uphrates

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Coordinates: 31°0′18″N 47°26′31″E
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the river in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see Euphrates
(disambiguation).

Euphrates

The Euphrates in the town of Birecik, Turkey.

 Map of the combined Tigris–Euphrates drainage basin (in yellow)

Etymolog from Akkadian Purattu, from Sumerian Burannu

Location

Countr Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran

y

Basin Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran

area

Source Armenian highlands[1]

region

Cities Birecik, Raqqa, Deir ez-

Zor, Mayadin, Haditha, Ramadi, Habbaniyah, Fallujah,
Kufa, Samawah, Nasiriyah

Physical characteristics

Source Murat River

• locati Çat, Turkey

on
 • coordi 39°43′44″N 41°13′23″E
nates

• elevat 3,520 m (11,550 ft)

ion

2nd Karasu

source

• locati Yakutiye, Turkey

on

• coordi 40°11′24″N 41°30′25″E

nates

• elevat 3,290 m (10,790 ft)

ion

Source

confluence

• locati Keban, Turkey

on

• coordi 39°43′44″N 40°15′25″E

nates

• elevat 610 m (2,000 ft)

ion

Mouth Shatt al-Arab

• locati Al-Qurnah, Iraq

on

• coordi 31°0′18″N 47°26′31″E

nates

• elevat 1 m (3.3 ft)

ion

Length Approx. 2,800 km (1,700 mi)

Basin size Approx. 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi)

 Dischar
ge

• locati Hīt
on

• avera 356 m3/s (12,600 cu ft/s)

ge

• minim 58 m3/s (2,000 cu ft/s)

um

• maxi 2,514 m3/s (88,800 cu ft/s)

mum

Basin features

Progressio Shatt al-Arab → Persian Gulf

River Tigris–Euphrates river system

system

Tributa
ries

• left Balikh, Khabur

• right Sajur

The Euphrates (/juːˈfreɪtiːz/ ⓘ yoo-FRAY-teez; see below) is the longest and one of
the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is
one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (lit. 'the land between the rivers').
Originating in Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in
the Shatt al-Arab in Iran, which empties into the Persian Gulf.
The Euphrates is the fifteenth-longest river in Asia and the longest in Western Asia,
at about 2,780 km (1,730 mi), with a drainage area of 440,000 km2 (170,000 sq mi)
that covers six countries.
Etymology[edit]
The term Euphrates derives from the Greek Euphrátēs (Εὐφρᾱ́της), adapted
from Old Persian: 𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢, romanized: Ufrātu,[2] itself
from Elamite: 𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖, romanized: ú-ip-ra-tu-iš. The Elamite name is ultimately
derived from a name spelt in cuneiform 𒌓𒄒𒉣 , which read
as Sumerian is Buranuna and read as Akkadian is Purattu; many cuneiform signs
have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a
Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same. The
Akkadian Purattu[3] has been perpetuated in Semitic languages (cf. Arabic: ‫ الفرات‬al-
Furāt; Syriac: ̇‫ ܦܪܬ‬Pǝrāṯ, Hebrew: ‫ ְּפָר ת‬Pǝrāṯ) and in other nearby languages of the
time (cf. Hurrian Puranti, Sabarian Uruttu). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly
Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded substrate language.
[4]
Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov suggest the proto-
Sumerian *burudu "copper" (Sumerian urudu) as an origin, with an explanation that
Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since
Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.[5]
The Euphrates is called Yeprat in Armenian (Եփրատ), Perat in modern Hebrew (
‫)פרת‬, Fırat in Turkish and Firat in Kurdish. The Mandaic name is Praš (ࡔࡀࡓࡐ), and
is often mentioned as Praš Ziwa (pronounced Fraš Ziwa) in Mandaean
scriptures such as the Ginza Rabba.[6] In Mandaean scriptures, the Euphrates is
considered to be the earthly manifestation of the heavenly yardna or flowing river
(similar to the Yazidi concept of Lalish being the earthly manifestation of its heavenly
counterpart,[7] or the ‘Sacred House’ Kaaba in Mecca being the earthly manifestation
of the heavenly Al-Bayt Al-Mamur).[8]
The earliest references to the Euphrates come from cuneiform texts found
in Shuruppak and pre-Sargonic Nippur in southern Iraq and date to the mid-3rd
millennium BCE. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is
called Buranuna (logographic: UD.KIB.NUN). The name could also be written
KIB.NUN.(NA) or dKIB.NUN, with the prefix "d" indicating that the river was a divinity.
In Sumerian, the name of the city of Sippar in modern-day Iraq was also written
UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the
river.
Course[edit]

