BIOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
Most carbohydrates are polymers made of long chains of
monosaccharide monomers
Monosaccharide: a molecule consisting of a single sugar unit. It’s the
simplest form of carbohydrate and cannot be hydrolysed further.
Disaccharide: a sugar formed when two monosaccharides joined
together by glycosidic bonds
o Maltose: glucose + glucose
o Sucrose: glucose + fructose
o Lactose: glucose + galactose
Polysaccharide: a carbohydrate which contains many monosaccharides
in a condensation reaction
Glycosidic bonds: covalent bonds that from between monosaccharides
in a condensation reaction
These bonds can be broken by hydrolysis
There are two different kinds of glucose monomers known as a-glucose
and b-glucose and their difference lies between the position of the OH
group
a – glucose molecules are used in macromolecules that store energy
b – glucose molecules are used for structural purposes
POLYSACCHARIDES AND THEIR PROPERTIES
starch is a macromolecule that is found in plant cells and is made up of
two components known as amylose and amylopectin. These
components are polysaccharides that are made from a glucose molecule
and contain 1,4 glycosidic bonds.
Amylopectin is branched in structure and therefore also contains 1,6
glycosidic bonds as bonds form between adjacent a-glucose molecules.
Amylose is helical in shape while amylopectin is branched. Starch is
highly compact and stores energy
Glycogen is a macromolecule that is used for the storage of energy is
animal cells and is also made from a-glucose molecules. The structure is
glycogen is very similar to that of amylopectin; however, it is more
branched and therefore contains more 1,6 glycosidic bonds
TEST FOR SUGARS
Use Benedict’s to test for reducing sugars
o Add Benedict’s reagent and heat in a water bath
o Positive: forms a coloured precipitate
o Negative: no colour change
If test is negative, there still could be non-reducing sugars present
o Hydrolyse any glycosidic bonds by heating with dilute
hydrochloric acid
o Run Benedict’s test again
If the test is positive: non-reducing sugars present
Iodine/potassium iodide test for starch:
o Add iodine dissolved in potassium iodide to sample
o Positive: iodine changes from red-brown to blue-black
o Negative: no change
MONOMERS AND POLYMERS
Monomer: the simplest repeating unit of a polymer
Polymer: this is made from monomers joined together by glycosidic
bonds
Macromolecule: these are large and complex molecules that are formed
due to polymerisation of smaller subunits
Monosaccharides, nucleotides, and amino acids are examples of
monomers
A condensation reaction joins two molecules together to form a
chemical bond – involves the elimination of a molecule of water
A hydrolysis reaction breaks a chemical bond between two molecules –
involves the use of a water molecule
LIPIDS
Triglycerides and phospholipids are two types of lipids
Triglycerides are made up of one molecule of glycerol with three fatty
acids attached to it
Fatty acid chains are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxylic group at
one end. The glycerol is an alcohol containing 3 carbon atoms where
each carbon atom is attached to a hydroxyl
A condensation reaction between glycerol and a fatty acid forms an ester
bond
A fatty acid can be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids are more likely to be solid at room temperature
while unsaturated fatty acids are more likely to be liquid
Phospholipids are like triglycerides but one of the fatty acids is replaced
by a hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate group
Triglycerides are energy-storage molecules because
o The long hydrocarbon tails contain a lot of chemical energy
o They are insoluble so they don’t affect the water potential of the
cell
o The fatty acids are hydrophobic do they clump together in droplets
with the fatty acid tails on the inside
Phospholipids make up the cell membrane bilayer because
o Phosphate group ‘heads’ are hydrophilic, and the fatty acids are
hydrophobic, so they form a double layer with the phosphates on
the outside and the fatty acids on the inside
o The centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, so it acts as a barrier to
water-soluble substances
Emulsion test for lipids:
o Shake the test substance with ethanol until it dissolves then add to
water
o Positive: a milky emulsion forms
o Negative: solution remains clear
PROTEINS
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Proteins are polymers made of long chains of amino acid monomers
There are 20 types of amino acid
the 20 amino acids only differ in their side chain (R-Group)
amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds that form in
condensation reactions. Two amino acids joined together forms a
dipeptide and many joined together forms a polypeptide
a functional protein (e.g. an enzyme) may contain one or more
polypeptides
proteins have 4 ‘levels’ of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary
PRIMARY STRUCTURE SECONDARY STRUCTURE
The sequence of amino acids in the Hydrogen bonds and B – pleated
polypeptide chain sheets
TERTIARY STRUCTURE QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
The secondary structure is coiled and Only in some proteins e.g.
folded further to for a 3D structure. haemoglobin, insulin, collagen.
Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and Several different polypeptide chains
disulfide bridges form. Disulfide are held together by bonds.
bridges are formed between two
cysteine amino acids when the sulfur
in one bonds to the sulfur in the
other.
Proteins have many functions in living organisms e.g. enzymes, antibodies,
transport proteins and structural proteins.
TESTING FOR PROTEINS
biuret test for proteins:
o add a few drops of NaOH to make the solution alkaline
o then add copper (II) sulfate solution
o positive: solution turns purple
o negative: solution remains blue
ENZYMES
many proteins are enzymes
an enzyme is a biological catalyst that lowers the activation energy of a
metabolic reaction
activation energy is the energy required in any chemical reaction to
break the bonds in a reactant molecule so that the new bonds are
formed to make the product.
An enzyme lowers the activation energy required for the reaction.
However, overall energy released during reaction is maintained
The effect that enzymes have on the rate of reactions can be measures in
two ways:
o Measuring rates of formation of products
o Measuring rates of decrease of substrate
By measuring the amount of product accumulated in a period of time,
the rate of reaction can be determined
Enzymes have specific active sites that are complementary to the shape
of the substrate. The substrate is held in place at the active site by weak
hydrogen and ionic bonds. The combined structure is called the enzyme-
substrate complex.
