Flood Control Projects in the Philippines:

A Historical Overview

Richard Martin E. Rinen 1

[email protected]

Norio Maki 2
[email protected]
I. Introduction
The Philippines is an archipelagic nation situated along the
Abstract Pacific Ring of Fire. It is composed of more than seven
Floods have been a natural occurrence in the Philippines since the thousand islands and islets which are divided into three
pre-Hispanic time because most settlements are in very close geographical regions called Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.
proximity to bodies of water. These floods often result in These groups of islands extend from the Balintang Channel
calamities that are aggravated by the uncontrolled urbanization on the north to the Sulu and Celebes Seas on the south and
which brings about even bigger problems. In order to mitigate the South China Sea on the west and the Pacific Ocean on the
effects of flooding, especially in highly urbanized areas, different east. Due to its location, the Philippines is vulnerable to
flood control projects have been undertaken by the Philippine hazards such as tropical cyclones that usually form in the
government. But, despite these efforts, the problem persists and Pacific Ocean aside from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions
continues to threaten the growing population especially with and others. These tropical cyclones are characterized by
climate change. This paper looked into different projects in heavy rains which are influenced mainly by the monsoons
combating flooding from the Hispanic period to the present. This coming from the northeast (Amihan) and southwest
is done by looking into flood control projects through the archives (Habagat). An average of twenty tropical cyclones visit the
of the Bureau of Public Works (Department of Public Works and country each year of which seven or eight make a landfall
Highways) and other literature and categorizing them as risk and inflict considerable damages to lives and properties.
reduction strategy or risk avoidance strategy. As a result, it can These cyclones are also characterized by strong wind forces
be noted that in the past, the placement of towns and villages and
that bring about storm surges and heavy rainfall resulting
even the design of houses and buildings took into consideration
in inundation of river basins and low-lying areas. They also
flooding and other natural phenomena in their location and
cause erosion and slope failures both in rural and urban
design, an effective risk avoidance strategy as in the case of the
areas. These floods are worsened by population growth, in-
relocation of San Juan in Batangas. However, with the
migration, urbanization and economic development that
establishment of the Bureau of Public Works flood control projects
have an adverse impact on the environment (Pante, 2015).
focused mainly on costly structural solutions or risk reduction
strategies as in the case of the Manggahan Floodway. Failure to Aside from the obvious devastation, floods also increase
finish and/or maintain these projects render them ineffective just runoff, reduce water quality and damage water supply
like what happened during Typhoon Ondoy. Therefore, the most infrastructure according to the United States Agency for
effective solutions in mitigating the effects of flooding are mostly International Development (USAID). However, it is argued
non-structural in nature, however, there are situations where also that these floods are not merely natural phenomena but
structural solutions are inevitable and therefore a combination of mostly political, demographic and socioeconomic
strategies with focus more on risk avoidance strategies should be according to Piers Blaikie (1994) and Mark Pelling (2003) as
considered. cited by Pante (2015). If the causes of flooding are not
Keywords: disaster, disaster preparedness, risk avoidance, merely natural, then it is believed that human interventions
flood control, risk reduction can alleviate its effects. And that brings out the question of
“what must be the best practices in mitigating floods?”
_______________ which is the aim of this paper. In September 2009, the
Richard Martin E. Rinen is an assistant professor at the University country was hit by typhoon Ketsana, local name Ondoy,
of the Philippines where he also graduated with B.S. Architecture which brought 150-year return flood water over Metro
and Master of Architecture degrees. He is a PhD candidate for the
Manila and nearby municipalities in the downstream with
degree in Architecture and Architectural Engineering at the
Graduate School of Engineering in Kyoto University under the a rainfall which lasted for 12 hours. This brought changes
Disaster Prevention Research Institute. to the way the Philippines look at disasters particularly at
2 Norio Maki is a Professor of Disaster Prevention Research flood disasters. As a result, the National Disaster
Institute, Kyoto University from 2005. His current research interests Coordinating Council (NDCC) which was reactionary was
are disaster reduction planning, emergency management system, changed to a more proactive approach in dealing with
a long-term recovery process from 1995 Kobe earthquake, 2004 disasters as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Niigata Earthquake, and 2011 Tohoku earthquake, and crisis Management Council (NDRRMC) known as Republic Act
management. 10121.