Plan, topographic representation of Babylon. The clay

tablet depicts "Tu-ba", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon. The River Euphrates
is represented by the water-lined band. 660-500 BCE. British Museum
The Euphrates is the longest river of Western Asia.[9] It emerges from the confluence
of the Kara Su or Western Euphrates (450 kilometres (280 mi)) and the Murat Su or
Eastern Euphrates (650 kilometres (400 mi)) 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) upstream from
the town of Keban in southeastern Turkey.[10] Daoudy and Frenken put the length of
the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the Tigris at
3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), of which 1,230 kilometres (760 mi) is in Turkey, 710
kilometres (440 mi) in Syria and 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) in Iraq.[11][12] The same
figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova.[13] The length of the Shatt al-Arab, which
connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the Persian Gulf, is given by various
sources as 145–195 kilometres (90–121 mi).[14]
Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from Lake Van at elevations of
3,290 metres (10,790 ft) and 3,520 metres (11,550 ft) amsl, respectively.[15] At the
location of the Keban Dam, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have
dropped to an elevation of 693 metres (2,274 ft) amsl. From Keban to the Syrian–
Turkish border, the river drops another 368 metres (1,207 ft) over a distance of less
than 600 kilometres (370 mi). Once the Euphrates enters the Upper
Mesopotamian plains, its grade drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163
metres (535 ft) while over the last stretch between Hīt and the Shatt al-Arab the river
drops only 55 metres (180 ft).[10][16]
Discharge[edit]
The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow,
resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. Discharge in these
two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates,
or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer
and autumn.[13][17] The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been
determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as 20.9 cubic kilometres
(5.0 cu mi) at Keban, 36.6 cubic kilometres (8.8 cu mi) at Hīt and 21.5 cubic
kilometres (5.2 cu mi) at Hindiya.[18] However, these averages mask the high inter-
annual variability in discharge; at Birecik, just north of the Syro–Turkish border,
annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 cubic
kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to a high of 42.7 cubic kilometres (10.2 cu mi) in 1963.
[19]

The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the
construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected
after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the
Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge
at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 cubic metres (12,600 cu ft) per second (11.2
cubic kilometres (2.7 cu mi) per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed.
The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7,510 cubic metres (265,000 cu ft)
per second, while after 1990 it is only 2,514 cubic metres (88,800 cu ft) per second.
The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 cubic
metres (1,900 cu ft) per second before 1990 to 58 cubic metres (2,000 cu ft) per
second afterward.[20][21]
Tributaries[edit]

View of the Murat River

In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the Sajur, the Balikh and
the Khabur. These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro–
Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the
smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and
draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin
Dam. The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus
and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa. In terms of
length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its
main karstic springs are located around Ra's al-'Ayn, from where the Khabur flows
southeast past Al-Hasakah, where the river turns south and drains into the
Euphrates near Busayrah. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more
natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin
with the Tigris basin exist.[22][23]

Name Length Watershed size Discharge Bank

450 km
Kara Su 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi) Confluence
(280 mi)

650 km
Murat River 40,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi) Confluence
(400 mi)

Sajur River 108 km (67 mi) 2,042 km2 (788 sq mi) 4.1 m3/s (145 cu ft/s) Right

Balikh River 100 km (62 mi) 14,400 km2 (5,600 sq mi) 6 m3/s (212 cu ft/s) Left

Khabur 486 km
37,081 km2 (14,317 sq mi) 45 m3/s (1,600 cu ft/s) Left
River (302 mi)