Enzymes has two proposed modes of action known as lock-and-key
theory and induced-fit-theory
In the lock-and-key theory, the shape of the active site is very precise
and substrates that are not complementary to the shape of the active
site cannot bind. The enzyme-substrate complexes forms enable the
reaction to take place more easily
In induced fit theory, the enzymes active site is not initially an exact fit
to the substrate molecule. However, the enzyme molecules are more
flexible and can change shape slightly as the substrate enters the
enzyme. This means that the enzyme molecule will undergo
conformational changes as the substrate combines with enzymes active
site, forming the enzyme-substrate complex.
The induced fit is a better theory than the lock and key model
Enzyme properties relate to their tertiary structure. They are very
specific because of the specific 3D shape of the active site
If the tertiary structure is altered in any way, the shape of the active site
will change so the substrate will no longer fit
The tertiary structure may be altered by pH or temperature changes
The tertiary structure is determined by a gene, so if there is a mutation,
then the primary structure will change, which will also alter the tertiary
structure
Enzymes catalyse many different intracellular and extracellular reactions,
and these determine structures and functions from a cellular to a whole-
organism level
NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA and RNA are both used to carry information
o DNA stores genetic information in the nucleus of a cell
o RNA transfers genetic information from the cell to ribosomes in
the cytoplasm for protein synthesis
o Ribosomes are formed from RNA and proteins
DNA and RNA are polymers made up of nucleotide monomers. Each
nucleotide is formed from a pentose sugar, a nitrogen-containing organic
base, and a phosphate group
In a DNA nucleotide, the pentose sugar is deoxyribose, and the bases are
either A, T, C or G
In an RNA nucleotide, the pentose sugar is ribose, and the bases are
either U, A, G, or C
Two nucleotides join via a condensation reaction that forms a
phosphodiester bond between the phosphate group and the ribose
sugar. Many of these forms a sugar-phosphate backbone
A DNA molecule is formed of two polynucleotide strands held together
by hydrogen bonds between specific complementary base pairs
o Adenine (A) bonds with Thymine (T) with two hydrogen bonds
o Cytosine (C) bonds with Guanine (G) with three hydrogen bonds
An RNA molecule is generally shorter than a DNA molecule and it is
made of one polynucleotide strand
Due to the simplicity of DNA, many scientists doubted it carried the
genetic code
DNA REPLICATION
DNA replication is semi-conservative (one of the strands in each new molecule
is from the original molecule)
1. The DNA double helix unwinds
2. The DNA helicase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds on the two
polynucleotide strands
3. Each original strand that is unwound acts as a template strand for
free DNA nucleotides to bind to by complementary base pairing
(AT, CG)
4. DNA polymerase joins the sugar-phosphate backbone of the new
strand through condensation reactions
5. Each DNA molecule now contains one strand from the original
molecule and one strand from the new molecule
One end of the DNA strand is called the 3-prime end, and the other is called
the 5-prime end.
Two DNA strands are antiparallel: one runs from 3’ to 5’ and the other from
the 5’ to 3’ end.
Since the active site of DNA polymerase is only complementary to the 3’end, it
will move in opposite directions along the two new strands.
ATP
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate
It is a nucleotide derivative
It is formed from a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and thre e phosphate
groups
A cell can’t get its energy directly from glucose, so glucose is broken
down in respiration and the energy released is used to make ATP
This means that ATP is the immediate source of energy in a cell
ATP is made, diffuses to the are of the cell needing energy, and then is
quickly used
The energy is stores in the bonds between the phosphate groups. To
release energy, one phosphate is removed in a hydrolysis reaction to
make ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
o The phosphate removed can be added to other compounds to
increase their reactivity
ATP is re-made from ADP and a phosphate group catalysed by the ATP
synthase enzyme. This reaction takes place in hydrolysis and respiration
INORGANIC IONS
Inorganic ions are found in the cytoplasm and bodily fluids
They have differing concentrations and roles
They are electrically charged
Ions are used in haemoglobin
o Haemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the blood
o Made of 4 polypeptide chains, each with an iron ion
o The iron ion is what binds to the oxygen molecule
Hydrogen ions determines pH
Sodium ions are used in co-transporters to transport glucose and amino
acids across cell membranes
Phosphate ions are used in ATP and DNA
o A phosphate ion is called a phosphate group when it is attached to
another molecule
WATER
Water is vital for life and is a major component of cells
Properties of water
it is a polar molecule so it acts as a universal solvent
it is a universal solvent so metabolic reactions will occur faster as they
occur faster in solution
it is reactive as it is important for hydrolysis and condensation reactions
it has a high specific heat capacity for buffering temperature changes
it has a large latent heat of vaporisation so it has a large cooling effect
with little loss of water
the cohesion between water molecules helps water flow and gives water
a strong surface tension
DEFINITIONS
ATP: a molecule that acts as the energy currency of cells formed from a
molecule of ribose
Cellulose: a polysaccharide made of beta glucose monomers
Dipeptide: molecules formed by the condensation of two amino acids
Disaccharide: molecules formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides
Glycosidic bond: a bond between two monosaccharides formed in a
condensation reaction
Monomers: the smaller units from which larger units are made
Monosaccharide: the individual sugar monomers from which larger
carbohydrates are made
Phospholipid: a type of lipid formed by the condensation of one molecule of
glycerol
Polymers: molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together
Polypeptide: molecules formed by the condensation of many monosaccharides
Triglyceride: a type of lipid formed by the condensation of one molecule of
glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid