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In the Philippines, flooding is one of the major problems American plans to be improved and used for transportation
affecting all sectors of society, especially the poorest and and recreation, however, in the next generations they were
most vulnerable; specifically, those who live in low-lying neglected and became the eyesores in the city that needed
areas and informal settlements near or on bodies of water the quick fix solutions as the informal settlers who live in
in major cities like Metro Manila. This situation has not only them. This shows that a change of mindset among decision
become a problem on flooding but a problem in drainage makers need to occur for this to be controlled. Gilbuena's
and sanitation as well. There have been 169 flood events (Gilbuena, 2013) study found that existing flood control
recorded since 1968 to 2019 that affected almost 35M people structures in Metro Manila failed during Typhoon Ketsana
(EM-DAT, 2019). With the threat of the changing climate, it (Ondoy) due to inappropriate designation of land use
is expected to be happening more frequently and gravely in particularly the encroachment of informal settlements
the years to come. causing drainage problems and the lack of maintenance.
Typhoon Ketsana (local name Ondoy) in 2009 was a wake- His conclusion, however, focused on disaster preparedness
up call among Manileños and the rest of the country that and mitigation via structural flood mitigation measures
flood is still a reality which brought about the re- such as proper maintenance of existing flood control
examination of non-structural flood mitigation measures structures and early warning systems and did not reiterate
such as flood forecasting and disaster preparedness and the importance of land use as a more sustainable solution
response; investigation on the extreme flooding events to and as a major factor for flood control structures to function
land use and water resources; impact assessment of during disasters; an important point that was implied in his
extreme floods to the urban ecological environment; and findings and is the focus of this paper.
performance evaluation of existing flood control structures,
all as part of an integrated water resources management
program (Gilbuena, 2013). III. Research Methods
There were flood control projects undertaken by the Archival research was done from the records of the
government and there are still projects to be implemented Department of Public Works and Highways, formerly
under the Department of Public Works and Highways since known as the Bureau of Public Works through its
its establishment during the American Era. This paper publication from 1912 (Quarterly Bulletin) to the present
argues that it is important to take a look at these projects in (Annual Report). Other records were gathered from
order to determine different approaches and find out which different literatures to cover the period before the
ones are effective and/or appropriate in the Philippine abovementioned publications existed. The flood control
setting. And therefore, a look at flood protection strategies strategies recorded in literary works and the official
is very important to weigh for a better approach to mitigate publication of the bureau were tabulated and categorized
flooding. into two: risk reduction and risk avoidance of which only
some projects will be mentioned in the presentation of the
findings for the sake of brevity. The generally accepted
II. Related Literature definition of risk avoidance and risk reduction was used as
Flood research in the Philippines has been done but no follows; risk avoidance deals with eliminating any
research chronicles the flood control projects from pre- exposure to risk that poses a potential loss and risk
colonial up to the present. However, the following research reduction deals with reducing the likelihood and severity
have contributed to build up this paper’s importance and of a possible loss. Two major projects deemed to best
contributed to the data needed to support the goal of the represent the type of each approach were further identified
research. Bankoff (Bankoff, 2007) traced the occurrence of and compared in terms of effectiveness. From the data
disasters in the Philippines to the lack of mutuality between gathered, conclusions and recommendations were drawn
the environment and human activities over time. His in order to guide decision makers to formulate a better
research focused mainly in Metro Manila and chronicled strategy for flood control. The illustration below explains
the history of flooding from 1691 to 1911 as recorded in the the research framework.
archives of the Manila Observatory. This work proves that
flooding is not just a recent phenomenon in the Philippines.
Chias (Chias & Abad, 2012) studied old maps and other
archival literary materials to trace how the cities in the
Philippines developed from small native communities
during the Spanish colonization. She concluded that Spain
colonized and controlled the territories by establishing the
foundation of sites and the creation of a road network to
link each. While Ocampo (Ocampo, 1992) recorded the
growth of cities in the Philippines particularly that of
Manila from the start of the Spanish period,
Commonwealth and Post-war period. His study showed
how the esteros have been part of the Spanish and Figure 1. Research Framework.

