Left
hand rule
 Physics Formula and Important terms 37

Fleming Left hand rule

Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand such that they are mutually perpendicular. If the first finger
points in the direction of magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor

Electric Motor

An electric motor is a device which works on the above principle. Here the electrical energy is converted to mechanical
energy. Here a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field and force acts on the conductor and it rotates and
do the mechanical work.

This is used in electric fans

Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the production of induced current in a coil placed in a region where the magnetic field changes
with time.
The magnetic field may change due
a) relative motion between the coil and a magnet placed near to the coil.
b) If the coil is placed near to a current-carrying conductor, the magnetic field may change either due to a change in the
current through the conductor or due to the relative motion between the coil and conductor.
The direction of the induced current is given by the Fleming's right-hand rule.

Fleming's Right Hand rule

Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of right hand so that they are perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger
indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb shows the direction of motion of conductor, then the middle
finger will show the direction of induced current
 Physics Formula and Important terms 38

Electric Generator
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is based on electromagnetic induction principle as
explained above.

AC Current
which current direction changes after equal intervals of time, then the current is called an alternating current (abbreviated
as AC).

Direct Current
This material is created by http://physicscatalyst.com/ and is for your personal and non-commercial use only. When the
current flows in the same direction and does not change direction, it is called Direct current (DC)

AC generator
Electric Generator can be used to generate both the AC and DC current. When it is designed to produce AC current, it is
called AC generator

DC generator
Electric Generator can be used to generate both the AC and DC current. When it is designed to produce DC current, it is
called DC generator

Facts about AC and DC currents

a) Most power stations constructed these days produce AC.
b) In India, the AC changes direction after every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.
c) An important advantage of AC over DC is that electric power can be transmitted over long distances without much loss
of energy

Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. The pointer remains at zero (the centre
of the scale) for zero current flowing through it. It can deflect either to the left or to the right of the zero-mark depending on
the direction of current.

Electric Generators Electric Motors

Device which converts mechanical Device which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy into electrical energy energy
It is based on Electromagnetic It is based on moving coil galvanometer
Induction Principle
When a closed coil is rotated rapidly in a When a current is passed through a coil in a magnetic field, the coil
strong magnetic field, the magnetic flux experiences a torque in the direction given by Fleming left hand rule.
through the coil changes continuously. Hence This torque gives a continuous rotatory motion in the coil in the
an EMF is induced in the coil and current magnetic field
flows in it in a
direction by Fleming right hand rule
Two types AC dynamo and DC dynamo Back Emf is also generated in motor since it cuts the magnetic flux of
the field magnet
 Physics Formula and Important terms 39

Domestic Electric Circuits

S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Type of current/Potential AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
Difference and Frequency
2 Live Wire The wire, usually with red insulation cover, is called live wire
(or positive)
3 Neutral Wire The wire, with black insulation, is called neutral wire (or
negative). In our country, the potential difference between the
Live wire and Neutral Wire is 220 V.
4 Earth Wire It has green insulation and this is connected to a metallic body
deep inside earth. It is used as a safety measure to ensure that
any leakage of current to a metallic body does not give any
severe shock to a user.
5 Different Circuit used in the Two separate circuits are used
Home Supply 1) 15 A current rating for appliances with higher power
ratings such as geysers, air coolers, etc.
2) 5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc.
6 Appliance circuit a) Each appliance has a separate switch to ‘ON’/‘OFF’ the
flow of current through it.
b) Each appliance has equal potential difference; they are
connected parallel to each other
7 Electric Fuse a) A fuse in a circuit prevents damage to the appliances and
the circuit due to overloading
b) electric fuse prevents the electric circuit and the appliance
from a possible damage by stopping the flow of unduly
high electric current.
c) Fuse is based on The Joule heating that takes place in the
fuse melts it to break the electric circuit
d) Tin-lead alloy is general used to make fuse wire
8 Electric Fuse Current Rating Electric Fuse current rating defines the maximum value of
safe current allowed to flow through fuse without melting it

9 Overloading If more electrical appliances of high power rating like electric

iron box, electric cooker, electric heater, air conditioner etc.,
are switched on at the same time, they draw an extremely large
current from the circuit is called
overloading
10 Short-circuiting Sometimes, the live and neutral wires come in the direct
contact due to defective or damaged wiring. When this
happens, the resistance of the circuit becomes almost zero and
a very large current flow through it. This is known as Short
Circuit
 Physics Formula and Important terms 40