Drainage basin[edit]

French map from the 17th century showing the

Euphrates and the Tigris
Further information: Tigris–Euphrates river system
The drainage basins of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22,000
square kilometres (8,500 sq mi) and 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi),
respectively.[10] Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely;
from a low 233,000 square kilometres (90,000 sq mi) to a high 766,000 square
kilometres (296,000 sq mi).[13] Recent estimates put the basin area at 388,000 square
kilometres (150,000 sq mi),[10] 444,000 square kilometres (171,000 sq mi)[11][24] and
579,314 square kilometres (223,674 sq mi).[25] The greater part of the Euphrates
basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken,
Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent. [11]
[12]
Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within
Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively.[13] Some sources
estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within Saudi
Arabia, while a small part falls inside the borders of Kuwait.[11][12] Finally, some sources
also include Jordan in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the
eastern desert (220 square kilometres (85 sq mi)) drains toward the east rather than
to the west.[13][26]
Climate change[edit]
In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river
could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts.[27]
Natural history[edit]
See also: Mesopotamian Marshes

Rafetus euphraticus
The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct vegetation zones. Although
millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has
significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The
steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian
Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper
reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their
southern foothills which support a xeric woodland. Plant species in the moister parts
of this zone include various oaks, pistachio trees, and Rosaceae (rose/plum family).
The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest
and Rosaceae. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals,
including einkorn wheat, emmer, oat and rye.[28]
South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-steppe vegetation. Between Raqqa
and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This
steppe is characterised by white wormwood (Artemisia herba-alba)
and Amaranthaceae. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due
to the practicing of sheep and goat pastoralism by its inhabitants.[29] Southeast of the
border between Syria and Iraq starts true desert. This zone supports either no
vegetation at all or small pockets of Chenopodiaceae or Poa sinaica. Although today
nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the
Euphrates Valley would have supported a riverine forest. Species characteristic of
this type of forest include the Oriental plane, the Euphrates poplar, the tamarisk,
the ash and various wetland plants.[30]
Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of
the Cyprinidae are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total.[31] Among the
Cyprinids, the mangar has good recreational fishing qualities, leading the British to
nickname it the "Tigris salmon." The Euphrates softshell turtle is an endangered soft-
shelled turtle that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.[32][33]
The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict lion and bull
hunts in fertile landscapes.[34] Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in
the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area,
many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like gazelle, onager and
the now-extinct Arabian ostrich lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley,
while the valley itself was home to the wild boar. Carnivorous species include
the wolf, the golden jackal, the red fox, the leopard and the lion. The Syrian brown
bear can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of Eurasian
beaver has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of Tell Abu
Hureyra in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.[35]
River[edit]
Main articles: Dams in Iraq, Tabqa Dam, and Southeastern Anatolia Project

Map (in French) showing the locations of

dams and barrages built in the Syro–Turkish part of the Euphrates basin
The Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil
engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913, was the first modern water
diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system.[36] The Hindiya Barrage
was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis
Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge
excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah. Iraq's largest
dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam; a 9-kilometre-long (5.6 mi) earth-fill
dam creating Lake Qadisiyah.[37] Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the
Euphrates in the 1970s. The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while
Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia
Project, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates,
the Baath Dam and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the Halabiye
Dam – between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor.[38] The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam
and its reservoir (Lake Assad) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water.
It was planned that 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) should be irrigated from Lake
Assad, but in 2000 only 100,000–124,000 hectares (390–480 sq mi) had been
realized.[39][40] Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.[41]
With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (Turkish: Güneydoğu
Anadolu Projesi, or GAP) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to
harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity
production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces.[42] GAP
affects a total area of 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) and approximately
7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and
population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including
the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1,700,000
hectares (6,600 sq mi) of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable
land in Turkey.[43] C. 910,000 hectares (3,500 sq mi) of this irrigated land is located in
the Euphrates basin.[44] By far the largest dam in GAP is the Atatürk Dam, located c.
55 kilometres (34 mi) northwest of Şanlıurfa. This 184-metre-high (604 ft) and 1,820-
metre-long (5,970 ft) dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is
the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 cubic kilometres
(11.7 cu mi), the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual
discharge of the Euphrates.[45] Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has
been delayed because the World Bank has withheld funding due to the lack of an
official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on
the Euphrates and the Tigris.[46]
Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals
connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Tharthar, and Abu Dibbis
reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the Shatt al-Hayy,
the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the
Main Outfall Drain or so-called "Third River;" constructed between 1953 and 1992.
This 565-kilometre-long (351 mi) canal is intended to drain the area between the
Euphrates and the Tigris south of Baghdad to prevent soil salinization from irrigation.
It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.[47][48][49]
Environmental and social effects[edit]
See also: Environmental impact of reservoirs