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IV. Findings type to which flood and earthquake protection has been a
consideration as evident in the urban development as well
Flooding in the Philippines has been chronicled by Bankoff as the height of the housing and main buildings and even
(Bankoff, 2000) showing that flooding is a regular the bell towers. However, early settlements have been
occurrence in the Philippines due to its location, decided on where they were carried by the ocean current or
topography, climate, the global crisis of climatic change and where they took shelter from storms (Chias, 2012). This is
rising sea level and other human induced factors. A record an example of how nature and its limitations have been a
of flood events from 1691 to 1900 have been gathered by major consideration for development. A very good example
Bankoff from the archives of the Manila Observatory of such consideration is the old town (Pinagbayanan) of San
(Bankoff, 2007) and this was continued with the available Juan in Batangas which was established along the coast of
data from EM-DAT from 1960 to 2019 accessed in May 2019 Tayabas Bay in the 1840s during the late Spanish Colonial
(Figure 3). It is noticeable that the occurrence of flood is Period. Popular history recounts its relocation seven
continuously increasing which is partly attributable to the kilometers inland to its current location from 1869 until the
more accurate recording of events. As a response, the new town was established in 1890 because of seasonal
government in all the forms it has taken throughout history flooding. Geoarchaeological landscape data from two stone
responded accordingly with the given technology and houses and the old church complex are used alongside
resources of the time. ethnohistorical accounts to explore this period further.
Archival documents recorded the conflict between the
For ease of presentation of the findings, major events in
priest and the residents in transferring the town. By
Philippine history were divided into four periods namely:
integrating these data, it shows the power of the church and
Hispanic Period (1521-1898), American Era (1898-1946),
resilience of the townspeople. This argument analyzes how
World War 2 to Marcos Regime (1946-1986), and Post-
two prominent groups responded to the same flooding
Marcos to Present (1986-2019).
event in the context of local resilience and resistance to
Spanish demands. The results are tied to the larger context
of Spanish colonial occupation of the Philippines (Tesoro,
2017).

From 1780 to 1893, the hacienda administrators built forty-

five irrigation dams with tunnels, waterways, and
irrigation canals in order to channel available water sources
to excellent use, that way securing rice paddies during
extended drought periods. They appropriated considerable
sums of money for breaking up untilled lands, putting up
mangrove embankments, draining swamps, and building
Figure 2. Flooding Record from 1960-2019 EM-DAT, May 2019
vital road arteries and streets. One of the evident irrigation
projects that still exist today is Prinza Dam which was “built
in the 18th century to irrigate the surrounding rice fields of
A. Hispanic Period
Las Piñas & Bacoor. It is a gravity dam on the Zapote River
“It was no marvel that they left it, because the few Indians who found on the border between Barangay Talon Dos, Las
dwelt there, about seven hundred inhabitants in all, were Piñas and Barangay San Nicolas, Bacoor. This is a man-
scattered in thirty villages situated at the foot of some mountains made irrigation dam with its walls made out of adobe
toward the sea—in a land subject to overflow, with many creeks (height ranging from 25-30 stacks) and some parts of the
or little rivers to cross which the Indians did not take the trouble flooring made out of cobblestones. Series of buttresses
to build bridges. There was no open road from one village to support its perimeter walls and balete trees and bamboo
another.” (Aduarte, 1640) grasses contribute to the enhanced structural integrity of
the dam. This dam and its attached water distribution
The Philippine archipelago was under Spanish rule
system is an outstanding feat of hydrological engineering.
beginning in 1521. The first Spanish settlement was built in
The dam serves as a passageway for commuters from
Cebu Island and then expanded into more than two
Bacoor and Las Piñas respectively” (City Government of
hundred new cities following the traditional grid structure
Bacoor, 2017).
according to the provisions of Leyes de Indias (Indies
Legislation) enacted in 1573 by King Philip II of Spain to
whom the archipelago was also named after. The most
important was Manila (1571), which was founded over an
existing native commercial settlement. The cities were
established mainly on the coast which later became port
cities. They then moved inland which were soon connected
through a network of roads, railroads and navigational
routes. The establishment of new cities was guided by
simple principles according to their function and to urban