SI units
Physical Quantity Symbol Name Unit
Mass 𝑚𝑚, 𝑀𝑀 kilogram 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Linear position
Length, Distance 𝑥𝑥, 𝑟𝑟 𝑙𝑙, 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅 meter 𝑚𝑚
Radius
Time 𝑡𝑡, 𝜏𝜏 second S
Area 𝐴𝐴 - 𝑚𝑚2
Volume 𝑉𝑉 - 𝑚𝑚3
Density 𝜌𝜌 - 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Linear velocity 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢, 𝑐𝑐 - 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
Linear momentum 𝑝𝑝 - 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
Linear acceleration 𝑎𝑎 - 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
Force 𝐹𝐹 newton 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
Impulse I - 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 𝑆𝑆
Work Energy 𝑊𝑊 𝐸𝐸 joule 𝐽𝐽 = 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 𝑚𝑚
Power 𝑃𝑃 watt 𝑊𝑊 = 𝐽𝐽/𝑠𝑠
Power of lens 𝑃𝑃 Dioptre 1𝐷𝐷 = 1 𝑚𝑚−1
Charge 𝑄𝑄 Coulomb C
Electric Potential 𝑉𝑉 Volt 1 𝑉𝑉 = 1 𝐽𝐽/𝐶𝐶
Electric Resistance 𝑅𝑅 Ohm 1𝑅𝑅 = 1 𝑉𝑉/𝐴𝐴
Electric Current 𝐼𝐼 Ampere 1 𝐴𝐴 = 1𝐶𝐶/𝑠𝑠

Sources of Energy
Sources of Energy
S.no Terms Descriptions
Source of energy is anything which supplies us useful energy for
1 Source of energy carrying out the various activities like cooking, heating
An energy source which can be replenished in short period.
2 Renewable
Example Solar energy, hydropower
An energy source which cannot be recreated in short period.
3 Non-Renewable
Example Fossil Fuel-oil, natural gas, Coal
A good source of energy has following characteristics:
(i) It could do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass.
6 Good Source of Energy (ii) It would be easily accessible.
(iii) it would be easy to store and transport.
(iv) It would be economical.
 Physics Formula and Important terms 41

A fuel is a chemical which releases energy when heated with

7 Fuel
oxygen
Sources of energy which has been in use from Centuries are
Conventional Energy
8 called the conventional source of energy. Example : Wood, Coal,
Sources
Petrol, hydropower
Source of energy which we have started using in recent times is
Non-Conventional
9 called Non-conventional energy sources Example : Nuclear
Energy Sources
energy, Geothermal energy, Solar energy, Ocean tides

Conventional Sources of Energy

S.no Terms Descriptions
Fossils fuel are the remains of the pre-historic animal and plants buried under the
earth millions of years ago.
1 Fossil Fuels They are non-renewable sources of energy
Since fossils fuels from plants and animals and they get energy from Sun, so
their ultimate source of energy is Sun Example Coal, Petroleum products
1) Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution. The oxides of carbon, nitrogen
and sulphur that are released on burning fossil fuels cause acid rain and other
2 Disadvantage of Fossils fuels respiratory problems for human beings.
2) green-house effect of gases like carbon dioxide
A turbine is device that rotates when steam, water or wind false on its blades.
3 Turbine The turbine turns the shaft of the electric generator and then electricity is
produced
Thermal power plants burn fossil fuel like coal which heat up the water to
produce steam and Steam is used in Turbine to generate electricity. The term
6 Thermal Power plants thermal power plant is used since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is
converted into electrical energy
Here the kinetic energy of the flowing water or the potential energy of the water
at height is used to turn the turbine and generate electricity. To produce hydel
electricity, high-rise dams are constructed on the river to obstruct the flow of
7 Hydropower Plants water and thereby collect water in larger reservoirs. The water level rises and in
this process the kinetic energy of flowing water gets transformed into potential
energy. The water from the high level in the dam is carried through pipes, to the
turbine, at the bottom of the dam
Biomass is any organic matter from which we get energy on the renewable basis.
8 Biomass It includes wood, Agricultural residues, animal excreta, wastes from food
processing
Charcoal is produced by burning wood in an insufficient supply of water. This
9 Charcoal method is called destructive distillation of wood. Charcoal burns without flames,
is comparatively smokeless and has a higher heat generation efficiency
 Physics Formula and Important terms 42