Keban Dam in Turkey, the first dam on the Euphrates

after it emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su and the Murat Su
 Qal'at Ja'bar in Syria, once perched on a hilltop
overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding
of Lake Assad
The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a
significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams
constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have
affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere.
The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam,
which alone affected 55,300 people.[50] A survey among those who were displaced
showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the
compensation they had received was considered insufficient.[51] The flooding of Lake
Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other
parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "Arab belt"
along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.[52][53][54]
Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and
irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of
reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to
increased evaporation; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available
for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 cubic
kilometres (0.48 cu mi) in Turkey, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) in Syria and 5 cubic
kilometres (1.2 cu mi) in Iraq.[55] Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because
irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with
dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields.[56] The salinity of Euphrates water in
Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower
suitability as drinking water.[57] The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the
associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the
ecologically already fragile Mesopotamian Marshes and on freshwater
fish habitats in Iraq.[58][59]
The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria,
has led to the flooding of many archaeological sites and other places of cultural
significance.[60] Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as
much of the endangered cultural heritage as possible, many sites are probably lost
forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major
international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the
endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of Zeugma with its
unique Roman mosaics by the reservoir of the Birecik Dam has generated much
controversy in both the Turkish and international press.[61][62] The construction of the
Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated
by UNESCO to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of
Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in
date from the Natufian to the Abbasid period, and two minarets were dismantled and
rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by
the rising waters of Lake Assad include Mureybet, Emar and Abu Hureyra.[63] A
similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which
led, among others, to the flooding of the important Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Jerf
el Ahmar.[64] An archaeological survey and rescue excavations were also carried out
in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq.[65] Parts of the flooded area have
recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only
in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing
opportunities for looting, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of
the 2003 invasion.[66]
Religion[edit]
Islam[edit]
In Islam, hadiths say Muhammad said "The Last Hour would not come before the
Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out
of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps
he would be the one who would be saved" and that "he who finds it [the gold] should
not take anything out of that."[67] This is said to be one of the future minor signs of the
coming of Judgement Day:[68]
Christianity[edit]
In the Christian Bible, the Euphrates River is mentioned in Revelation 16:12, in the
final book of the New Testament. Author, John of Patmos writes about the Euphrates
river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the Second Coming of Jesus
Christ.[69]
The river Phrath mentioned in Genesis 2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates.[70]
History[edit]
Further information: History of Mesopotamia and History of Iraq