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time in 1909 (Pante, 2015). This plan also included the

reclamation of portions of Manila Bay as reported by John
D. Fitzgerald of Australia (Vernon, 2011). The plan
recognized the balance between living, working and
recreation, however, the formalism of the City Beautiful
Movement failed to consider the socio-economic concerns
of the working class of Manila (Zaide, 2018). Aside from the
city of Manila, Burnham also made the plan for the city of
Baguio on the north, the summer capital of the Philippines.
Baguio’s undulating terrain posed a challenge to
Burnham’s “controlling principle” and decided to make his
plans “obedient to nature” and therefore cannot be a formal
layout of the City Beautiful street plan but rather adaptive
Figure 3. Remains of the houses in Pinagbayanan (San to the “terrain’s warp and weft” (Vernon, 2011).
Juan, Batangas).
Source: Philippine Daily Inquirer, August 21, 2011

Figure 5. Frinza Dam.

Source: http://bacoor.gov.ph/tourism/prinza-dam
Figure 4. Location Map of the old town Pinagbayanan.
UP-
According to Huez de Lemps as cited by Bankoff, as early
as 1882, the refurbishment of the drainage system in Manila
based on the network of esteros was drawn as the most
practical solution given the financial resources at that time.
This was only partially realized until the eve of the 1896-98
Philippine revolution (Bankoff, 2000).

B. American Era
InAS 1898, the the
Study and Spaniards
Current Mapceded
of Santhe Philippines
Juan, Batangas to the
Americans
Source: San Juan Batangas Local Government Unitalongside Puerto
through the Treaty of Paris
Rico and Guam. The Americans immediately recognized Figure 6. Flooded Santa Ana, Manila circa 1914.
social and environmental problems in the Philippines Source: Eduardo de Leon (Pinterest)
including poor quality housing, polluted waterways, Although the Bureau of Public Works was already in
widespread poverty and lack of a national education existence in 1867 under the Spanish Civil Government
system to name a few (Morley, 2011). As part of the whose function was to encourage insular trades and
response to these problems, the Americans created big transportations, it was only formally established in 1905 to
plans for the cities in the image of the idealized City take charge in constructing roads, bridges and buildings in
Beautiful with Burnham’s Plan of Manila as a start. This the country. As part of the Division of Irrigation is the
plan was meant to improve the physical city by means of “Flood Control and Drainage Section responsible for
constructing new road systems, using waterways for investigation, survey, planning, design, construction and
transportation, beautification of the city’s waterfront, and repair of river and flood control and drainage projects, both
construction of parks, parkways and buildings with Pasig communal and regional in scope, and the dredging of river
River as the key design driver (Zaide, 2018). Although there for flood control” (Bureau of Public Works, 1958).
was no explicit flood control plan under the Burnham plan,
a citywide drainage system was built in Manila for the first

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Several projects have been undertaken during the

American Era in Manila and other parts of the country
focusing on dredging operations along the Pasig River, and
several esteros such as Binondo, Reina Regente, Escolta,
Magdalena, Paco (Bureau of Public Works) and others from
1915 continuing onwards until the Second World War. The
table below from the Quarterly Bulletin of the bureau
shows some of these projects in 1919 although these
activities as well as river walls have been built as early as
1912 when the bureau built “Angat River Protection Wall to
Protect the city of Baliuag against further encroachments of
the Angat River” in Bulacan (Bureau of Public Works, 1912).
Figure 8. Temporary Bank Revetment, Magat River
There were also technologies employed such as the one Control, Bayombong Nueva Ecija.
done for “Tanhay, on Kilometer 33 of the Dumaguete North Source: Bureau of Public Works
Road, where the district engineer started a river-control
project to prevent the Roman Catholic Church and other
valuable property from being destroyed by undermining
from the Tanhay River flood waters. This project consists of
anchoring bamboo mattresses loaded with rock and sunk in
place, at approximately a right angle from the line of
embankment, which will tend to divert the stream flow
from being destroyed” (Bureau of Public Works, 1912).
Such examples of indigenous ways combined with
engineering technology were successful in preventing
floods at that time. Flood control projects during the
American Era covers the entire country from Northern
Luzon to Mindanao. One of the biggest dams in the Figure 9. The “Sausage” A Novel method for preventing
Philippines, the La Mesa Dam which supplies most of the river overflow on the Tumaga River.
water demands in Metro Manila at the present, was also Source: Bureau of Public Works
built in 1929 as well.
C. WWII to Marcos Regime
The era after World War Two is of great importance when
it comes to flood control because it was at this time that
rebuilding after the war began. According to the report of
the Bureau of Public Works secretary Prospero C. Sanidad,
from 1948 to 1949, works were undertaken for ports and
harbors and sea protection walls, irrigation systems,
waterworks and river control works. River and flood
control priorities included the Pampanga River control and
the Agno River control as well as the Manila Flood Control
Program, during which time a master storm drainage plan
was completed. Three major flood control projects were
built during the presidency of Elpidio Quirino, Agno River
control, Pampanga River control and Manila flood control
and drainage project. And in 1958, a plan for the
reclamation of a portion of Manila Bay was proposed along
Dewey Boulevard and broadened by Manuel L. Quezon.
Three major dams were built including Ambuklao Dam in
1950–56, Agusan Dam in 1956–57 and Angat Dam in 1961–
Figure 7. Sample Table of Flood Control Projects. 67. Many authors wrote how they see the efforts done by
Source: Bureau of Public Works the government through very critical eyes saying that the
Marcos regime focused on infrastructure as a means to
build up its power. “The state efforts to control floods
pursued two aims: to tame nature and to discipline human
nature.” The first aim considered flooding as not just part
of a natural order and therefore can be resolved through
technical measures. The second aim is to discipline the
people to eradicate “bad” attitudes deemed to contribute to