Cow-dung, various plant materials like the residue after harvesting the crops,
vegetable waste and sewage are decomposed in the absence of oxygen to give
bio-gas.
Anaerobic micro-organisms that do not require oxygen decompose or break
down complex compounds of the cowdung slurry. The process is called
10 Biogas anaerobic digestion Since the starting material is mainly cow-dung, it is
popularly known as ‘gobar-gas’

Bio-gas contains up to 75% methane,23% Carbon dioxide and 2% other gases. It

burns without smoke, leaves no residue like ash in wood, charcoal and coal
burning. It is an excellent fuel
Unequal heating of the landmass and water bodies by solar radiation generates
air movement and causes winds to blow. The wind contains the kinetic energy.
This kinetic energy is used the windmill to do some mechanical work.
Wind Energy and Wind
11
mill
A windmill is a device in which kinetic energy of the wind is used to rotates a set
of blades and rotational energy of the blades is used to do some mechanical work
and power the turbine to generate electricity

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

S.no Terms Descriptions

1 Solar Energy Solar energy is the energy of Sun. The earth receives a huge amount of energy
from the sun. Traditionally We have been solar energy for drying clothes and
grains, make salt from sea water
2 Solar cooker Solar cooker is a device which is used to cook food by using solar energy.
Solar cookers and solar water heaters are based on the facts that A black
surface absorbs more heat as compared to a white or a reflecting surface under
identical conditions
Solar cooker is having box type structure and its internal surfaces are coloured
with black colour. Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate. Which traps
heats to go out from box and shows greenhouse effect. A plane mirror is also
used to focus the rays of the light. The food which need to be cooked ins kept
inside the box and temperature around 140o C in summer in 2-3 hour and
cooked the food
3 Solar cells A device which converts solar energy into electric energy is called solar cell.
A solar cell can convert only 0.7% of the solar energy into electricity. Silicon
is used in in creating the solar cells

6 Solar cell panels Many solar cells combined in an arrangement is called Solar cell panels. The
solar cells in the solar panel are connected in such a that total potential
difference and total capacity to provide electric current becomes large
 Physics Formula and Important terms 43

7 Tidal energy Gravitational pull of the moon on the spinning earth produces tides in the ocean
This phenomenon is called high and low tides and the difference in sea-levels
gives us tidal energy. Tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a dam across
a narrow opening to the sea. A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts
tidal energy to electricity

8 Wave energy When the wind passes on the water surface, it leads to the pressure difference
between upper and bottom wind which
results in the generation of waves. This wave energy can be harnessed to power
electric generator
9 Ocean Thermal energy The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the Sun while the
water in deeper sections is relatively cold. Ocean-thermal-energy conversion
plants Exploits this difference in temperature. The warm surface-water is used
to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapors of the liquid are then used to
run the turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is
pumped up and
condense vapour again to liquid
10 Geothermal Energy Geo means earth and thermal means heat. So, Geothermal energy is the energy
which is obtained from heat inside the earth.
Sometimes molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are
pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’ and when
underground comes in it contact, steam is generated and that steam can be used
to power turbine

Since the starting material is mainly cow-dung, it is popularly known as

‘gobar-gas’

Bio-gas contains up to 75% methane,23% Carbon dioxide and 2% other gases.

It burns without smoke, leaves no residue like ash in wood, charcoal and coal
burning. It is an excellent fuel
11 Nuclear energy Nuclear energy is generated through the process of Nuclear Fission. In Nuclear
fission, A heavy nucleus is bombarded with a low energy neutron. In this
process, it splits into two lighter nuclei with a tremendous release of energy
which can be utilized to boil water to run turbines.

Nuclear energy is generated in a controlled manner in the Nuclear reactor

The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and disposal of
nucleus wastes because they are radioactive
 Physics Formula and Important terms 44

12 Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most
commonly hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium
2H + 2H → 3He (+ n)
It releases a tremendous amount of energy,

The source of energy in the Sun and other stars is also because of Nuclear
fusion reaction.

13 hydrogen bomb The hydrogen bomb is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear
bomb based on the fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the
hydrogen bomb. This nuclear bomb is embedded in a substance which contains
deuterium and lithium. When the nuclear bomb (based on fission) is detonated,
the temperature of this substance is raised to 107 K in a few microseconds. The
high temperature generates sufficient energy for the light nuclei
to fuse and a devastating amount of energy is released.

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