A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq

Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods[edit]
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is,
the area that is popularly known as the Fertile
Crescent. Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El
Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe; the latter together with remains of Homo
erectus that were dated to 450,000 years old.[71][72] In the Taurus Mountains and the
upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu
Hureyra – at first occupied by hunter-gatherers but later by some of the
earliest farmers, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from
the eleventh millennium BCE onward.[73] In the absence of irrigation, these early
farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible,
that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.[74] Late Neolithic
villages, characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE,
are known throughout this area.[75] Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the
6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as
rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been
found at several sites dating to this period, including Tell es-Sawwan.[76] During the
5th millennium BCE, or late Ubaid period, northeastern Syria was dotted by small
villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares (25 acres). [77] In
Iraq, sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period.[78] Clay
boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport
was already practiced during this period.[79] The Uruk period, roughly coinciding with
the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across
Mesopotamia. Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over 100 hectares (250 acres)
in size and displayed monumental architecture.[80] The spread of southern
Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has
generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system
aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. Habuba Kabira on
the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an
Uruk colony.[81][82]
Ancient history[edit]
During the Jemdet Nasr (3600–3100 BCE) and Early Dynastic periods (3100–2350
BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of
settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements,
including Sumero-Akkadian sites like Sippar, Uruk, Adab and Kish, were organized
in competing city-states.[83] Many of these cities were located along canals of the
Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified
from remote sensing imagery.[84] A similar development took place in Upper
Mesopotamia, Subartu and Assyria, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and
on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like Ebla, Mari and Tell
Leilan grew to prominence for the first time during this period.[85]
Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler
during the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) and Ur III empires, which controlled –
either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and
northeastern Syria.[86] Following their collapse, the Old Assyrian Empire (1975–1750
BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern
Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states
like Isin, Kish and Larsa before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged
state of Babylonia under Hammurabi in the early to mid 18th century BCE.[87]
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided
between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni, Assyria and the Hittite Empire in
the north, with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the
Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians.[88] Following the end of the Middle Assyrian
Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and
Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The Neo-Assyrian
Empire (935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also
succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the
1st millennium BCE.[89]
In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-
Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short
lived Median Empire (612–546 BC) and equally brief Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–
539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the Achaemenid
Empire (539–333 BC).[90] The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by Alexander
the Great, who defeated the last king Darius III and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.[91]
Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire (312–
150 BC), Parthian Empire (150–226 AD) (during which several Neo-Assyrian states
such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought
over by the Roman Empire, its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid
Empire (226–638 AD), until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD.
The Battle of Karbala took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD.
In the north, the river served as a border between Greater Armenia (331 BC–428
AD) and Lesser Armenia (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century
BC).
Modern era[edit]
See also: Water politics in the Middle East

Wooden bridge carrying the Baghdad Railway over

the Euphrates, c. 1900–1910
After World War I, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the Treaty of
Lausanne (1923), when the Ottoman Empire was partitioned. Clause 109 of the
treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time
Turkey, France for its Syrian mandate and the United Kingdom for its mandate of
Iraq) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the
construction of any hydraulic installation.[92] An agreement between Turkey and Iraq
signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on
the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish
territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.[93]
 Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting
the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to
be the largest in the world
The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932 to 1959.

Euphrates near Kahta

Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates – the Keban Dam and
the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the
reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe
drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 cubic kilometres
(3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975. This led to an
international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An
agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by
Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.[94][95] A similar crisis, although not escalating to the
point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be
refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's
hydroelectricity production.[96] In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would
ensure a flow of at least 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second, or 16 cubic
kilometres (3.8 cu mi) per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect
was signed between the two countries.[97] Another bilateral agreement from 1989
between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of
the amount that Syria receives from Turkey.[93][95][98] In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq
instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in
the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was
signed to this effect.[99] On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the
Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014
resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border.[100] This was in
violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a
minimum of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of water per second at the Turkish–
Syrian border.[101]
 Euphrates in Iraq, 2005
During the Syrian civil war and the Iraqi Civil War, much of the Euphrates was
controlled by the Islamic State from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began
losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in Syria at the Battle of
Baghouz and in Iraq in the Western Iraq offensive respectively.[102]
Economy[edit]
See also: List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River
Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along
its course. With the construction of large hydropower stations, irrigation schemes,
and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people
now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water
than in the past. Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water
for the city of Aleppo, 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the west of the river valley.[103] The lake
also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry.[104] Through a newly restored
power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.[105]
See also[edit]
 Armenian highlands
o Mountains of Ararat
 Zagros Mountains
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External links[edit]
 Media related to Euphrates at Wikimedia Commons
 Old maps of the Euphrates, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection,
The National Library of Israel
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Categories:
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