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flooding and to nurture socially responsible behavior. Of him in 2019). Without the spillway, the construction of the
course, the first aim failed due to the difficulty of Manggahan Floodway only created risk transference as the
implementing the second. The goal to make the waterways floodwater from Metro Manila is directed toward the
free of obstructions is hampered by the existence of Laguna Lake which floods the towns along the lake as
informal settlements along riverbanks who were often shown in the study of Saguin (Saguin, 2017).
“blamed for floods.” Therefore, they also became the
primary targets of the state’s flood control efforts (Pante,
2015). The government focused on beautifying the city of
Manila but forgot to include “the nameless and faceless
urban poor, who lived in their thousands in squatter
communities along the esteros” (Warren, 2013). Mrs.
Flood Control Projects were undertaken in different parts
Marcos, who was the governor of Manila, sees the squatters
of the country including the Manila Flood Control in
as an eyesore. The typhoons and floods that occurred in the
Manila and the suburbs. These include dredging of esteros
Marcos years were labeled ‘natural disasters’ by the
and construction of River Controls in Agno River,
authorities in Manila. But in fact, it would have been more
Pampanga River and other major rivers in the Philippines.
appropriate to label them un-natural or man-made
To give credit to Ferdinand Marcos, he not only built
disasters because of the nature of politics in those unsettling
years” (Warren, 2013). The typhoons experienced during
Figure 10. Manggahan Floodway.
the 70s and 80s made the real problems very obvious,
Source: Bureau of Public Works
particularly in highly urbanized parts of the Philippines
like Manila. There was an exponential growth of the several edifices that still stand today but he also undertook
population and rural-urban migration and the government major projects for flood control. The Magat Dam in Isabela
failed to address the needs for housing of the growing was constructed in 1975 and finished in 1982 for irrigation
squatter communities who dwelled out of sight of the path and power generation. In 1978, flood control programs
of the capital’s crushing progress. These communities were given substantial budgets for a total of 3.5 billion
thrived in low lying and vulnerable areas that are directly pesos due to flood damage which was estimated at 30
in the path of typhoons and prone to flooding. Instead of million pesos. The proposed projects were the Manggahan
solving these problems, the government focused on Floodway, Napindan Hydraulic Control System,
building world-class hotels, convention and cultural Parañaque Spillway, and Marikina Dam. However, the last
centers, chain drug stores, schools, hospitals and clinics, two were not built or even started during his 20-year
and shopping centers. The government fell into what can regime.
be called a national “quick-fix” relief aid syndrome. “The
Marcos regime, from a purely political standpoint, could
only think about short term effects, rather than thinking
and operating on longer-term environmental scales in
dealing with urban flooding as a serious and growing
development challenge for Manila. The proclamations of a
state of calamity benefitted the Marcos administration. The
manipulation of disaster relief funds by the Marcos
politicians and their ability to reap political and social
capital from their risk management of floods” has been
manipulated by the media. The Marcos administration was
the prime beneficiary both economically and politically
(Warren, 2013). Despite these points of view, it is only
toward the end of the Marcos regime that the biggest Flood
Control Project materialized is the Manggahan Floodway
Figure 11. Paranaque Spillway Original Concept Diagram
which was finished in 1986 after Marcos was ousted from
by the office of Ar. Palafox.
power. The second phase which is the Paranaque Spillway,
however, was not built by the next administrations up to D. Post Marcos to the Present
the writing of this paper and is not in the priority projects
even of the present administration of Duterte although After the Marcos regime, Corazon Aquino halted all
comprehensive studies and plans have already been laid projects with the name Marcos stamped to it including the
out by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) flood control projects. Thus, according to some reports,
in 2018 patterned from the original concept drawn by the only the first three parts of the Manggahan Floodway were
office of Ar. Felino Palafox Jr. shown in figure 13. This completed in 1983, 1984 and in 1996; the Marcoses were
spillway was supposed to draw off floodwater from ousted from power in 1986. The second phase which was
Laguna Lake into the ocean, preventing the flood disasters supposed to be the construction of a spillway from Laguna
that now affect Metro Manila according to Ar. Felino de Bay to Manila Bay in case the lake overflowed in a
Palafox (Palafox, 2017 as confirmed in an interview with

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 Flood Control Projects in the Philippines: A Historical Overview
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massive flood was one of those projects that was scrapped well remain to be either on the drawing board or partly
by the Cory administration (Billington, 2009). built due to lack of funding. Therefore, although the plans
are supposed to mitigate flooding, partly built projects
become a false security and create more damage to lives and
properties. An example of these projects includes the
proposals for major rivers such as the Cagayan River Basin
of which the plans laid out by Nippon Koei International
Consulting Engineers still remains partly constructed and
the continuing sedimentation of the river causes flooding
and obsolescence of the Magat Dam, and therefore needs
special attention.

After Typhoon Ketsana (Ondoy), rehabilitation of the Pasig

River and its tributaries was one of the successful projects
Figure 12. Napindan Hydraulic Control.
undertaken under the Pasig River Rehabilitation
Source: Bureau of Public Works Commission (PRRC) in Manila. The effects on flooding of
this project are yet to be seen but the project received
international recognition in 2018 when the effort was
awarded as the Asia River Prize Award. Along with it was
the relocation of informal settlers along the rivers and
esteros; clearing them from garbage that blocks the
waterways. This also includes the in-city relocation of
The problems brought about by the lack of comprehensive informal settlements along Manggahan Floodway. But like
other projects, these are only part and parcel of the bigger
project proposal.

With the administration under Rodrigo Duterte, the

government’s effort in nation-building is focused on
infrastructure with its Build Build Build program. This
Figure 13. Manggahan Floodway. includes the prioritization of Flood Control as one of the
Source: Flicker.com key projects. “The master plan proposed a set of measures
to effectively manage major flood events, which include
reducing flooding from river systems that run through the
programs for the urban poor are evident as the Manggahan
metropolis, by building a dam in the upper Marikina River
Floodway is not spared from the encroachment of informal
catchment area in order to reduce the peak river flows
settlements as shown in figure 15. This scenario puts more
entering Metro Manila during typhoons and other extreme
people in vulnerable situations.
rainfall events. Also included are the elimination of long-
term flooding in the floodplain of Laguna de Bay, to protect
the population living along the shore against high water in
the lake; improvement of urban drainage, including
modernization of Metro Manila’s pumping stations; and
improvement of flood forecasting, early warning systems,
and community-based flood risk management (Finance,
2018). One of the biggest undertakings of this government
is the continuation of the spillway project which has been
undertaken by JICA in 2018 (JICA, 2018). However, this
project is still on the boards.

Figure 14. Estero de Paco before and after the clean-up

and relocation of the Informal Settlers.
E. Analysis
It can be noted that flood control strategies employed since
Major flood control projects have been accomplished by the
the inception of the Bureau of Public Works (Department of
next administrations like the continuation of projects
Public Works and Highways) are focused on Risk
already started during the former regimes and immediate
Reduction with a few exceptions of Risk Avoidance
relief to respond to a disaster; such as the construction of
strategies. The summary of these projects is shown in figure
the protective dikes in Pampanga to prevent further
18.
destruction by lahar after the Mount Pinatubo eruption in
Source: www.citylab.com
1991; the rehabilitation of Ormoc City after the flash flood Major projects that employ risk avoidance strategies
that devastated the city, also in 1991. Most of the projects as involve mostly relocation of vulnerable populations to less

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MUHON: A Journal of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and the Designed Environment
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Flood Control Projects in the Philippines: A Historical Overview
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hazardous locations. The project which best represents this and most of all, suitable for the local situation (local
strategy is the relocation of San Juan town proper in knowledge) must be employed.
Batangas. From then, flooding was never a problem in this
town from Hispanic times until today. While major projects
that employ risk reduction strategies create a false security
scenario or risk transfer if left unfinished or poorly
maintained. However, the two strategies need to be
combined and a more innovative, efficient, cost effective

Summary of Projects (Simplified Table)

Pre-Hispanic-Hispanic American (1898-1946) WWII- Marcos (1946- Post-Marcos-Present

(1521-1898) 1986) (1986-2019)

Risk Avoidance Relocation of town to Raising of driveways Eviction of informal Relocation of informal
higher ground; design “well above high settlers from settlements from
of houses and buildings water”, relocation of waterways and dikes – esteros/waterways –
(primary considerations roads. Policy. Policy)
in locating cities)

Risk Reduction Irrigation canals used “Sausage”, irrigation Irrigation canals, Irrigation canals,
mainly to irrigate fields canals, riverbank riverbank, erosion riverbank, erosion control
but also function as erosion control (dikes, control (dikes, walls, (dikes, walls, revetment),
flood control. bamboo mats, walls, revetment), dams, dams, dredging of rivers,
The use of plants for revetment), dams, dredging of rivers, channel diversion (cut-off
bank protection. dredging of rivers, channel diversion (cut- channels), channel
channel diversion (pile off channels), channel improvement, levees, flood
hurdles, cut-off improvement, levees, canal, flood gates, flood
channels), channel flood canal, flood gates, reservoir, drainage,
improvement, flood flood reservoir, pumping stations, small
canals, levees drainage, pumping water impounding
stations, small water management (SWIM),
impounding retarding lagoons, mega
management (SWIM), dikes
retarding lagoons

Figure 15. Flood Control Strategies Summary Table.

during Typhoon Ketsana (Ondoy). There are strategies that

V. Conclusion and worked like the relocation of San Juan town proper to avoid
Recommendation flooding and the strategies employed by the Spaniards in
selecting the location of the city. This only shows that the
Based on the records of flood control strategies from pre- failure to consider land use planning in dealing with
Hispanic to the present, we can see that the focus since the flooding brought the Philippines to the never-ending loop
creation of the bureau is mainly on risk reduction and not of flooding and recovery. The table below shows that there
on risk avoidance as shown in figure 18. Most of the projects are very few risk avoidance strategies employed
are engineering in nature and very few dealt with land use, throughout history compared to the risk reduction
thus neglecting the more important issues on housing, job strategies.
creation, and others. Esteros and other natural drains are
neglected and become breeding grounds of garbage, There must be some intervention. It is recommended that
literally and figuratively. And even major engineering risk avoidance strategies should be given priority without
solutions such as the Manggahan Floodway just transferred losing the risk reduction strategies as both need to be
the risk especially if the entirety of the proposal is not built. working together. Risk reduction strategies should be
It is understandable that the application of available combined with local or indigenous knowledge in order to
technology has been employed but the main reason for be able to create strategies that are feasible and not very
project implementation is the availability of funds and much dependent on borrowed engineering technologies.
therefore very dependent on the priorities of the incumbent Figure 19 shows the illustration of the recommendation for
administration. The government has been trying to a better way to build back better.
implement something that is not grounded in culture and
local situations particularly in terms of economics. A Further research must be done in order to make a more
number of proposals have been done but most projects have detailed analysis of the projects undertaken by the
not been completely implemented thus providing false government in terms of their effectiveness.
security and eventually neglected due to high maintenance
cost as in the case of the failure of several pumping stations

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University of the Philippines College of Architecture Issue No. 8
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land structures in the Philippines, 1521–1898. Journal of
asian architecture and building engineering, 9-16.
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